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MANTHAN 2.O AUGUST 2024 : WEEK-1 Page 1 Manthan 2.O | August 2024 : Week-1 Contents 1. Moidams – The Mound-Burial System of Ahom Dynasty Inscribed in the UNESCO World Heritage List as India’s 43rd Entry.........................
MANTHAN 2.O AUGUST 2024 : WEEK-1 Page 1 Manthan 2.O | August 2024 : Week-1 Contents 1. Moidams – The Mound-Burial System of Ahom Dynasty Inscribed in the UNESCO World Heritage List as India’s 43rd Entry............................................................................................................................... 3 2. Delhi: India’s first sunken museum at Humayun’s Tomb Complex............................................................ 6 3. World’s first conservation, breeding centre for Asian king vultures ready in UP’s Maharajganj........................................................................................................................................................................... 8 4. India’s First Integrated Agri-Export Facility to come up at Jawaharlal Nehru Port, Mumbai.... 10 5. Australia starts world’s first peanut allergy treatment for babies........................................................... 12 6. Odisha to set up world’s first black tiger safari.................................................................................................. 14 7. Laos releases world’s first postage stamp featuring Lord Rama of Ayodhya..................................... 16 8. World’s first deaths from Oropouche fever confirmed in Brazil............................................................... 19 9. Australia bans uranium mining at Indigenous site......................................................................................... 21 10. India’s biggest crypto exchange WazirX loses nearly half its reserves.................................................. 23 Page 2 Manthan 2.O | August 2024 : Week-1 1. Moidams – The Mound-Burial System of Ahom Dynasty Inscribed in the UNESCO World Heritage List as India’s 43rd Entry In an important cultural achievement for India “Moidams – the Mound-Burial System of the Ahom Dynasty” from Assam has been officially inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. The announcement was made during the ongoing 46th session of the World Heritage Committee at New Delhi. This is the third World Heritage Property from Assam, following Kaziranga National Park and Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, both inscribed under the Natural category in 1985. The Moidams of Choraideo, which celebrate and preserve royal lineage through colossal architecture, are comparable to the pyramids of Egyptian pharaohs and royal graves in ancient China. The purpose of including these heritage sites in UNESCO‟s list is to preserve and promote shared heritage based on OUVs (Outstanding Universal Values) found in cultural, natural as well as mixed properties across 195 countries. On its part, India became a member of the World Heritage Committee from 2021-25 and is currently hosting its first ever session since joining UNESCO‟s World Heritage Convention of 1972. The 46th session of the World Heritage Committee started on July 21st and will last until July 31st at Bharat Mandapam in New Delhi. This annual meeting is attended by over 150 State Parties, all signatories to the UNESCO World Heritage Convention and is responsible for managing matters related to World Heritage, including the inscription of new sites. The Union Minister of Culture and Tourism, Shri Gajendra Singh Shekhawat said that this historic recognition brings global attention to the unique 700-year-old mound burial system of the Ahom Kings at Charaideo, highlighting the rich cultural heritage of Assam and Bharat. The journey of Moidams towards this prestigious recognition was spearheaded by the Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi, who nominated these ancient structures as India‟s official entry in 2023. This nomination underscores the cultural and historical significance of the Moidams, making them the first cultural heritage site and the third overall site from the North East to be inscribed on the World Heritage list. About Moidams – The Mound-Burial System of the Ahom Dynasty Moidams, a royal mound burial site created by the Tai-Ahom in northeastern India, is situated in the foothills of the Patkai Ranges in eastern Assam. These burial mounds areconsidered sacred by the Tai-Ahom and reflect their unique funerary practices. The Tai-Ahom people arrived in Assam in the 13th century, establishing Charaideo as their first city and the site of the royal necropolis. For 600 years, from the 13th to the 19th century CE, the Tai-Ahom constructed moidams, or “home-for- spirit,” using natural elements like hills, forests, and water to create a sacred geography. Page 3 Manthan 2.O | August 2024 : Week-1 Believing their monarchs to be divine, the Tai-Ahom developed a distinct funerary tradition of constructing moidams for royal burials. These mounds were initially built with wood and later with stone and burnt bricks, as documented in the Changrung Phukan, the Ahoms‟ traditional canonical literature. Royal cremation rituals were conducted ceremoniously, reflecting the hierarchical structure of Tai-Ahom society. The Archaeological Survey of India and the Assam State Department of Archaeology have collaborated to restore and preserve the integrity of Choraideo, despite challenges from early 20th-century treasure hunters. With protection from both central and state regulations, the site is well-maintained to preserve its structural integrity and cultural uniqueness. The 46th session of the World Heritage Committee in 2024 is currently examining 27 nominations from around the world, including 19 Cultural, 4 Natural, 2 Mixed sites, and 2 Significant modifications to existing boundaries. India‟s Moidams – The Mound-Burial System of the Ahom Dynasty was the official entry from India this year under the category of Cultural Property. The inaugural ceremony of the 46th Session of the World Heritage Committee was graced by the Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi, in the august presence of Ms. Audrey Azoulay, Director-General of UNESCO, Dr. S. Jaishankar, Minister for External Affairs and Shri Gajendra Singh Shekhawat, Minister of Culture and Tourism. The event was attended by Culture Ministers, Ambassadors from various countries and Cultural Ministers from various state governments. What does a Moidam have? Each Moidam has three main parts: 1. A vault or chamber where the body is placed. 2. A hemispherical earthen mound covering the chamber. 3. A brick structure (Chaw-chali) on top for annual offerings and an octagonal boundary wall with an arched gateway. The size of the Moidams ranges from small mounds to large hillocks, depending on the status and resources of the deceased. Originally, vaults were made of wooden poles and beams but were replaced with stone and brick during the reign of King Rudra Singha (CE 1696-1714). Inside the vault, the dead were buried with their belongings, including clothes, ornaments, and weapons. The burial also included valuables and, at times, living or dead attendants. The practice of burying people alive was abolished by King Rudra Singha. How did Moidam burial tradition start and came to an end? The Moidam burial tradition began with the first Ahom king, Chau-lung Siu-ka-pha, who was buried at Charaideo according to Tai-Ahom rites. This practice continued for Ahom royalty, making Charaideo a sacred site during their 600-year rule. Over time, with Hinduism influence, the Ahoms began cremating their dead. However, Moidam burials are still practiced by some priestly groups and the Chao-dang clan (Royal bodyguards). Page 4 Manthan 2.O | August 2024 : Week-1 Assam Assam is a state in northeastern India, south of the eastern Himalayas along the Brahmaputra and Barak River valleys. Assam covers an area of 78,438 km2 (30,285 sq mi). It is the second largest state in northeastern India by area and the largest in terms of population, with more than 31 million inhabitants. The state is bordered by Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh to the north; Nagaland and Manipur to the east; Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram and Bangladesh to the south; and West Bengal to the west via the Siliguri Corridor, a 22-kilometre-wide (14 mi) strip of land that connects the state to the rest of India. Assamese and Boro are the official languages of Assam. Meitei (Manipuri) is the official language of Hojai district and the entirety of the Barak Valley region, while Bengali is an official language in the three districts of Barak Valley. Digboi is known as the Oil City of Assam where the first oil well in Asia was drilled. The first refinery was started here as early as 1901. Digboi has the oldest oil well in operation. The state has 35 districts with 5 divisions. Guwahati (containing the state capital Dispur) is the largest city in northeastern India. Assam is known for Assam tea and Assam silk. Assam is home to the one-horned Indian rhinoceros, along with the wild water buffalo, pygmy hog, tiger and various species of Asiatic birds, and provides one of the last wild habitats for the Asian elephant. The Assamese economy is aided by wildlife tourism to Kaziranga National Park and Manas National Park, which are World Heritage Sites. Dibru-Saikhowa National Park is famed for its feral horses. Sal tree forests are found in the state which, as a result of abundant rainfall, looks green all year round. Assam receives more rainfall than most parts of India; this rain feeds the Brahmaputra River, whose tributaries and oxbow lakes provide the region with a distinctive hydro-geomorphic environment. QUESTIONS Fill in the Blank: 1. In an important cultural achievement for India “Moidams – the Mound-Burial System of the ________ from Assam has been officially inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. 2. ________ National Park is famed for its feral horses. 3. ________ is first oil well, drilled in Asia. 4. Assam is home to the one-horned ________. 5. Assamese and ________ are the official languages of Assam. 6. Originally, vaults were made of wooden poles and beams but were replaced with stone and brick during the reign of King ________. 7. The practice continued for Ahom royalty, making ________ a sacred site during their 600-year rule. 8. The Moidam burial tradition began with the first Ahom king, ________ who was buried at Charaideo according to Tai-Ahom rites. 9. The Present Chief Minister of Assam is ________. 10. Assam is a state in northeastern India, south of the eastern Himalayas along the ________ and ________ River valleys. Page 5 Manthan 2.O | August 2024 : Week-1 2. Delhi: India’s first sunken museum at Humayun’s Tomb Complex India‟s first sunken museum was inaugurated on July 29 at the iconic Humayun‟s Tomb complex in New Delhi. Union Culture Minister Gajendra Singh Shekhawat officially opened the museum, which showcases over 500 artefacts, many of which are on public display for the first time. The museum is inspired by traditional „baolis‟ or water tanks, and offers insights into the life of Mughal emperor Humayun and the rich heritage of the Nizamuddin area. Developed by the Aga Khan Trust for Culture in collaboration with the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), the museum is a product of 25 years of conservation efforts across the 300-acre site that includes Humayun‟s Tomb, Sunder Nursery, and Nizamuddin Basti. Visitors to the museum will be able to take a look at Mughal miniatures, manuscripts, coins, textiles, and various other artefacts. The museum also features an immersive gallery with a 270-degree screen, offering virtual tours of the World Heritage Site‟s monuments and gardens, as well as an animated presentation on the evolution of Humayun‟s Tomb over the last 500 years. The museum‟s inauguration coincided with the 46th session of the UNESCO World Heritage Committee in New Delhi. Humayun’s Tomb, a UNESCO World Heritage Site Humayun‟s Tomb, a majestic example of Mughal architecture, stands as a prominent historical and cultural landmark in New Delhi. It was built in the mid-16th century by Empress Bega Begum, the wife of the Mughal Emperor Humayun. This tomb was also the first garden-tomb in the Indian subcontinent and it marked a significant departure from earlier Mughal architectural designs. The structure is renowned for its grand red sandstone facade, intricate white marble inlays, and a beautiful Persian-style garden layout, which symbolically represents the paradise garden. Recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Humayun‟s Tomb not only serves as a resting place for the emperor but also stands as a testament to the rich cultural heritage and architectural innovations of the Mughal era. Mughal Empire The Mughal Empire was an early modern empire in South Asia. At its peak, the empire stretched from the outer fringes of the Indus River Basin in the west, northern Afghanistan in the northwest, and Kashmir in the north, to the highlands of present-day Assam and Bangladesh in the east, and the uplands of the Deccan Plateau in South India. The Mughal Empire is conventionally said to have been founded in 1526 by Babur, the Timurid Emir of Ferghana (modern-day Uzbekistan) from the Barlas tribe who employed aid from the neighbouring Safavid and Ottoman Empires, to defeat the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, in the First Battle of Panipat, and to sweep down the plains of North India. Page 6 Manthan 2.O | August 2024 : Week-1 The Mughal imperial structure, however, is sometimes dated to 1600, to the rule of Babur‟s grandson, Akbar. This imperial structure lasted until 1720, until shortly after the death of the last major emperor, Aurangzeb, during whose reign the empire also achieved its maximum geographical extent. By 1760, the emperor de facto ruled the region around Old Delhi only. The empire was formally dissolved by the British Raj after the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Although the Mughal Empire was created and sustained by military warfare, it did not vigorously suppress the cultures and peoples it came to rule; rather it equalized and placated them through new administrative practices, and diverse ruling elites, leading to more efficient, centralised, and standardized rule. The base of the empire‟s collective wealth was agricultural taxes, instituted by the third Mughal emperor, Akbar. These taxes, which amounted to well over half the output of a peasant cultivator, were paid in the well- regulated silver currency, and caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets. The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India‟s economic expansion. The burgeoning European presence in the Indian Ocean and an increasing demand for Indian raw and finished products generated much wealth for the Mughal court. There was more conspicuous consumption among the Mughal elite, resulting in greater patronage of painting, literary forms, textiles, and architecture, especially during the reign of Shah Jahan. Among the Mughal UNESCO World Heritage Sites in South Asia are: Agra Fort, Fatehpur Sikri, Red Fort, Humayun‟s Tomb, Lahore Fort, Shalamar Gardens, and the Taj Mahal, which is described as “the jewel of Muslim art in India, and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world‟s heritage.” QUESTIONS Fill in the Blank: 1. India‟s first sunken museum was inaugurated on July 29 at the iconic ________ in New Delhi. 2. Union Culture Minister ________ officially opened the museum, which showcases over 500 artefacts, many of which are on public display for the first time. 3. The museum is inspired by traditional ________ or water tanks, and offers insights into the life of Mughal emperor ________ and the rich heritage of the Nizamuddin area. 4. The museum‟s inauguration coincided with the ________ session of the UNESCO World Heritage Committee in ________. 5. Humayun tomb was also the first ________ in the Indian subcontinent. 6. The ________ Empire was an early modern empire in South Asia. 7. The burgeoning ________ presence in the Indian Ocean and an increasing demand for Indian raw and finished products generated much wealth for the Mughal court. 8. The Mughal empire was formally dissolved by the British Raj after the Indian Rebellion of ________. 9. The base of the empire‟s collective wealth was agricultural taxes, instituted by the third Mughal emperor, ________. 10. The Mughal Empire is conventionally said to have been founded in ________ by ________ the Timurid Emir of Ferghana. Page 7 Manthan 2.O | August 2024 : Week-1 3. World’s first conservation, breeding centre for Asian king vultures ready in UP’s Maharajganj Jatayu Conservation and Breeding Centre (JCBC) in UP‟s Maharajganj district, the world‟s first conservation and breeding centre built and designed exclusively for the conservation of Asian king vulture, is ready and may be inaugurated anytime soon by Chief Minister Yogi Adityanath. Asian king vulture is critically endangered and protected under the Wildlife Protection Act. Spread over 1.5 hectares in the Gorakhpur forest division, it is a state-of-the-art centre, worth around Rs.15 crore, with multiple aviaries (cage for birds) for vultures, like breeding and holding aviaries, nursery aviaries for juveniles, hospital and recovery aviaries for those needing medical help. A food processing centre, where food for vultures will be prepared and checked before being fed to the population and an incubation centre to rear eggs artificially to ensure 100% results are other features. Endangered in IUCN list, species population has a declining trend The objective behind setting up the centre is to breed king vultures in captivity and release them in the wild to maintain a sustainable population of the species. It is a 15-year project which aims to raise at least 40 vultures. The red-headed vulture (Sarcogyps calvus), also known as the Asian king vulture, is localized primarily to northern India. In 2004, the species was uplisted to „near threatened‟ from „least concern‟ by the IUCN. In 2007, it was uplisted to‟critically endangered‟ in the IUCN Red List. The widespread use of the NSAID diclofenac in veterinary medicine in India has caused its population to collapse in recent years. Veterinary usage of diclofenac has been banned in India. “The infrastructure creation started in 2021. The first phase of the centre was meant to have complete infrastructure in place. The second phase is about breeding of vultures,” said Gorakhpur DFO Vikas Yadav. The centre will have a total 10 vultures for breeding. The breeding adults will beadded gradually. The forest department has partnered with Bombay Natural History Society for technical guidance. Male vultures are known to be more deft at taking care of the chicks. Since March and April is the time when eggs hatch and young ones are out in the world, it could be keeping the male vulture population in the wild less visible in the open. But, once the period is over, one of the random males may be captured from the wild and brought to the Jatayu breeding and conservation centre for breeding. Uttar Pradesh Uttar Pradesh, with a total area of 240,928 square kilometres (93,023 sq mi), is India‟s fourth-largest state in terms of land area and is roughly of same size as United Kingdom. It is situated on the northern spout of India and shares an international boundary with Nepal. Page 8 Manthan 2.O | August 2024 : Week-1 The Himalayas border the state on the north, but the plains that cover most of the state are distinctly different from those high mountains. The larger Gangetic Plain region is in the north; it includes the Ganges-Yamuna Doab, the Ghaghra plains, the Ganges plains and the Terai. The smaller Vindhya Range and plateau region are in the south. It is characterised by hard rock strata and a varied topography of hills, plains, valleys and plateaus. The Bhabhar tract gives place to the terai area which is covered with tall elephant grass and thick forests interspersed with marshes and swamps. The sluggish rivers of the bhabhar deepen in this area, their course running through a tangled mass of thick undergrowth. The terai runs parallel to the bhabhar in a thin strip. The entire alluvial plain is divided into three sub-regions. The first in the eastern tract consisting of 14 districts which are subject to periodical floods and droughts and have been classified as scarcity areas. These districts have the highest density of population which gives the lowest per capita land. The other two regions, the central and the western, are comparatively better with a well-developed irrigation system. They suffer from waterlogging and large-scale user tracts. In addition, the area is fairly arid. The state has more than 32 large and small rivers; of them, the Ganga, Yamuna, Saraswati, Sarayu, Betwa, and Ghaghara are larger and of religious importance in Hinduism. Uttar Pradesh falls under three agro-climatic zones viz. Middle Gangetic Plains region (Zone–IV), Upper Gangetic Plains region (Zone–V) and Central Plateau and Hills region (Zone–VIII). The valley areas have fertile and rich soil. There is intensive cultivation on terraced hill slopes, but irrigation facilities are deficient. The Siwalik Range which forms the southern foothills of the Himalayas, slopes down into a boulder bed called „bhabhar‟. The transitional belt running along the entire length of the state is called the terai and bhabhar area. It has rich forests, cutting across it are innumerable streams which swell into raging torrents during the monsoon. The High Court of the state is located in Prayagraj. The state contributes 80 seats to the lower house Lok Sabha and 31 seats and the upper house Rajya Sabha. The forest cover in the state is 6.1 percent of the state‟s geographical area. The cultivable area is 82 percent of the total geographical area, and the net area sown is 68.5 per cent of the cultivable area. QUESTIONS Fill in the Blank: 1. Jatayu Conservation and Breeding Centre (JCBC) in UP‟s ________ district, the world‟s first conservation and breeding centre built and designed exclusively for the conservation of Asian king vulture. 2. The forest cover in Uttar Pradesh is ________ percent of the state‟s geographical area. 3. The objective behind setting up the centre is to breed ________ in captivity and release them in the wild to maintain a sustainable population of the species. 4. Uttar Pradesh falls under ________ agro-climatic zones. 5. The ________ Range which forms the southern foothills of the Himalayas, slopes down into a boulder bed called ________. Page 9 Manthan 2.O | August 2024 : Week-1 4. India’s First Integrated Agri-Export Facility to come up at Jawaharlal Nehru Port, Mumbai In a significant move to bolster India‟s agricultural export and import capabilities, the Union Minister for Ports, Shipping, and Waterways Shri Sarbananda Sonowal approves the Jawaharlal Nehru Port Authority (JNPA)‟s project of „Development of Export-Import cum Domestic Agricultural Commodity- Based Processing & Storage Facility at JNPA on PPP Mode‟ worth Rs. 284.19 Crore. The JNPA is set to establish an all-in-one state-of-the-art agricultural facility at the port, spanning 67,422 square meters. This pioneering facility will address inefficiencies in logistics, reduce multiple handlings, and extend the shelf life of agricultural products. Expected benefits include better prices for agricultural goods, job creation, and overall growth in the agricultural sector. It will empower farmers and exporters, stimulate demand, and foster rural development. The facility will cater to exports of prominent items like non-basmati rice, maize, spices, onion, and wheat. As JNPA is the dominant gateway for frozen meat products and a major gateway for marine products, the new facility will also support exporters of meat and marine products from areas away from Mumbai. Small exporters, in particular, will benefit from the port-based facility, improving their capabilities in logistics, container booking, cold chain logistics, and export operations. The estimated export capacity increase includes a frozen store of 1800 metric tonnes, a cold store of 5800 metric tonnes, and dry warehouses with a capacity of 12,000 metric tonnes for grains, cereals, and dry cargo. This initiative aligns with the government‟s vision of empowering farmers and fostering rural development, setting a precedent for future infrastructure projects that aim to support and enhance India‟s agricultural capabilities. It is to be noted, JNPA in Maharashtra is the first major port of the country which is 100% Landlord port having all berths being operated on PPP model. JNPA is one of the leading container ports among the top 100 global ports. In the state of Maharashtra, MoPSW is also developing one of the biggest port in the Country, the Vadhavan Port with total investment of about Rs.76,220 crore. It will be developed as an all-weather Greenfield deep draft major port in Vadhavan, Palghar District. This will include development of Core infrastructure, Terminals and other commercial infrastructure in public-private partnerships (PPP) mode. The proposed Vadhavan port is a high-priority initiative for the Government and is designed to handle an annual cargo of 23 million TEUs. Once completed, the project will rank among the world‟s top 10 largest ports and serve as a significant green fuel hub. Page 10 Manthan 2.O | August 2024 : Week-1 Maharashtra has already seen the completion of 16 projects valued at Rs. 790 crore, with Rs. 232 crore financial assistance from the Sagarmala till date. Currently, 14 additional projects worth Rs. 1,115 crore are underway, receiving Rs. 561 crore in assistance from the same scheme. Major Ports of India All ports in India are situated in the 9 coastal states of India namely Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Goa, Gujarat, West Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. India‟s extended coastline forms one of the major portions of land that juts out into a water body. Thirteen major ports in the country handle a lot of volume of container and cargo traffic. On the west coast, there are the ports of Mumbai, Kandla, Mangalore, JNPT, Mormugao, and Cochin. The ones on the east coast are the ports at Chennai, Tuticorin, Visakhapatnam, Paradip, Kolkata, and Ennore. In Andaman and Nicobar Islands, there is Port Blair. Mumbai is the largest natural port in India. Vadhavan port Vadhavan Transhipment Port is a proposed deep sea port at Vadhavan in Palghar district of Maharashtra. The port will be built on coast of the Arabian Sea; the Jawaharlal Nehru Port Authority (JNPA) is responsible for the construction of the port. After the construction of the port, it will be one of the deepest sea ports in India after Vizhinjam International Seaport Thiruvananthapuram, and will have more draft depth than Port of Mumbai and Jawaharlal Nehru Port. It is estimated that the construction of the port will cost of ₹76,220 crore (US$9.1 billion). Vadhavan will be constructed by Vadhavan Port Project Limited, a special purpose vehicle. Jawaharlal Nehru Port will have a 74 percent stake in the project and Maharashtra Maritime Board will have 26 percent in a public private partnership. Sagarmala The Sagarmala Programme is an initiative by the Government of India to enhance the performance of the country‟s logistics sector. The programme envisages unlocking the potential of waterways and the coastline to minimize infrastructural investments required to meet these targets. The Sagarmala Programme is the flagship programme of the Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways to promote port-led development in the country. Maritime sector in India has been the backbone of the country‟s trade and has grown manifold over the years. To harness India‟s 7,517 km long coastline, 14,500 km of potentially navigable waterways and strategic location on key international maritime trade routes, the Government of India has embarked upon the ambitious Sagarmala Programme which aims to promote port-led development in the country. The concept of Sagarmala was approved by the Union Cabinet on 25 March 2015. The vision of Sagarmala is to reduce logistics costs for both domestic and EXIM cargo with minimal infrastructure investment. Studies under Sagarmala have identified opportunities for reducing overall logistics costs, thereby improving the overall efficiency of the economy, and increasing the competitiveness of exports. Page 11 Manthan 2.O | August 2024 : Week-1 QUESTIONS Fill in the Blank: 1. India‟s First Integrated Agri-Export Facility to come up at ________. 2. ________ major ports in the country handle a lot of volume of container and cargo traffic. 3. Vadhavan port will be built on coast of the ________ the Jawaharlal Nehru Port Authority (JNPA) is responsible for the construction of the port. 4. Vadhavan Transhipment Port is a proposed deep sea port at Vadhavan in ________. 5. Jawaharlal Nehru Port will have a ________ stake in the project and Maharashtra Maritime Board will have ________ in a public private partnership. 6. The Sagarmala Programme is an initiative by the Government of India to enhance the performance of the country‟s ________ sector. 7. The Sagarmala Programme is the flagship programme of the ________ to promote port-led development in the country. 8. To harness India‟s ________ long coastline, 14,500 km of potentially navigable waterways and strategic location on key international maritime trade routes. 9. The concept of Sagarmala was approved by the Union Cabinet on ________. 10. The ________ is an initiative by the Government of India to enhance the performance of the country‟s logistics sector. 5. Australia starts world’s first peanut allergy treatment for babies Australian children with life-threatening peanut allergies will receive treatment through a nationwide program. This is touted as the world‟s first initiative of such kind. Under medical supervision at 10 pediatric hospitals across the country, infants will gradually receive increasing doses of peanut powder for two years to reduce their sensitivity to peanuts. “This is the first national peanut allergy treatment offered in hospitals outside of a clinical trial setting”. After two years, children will undergo a food allergy test to determine if the treatment has led to remission. Previously, families were advised to avoid all peanut products for their children. Australia has some of the highest rates of food allergies globally, with peanut allergies affecting 3% of children by 12 months old. Of these, only 20% outgrow the allergy by their teenage years. “Many families are desperate to protect their children from allergic reactions and anaphylaxis. This program, available free at public hospitals, is a game-changer,”. If successful, the program will expand to regional and remote areas. Although deaths from peanut allergies are rare, nearly 20% of Australians have an allergic disease. This number is projected to increase by 70% by 2050, impacting 7.7 million people. The program is a step forward in treating food allergies and improving the quality of life for affected children and their families. Page 12 Manthan 2.O | August 2024 : Week-1 Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands. Australia is the largest country by area in Oceania and the world‟s sixth-largest country. Australia is the oldest, flattest, and driest inhabited continent with the least fertile soils. It is a megadiverse country, and its size gives it a wide variety of landscapes and climates, with deserts in the centre, tropical rainforests in the north-east, tropical savannas in the north, and mountain ranges in the south-east. The ancestors of Aboriginal Australians began arriving from south-east Asia 50,000 to 65,000 years ago, during the last glacial period. They settled the continent and had formed approximately 250 distinct language groups by the time of European settlement, maintaining some of the longest known continuing artistic and religious traditions in the world. Australia‟s written history commenced with European maritime exploration. The Dutch were the first known Europeans to reach Australia, in 1606. British colonisation began in 1788 with the establishment of the penal colony of New South Wales. By the mid-19th century, most of the continent had been explored by European settlers and five additional self-governing British colonies were established, each gaining responsible government by 1890. The colonies federated in 1901, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. This continued a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom, highlighted by the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942, and culminating in the Australia Acts of 1986. Australia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states and ten territories: the states of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, Tasmania, South Australia and Western Australia; the major mainland Australian Capital Territory and Northern Territory; and other minor or external territories. Its population of nearly 27 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard. Canberra is the nation‟s capital, while its most populous cities are Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide, which each possess a population of at least one million inhabitants. Australian governments have promoted multiculturalism since the 1970s. Australia is culturally diverse and has one of the highest foreign-born populations in the world. Its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade relations are crucial to the country‟s economy, which generates its income from various sources: predominantly services (including banking, real estate and international education) as well as mining, manufacturing and agriculture. It ranks highly for quality of life, health, education, economic freedom, civil liberties and political rights. QUESTIONS Fill in the Blank: 1. ________ starts world‟s first peanut allergy treatment for babies. 2. Australia is the largest country by area in ________. 3. The ________ were the first known Europeans to reach Australia, in 1606. 4. Australian governments have promoted multiculturalism since the ________. 5. ________ is capital of Australia. Page 13 Manthan 2.O | August 2024 : Week-1 6. Odisha to set up world’s first black tiger safari Odisha is poised to unveil the world‟s first melanistic (black) tiger safari near Similipal Tiger Reserve in Mayurbhanj district by the end of this year. The state government‟s proposal for the safari has received “in-principle” approval from the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA), with the Central Zoo Authority (CZA) already granting its endorsement. Initially, melanistic tigers currently housed at Nandan Kanan Zoo in Bhubaneswar will be relocated to the proposed safari, spanning 200 hectares adjacent to NH-18. The safari will be established over an area of 200 hectare. Approximately 100 hectares will be dedicated to the display area, while the remainder will accommodate veterinary facilities, a rescue centre, staff infrastructure, and visitor amenities. Located 15 km from Similipal Tiger Reserve, the site mirrors its natural landscape. Similipal Tiger Reserve is globally renowned as the sole habitat where wild melanistic tigers are found. This initiative aims to bolster wildlife tourism in Odisha, offering a unique opportunity for conservationists, researchers, enthusiasts, and the public to observe this rare species up close. In January, former Chief Minister Naveen Patnaik had unveiled plans for the melanistic tiger safari near Similipal. Nanda emphasised the significance of protecting Odisha‟s forests as crucial corridors for tiger populations migrating from Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. According to the first All Odisha Tiger Estimation (AOTE) 2023-24, the population of Royal Bengal Tigers has increased to 30 in the past two years in the state. The All India Tiger Estimation (AITE) 2022 report, however, had put the number at 17 and these were largely confined to Similipal. A total of 27 adult tigers were camera-trapped in Odisha during the AOTE exercise. These big cats comprise 14 females and 13 males. Proof of another three adult tigers was also found in the tiger reserve. In Baripada, the district headquarters of Mayurbhanj, International Tiger Day 2024 was commemorated with a 5-km mini-marathon organised by Similipal North Wildlife Division, Jashipur. The event began with a floral tribute to Late Khairi, the Princess Tigress of Similipal, and drew 105 participants from various schools and colleges under the theme “Run for Similipal.” Following the marathon, a brief meeting was held to enhance awareness among participants and the public about community engagement in wildlife, forest conservation, and environmental preservation. National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) was founded in India in December 2005, based on a recommendation put forth by the Tiger Task Force. The Prime Minister of India established the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) to streamline the management of Project Tiger and numerous Tiger Reserves of India. In 1973, the Government of India, in collaboration with the WWF, initiated a conservation program known as the Tiger Protection Program, commonly referred to as Project Tiger. Page 14 Manthan 2.O | August 2024 : Week-1 In June 2010, the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) conducted a comprehensive survey utilizing camera traps for tiger population estimation, diverging from the conventional method of footprint counting (pugmarks). The report titled Status of the Tigers, Co-predators, and Prey in India, published by the National Tiger Conservation Authority, revealed a significant discrepancy from previous estimates, suggesting that the tiger population in India might have been overestimated. The survey indicated the presence of approximately 1411 adult tigers in India, with additional uncensused tigers in the Sundarbans region. For instance, across 16 reserves spanning Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and Chhattisgarh, the tiger population is estimated to be approximately 490, marking a significant decline of 60% from the previously estimated 1,233 tigers in these areas in 2002. The 2002 survey had suggested a total tiger population of 3,500 in India, while the recent survey indicates a reduced figure of just 1,400 remaining tigers nationwide. Translocating villagers out of tiger reserves can be considered an effective strategy, provided it is carried out with sensitivity. This approach offers villagers improved access to education and healthcare while enabling them to engage in farming without the risk of tiger attacks. Additionally, the absence of human disturbance allows the tiger‟s prey to thrive, while making it more challenging for poachers to operate. Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 is an Act of the Parliament of India enacted for protection of plants and animal species. Before 1972, India had only five designated national parks. Among other reforms, the Act established scheduled protected plant and hunting certain animal species or harvesting these species was largely outlawed. The Act provides for the protection of wild animals, birds and plants; and for matters connected therewith or ancillary or incidental thereto. It extends to the whole of India. It has six schedules which give varying degrees of protection. Schedule I and part II of Schedule II provide absolute protection - offences under these are prescribed the highest penalties. Species listed in Schedule III and Schedule IV are also protected, but the penalties are much lower. Animals under Schedule V (e.g. common crows, fruit bats, rats, and mice) are legally considered vermin and may be hunted freely. The specified endemic plants in Schedule VI are prohibited from cultivation and planting. The Enforcement authorities have the power to compound offences under this Schedule (i.e. they impose fines on the offenders). Similipal Tiger Reserve Simlipal National Park is a national park and tiger reserve in the Mayurbhanj district in the Indian state of Odisha covering 2,750 km2 (1,060 sq mi). It is part of the Mayurbhanj Elephant Reserve, which includes three protected areas, Similipal Tiger Reserve, Hadgarh Wildlife Sanctuary with 191.06 km2 (73.77 sq mi) and Kuldiha Wildlife Sanctuary with 272.75 km2 (105.31 sq mi). Simlipal National Park derives its name from the abundance of red silk cotton trees growing in the area. The park is home to Bengal tiger, Asian elephant, gaur, and chausingha. This protected area is part of the UNESCO World Network of Biosphere Reserves since 2009. Page 15 Manthan 2.O | August 2024 : Week-1 QUESTIONS Fill in the Blank: 1. ________ is poised to unveil the world‟s first melanistic (black) tiger safari near ________ in Mayurbhanj district by the end of this year. 2. The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) was founded in India in ________, based on a recommendation put forth by the Tiger Task Force. 3. Before 1972, India had only ________ designated national parks. 4. Simlipal National Park derives its name from the abundance of ________ trees growing in the area. 5. The ________ is an Act of the Parliament of India enacted for protection of plants and animal species. 6. In June 2010, the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) conducted a comprehensive survey utilizing camera traps for tiger population estimation, diverging from the conventional method of ________. 7. In 1973, the Government of India, in collaboration with the WWF, initiated a conservation program known as the Tiger Protection Program, commonly referred to as ________. 8. Similipal Tiger Reserve is globally renowned as the sole habitat where wild ________ tigers are found. 7. Laos releases world’s first postage stamp featuring Lord Rama of Ayodhya Laos, a Southeast Asian country, has released a special stamp set that includes a stamp on Lord Rama and it is the world‟s first stamp depicting „Ram Lalla of Ayodhya‟. This was part of the special commemorative postage stamp set by Laos showcasing its deep civilizational connect with India. It was unveiled jointly by External Affairs Minister S Jaishankar and his counterpart Saleumxay Kommasith in Laos. The stamp set consisted of two stamps, and the second stamp depicted Lord Buddha of the Luang Prabang city, the ancient capital of Laos. Ties of Buddhism have bound India and Laos together for millennia. Ramayana (in Laos, it is called Ramakien or Story of Phra Lak Phra Ram) is revered in Laos like in India, and is performed on auspicious occasions. The theme of the stamp set is “celebrating shared cultural heritage of Lao People‟s Democratic Republic (PDR) and India”. Jaishankar is visiting Vientiane for ASEAN-India Post Ministerial Conference (PMC), EAS Foreign Ministers‟ Meeting and ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) that Lao PDR is hosting in Vientiane as ASEAN Chair for 2024. From Laos, Jaishankar will proceed for Quad Foreign Ministers‟ Meeting in Japan. The stamp set includes the world‟s first depiction of „Ram Lalla of Ayodhya‟, showcasing the deep historical and cultural connections between India and Laos. Page 16 Manthan 2.O | August 2024 : Week-1 The inclusion of these figures reflects the long-standing bonds between the two nations. Buddhism has historically linked India and Laos for thousands of years. The Ramayana, known as Ramakien in Laos, is an important cultural story often performed at major events. During the visit, several agreements, known as Memoranda of Understanding (MoUs), were signed. These agreements focus on 10 Quick Impact Projects (QIPs) under the Mekong Ganga Cooperation framework, aimed at improving cooperation between the two countries. Jaishankar‟s visit also coincided with important ASEAN meetings hosted by Laos, which was the ASEAN Chair for 2024, showcasing Laos‟s active role in regional diplomacy. After visiting Laos, Jaishankar was scheduled to attend the Quad Foreign Ministers‟ Meeting in Japan, continuing his efforts in international relations and collaboration initiatives. Mekong Ganga Cooperation framework The Mekong-Ganga Cooperation (MGC) is an initiative by six countries – India and five ASEAN countries, namely, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam for cooperation in tourism, culture, education, as well as transport and communications. It was launched in November 2000 in Vientiane, Lao PDR with the signing of the Vientiane Declaration. The grouping was initially called Ganga Suvarnabhumi Programme (GMSP). Both the Ganga and the Mekong are civilizational rivers, and the MGC initiative aims to facilitate closer contacts among the people inhabiting these two major river basins. The MGC is also indicative of the cultural and commercial linkages among the member countries of the MGC down the centuries. The MGC meetings are co-chaired alternatively every year between India and one of the 5 Mekong countries. Annual Ministerial Meetings The working mechanism for MGC consists of the Annual Ministerial Meeting (back to back with ASEAN Ministerial Meeting), the Senior Official‟s Meeting, and the five Working Groups namely; Working Group on Tourism (Thailand is the lead country) Working Group on Education (HRD) (India is the lead country) Working Group on Culture (Cambodia is the lead country) Working Group on Communication & Transportation (Laos PDR is the lead country) Working Group on Plan of Actions (Vietnam is the lead country) Asean Summit The ASEAN Summit is a biannual meeting held by the members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in relation to economic, political, security, and socio-cultural development of Southeast Asian countries. In addition, it serves as a prominent regional (Asia) and international (worldwide) conference, with world leaders attending its related summits and meetings to discuss various problems and global issues, strengthening co-operation, and making decisions. The summit has been praised by world leaders for its success and ability to produce results on a global level. Page 17 Manthan 2.O | August 2024 : Week-1 The league of ASEAN is currently connected with other countries who aim to participate on the missions and visions of the league. The league conducts annual meetings with other countries in an organisation collectively known as the ASEAN dialogue partners. ASEAN +3 adds China, Japan, and South Korea. The formal summits are held in three days. The usual itineraries are as follows: ASEAN leaders hold an internal organisation meeting. ASEAN leaders hold a conference together with foreign ministers of the ASEAN Regional Forum. Leaders of three ASEAN Dialogue Partners (also known as ASEAN +3), namely China, Japan, and South Korea, hold a meeting with the ASEAN leaders. And a separate meeting is set for leaders of two ASEAN Dialogue Partners (also known as ASEAN +CER), namely Australia and New Zealand. Mekong River The Mekong or Mekong River is a trans-boundary river in East Asia and Southeast Asia. It is the world‟s twelfth-longest river and the third-longest in Asia with an estimated length of 4,909 km (3,050 mi) and a drainage area of 795,000 km2 (307,000 sq mi), discharging 475 km3 (114 cu mi) of water annually. From its headwaters in the Tibetan Plateau, the river runs through Southwest China (where it is officially called the Lancang River), Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and southern Vietnam. The extreme seasonal variations in flow and the presence of rapids and waterfalls in the Mekong make navigation difficult. Even so, the river is a major trade route between Tibet and Southeast Asia. The construction of hydroelectric dams along the Mekong in the 2000s through the 2020s has caused serious problems for the river‟s ecosystem, including the exacerbation of drought. QUESTIONS Fill in the Blank: 1. ________, a Southeast Asian country, has released a special stamp set that includes a stamp on Lord Rama and it is the world‟s first stamp depicting „________‟. 2. ________ grouping was initially called ________. 3. The ASEAN Summit is a ________ meeting held by the members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in relation to economic, political, security, and socio-cultural development of Southeast Asian countries. 4. ASEAN +3 adds China, Japan, and ________. 5. The Mekong-Ganga Cooperation (MGC) is an initiative by six countries ________ and ________ ASEAN countries. 6. The Mekong or Mekong River is a trans-boundary river in ________ Asia and ________ Asia. 7. The stamp set consisted of two stamps, and the second stamp depicted Lord Buddha of the Luang Prabang city, the ancient capital of ________. 8. From its headwaters in the Tibetan Plateau Mekong river runs through Southwest China (where it is officially called the ________ River), Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and southern Vietnam. Page 18 Manthan 2.O | August 2024 : Week-1 8. World’s first deaths from Oropouche fever confirmed in Brazil The world‟s first deaths from Oropouche fever have been recorded in Brazil. The two dead are women under 30, who lived in Bahia state and had no comorbidities. Their symptoms were similar to severe dengue fever. The Pan American Health Organisation (PAHO) has warned about rising cases of the Oropouche virus in parts of the Americas. The virus spreads through bites from infected midges (tiny flies) and mosquitoes. What is Oropouche fever? The virus causing Oropouche fever, Orthobunyavirus oropoucheense, was first identified in Brazil in 1960. Since then, there have been occasional cases and outbreaks, primarily in the Amazon region, and also in other Central and South American countries like Panama, Argentina, Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela. Oropouche fever is mainly spread by the Culicoides paraenses mosquito, known locally as maruim. The fever‟s symptoms are similar to those of dengue and chikungunya. Authorities are investigating if another death in Santa Catarina, South Brazil, is linked to the disease. They are also looking into four miscarriages and two cases of microcephaly (a condition where a baby‟s head is much smaller than expected) in babies in Pernambuco, Bahia, and Acre to see if they are related to Oropouche fever. This year, over 7,200 cases have been reported across 20 states, mostly in Amazonas and Rondônia in the Brazilian Amazon. Since 2023, public health facilities across Brazil have offered diagnostic tests, leading to more cases being identified nationwide. Treatment Symptoms of Oropouche fever typically appear 4-8 days after being bitten by an infected mosquito and can last for about a week. In some cases, symptoms may reoccur after a brief period of improvement. These symptoms include fever, headache, muscle and joint pain, skin rash, nausea and vomiting, dizziness and sensitivity to light. There is no specific treatment for the virus. To prevent its spread, it‟s important to avoid areas with mosquitoes, wear long clothing and repellent, keep areas clean, and use screens on doors and windows. The treatment for this viral fever focusses on relieving symptoms as there is no specific antiviral treatment. Drinking plenty of fluids is required to prevent dehydration. Brazil Brazil officially the Federative Republic of Brazil is the largest and easternmost country in South America and Latin America. Brazil is the world‟s fifth-largest country by area and the seventh most populous. Its capital is Brasília, and its most populous city is São Paulo. Brazil is a federation composed of 26 states and a Federal District. Page 19 Manthan 2.O | August 2024 : Week-1 It is the only country in the Americas where Portuguese is an official language. Brazil is among the world‟s most multicultural and ethnically diverse nations, due to over a century of mass immigration from around the world. Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of 7,491 kilometers (4,655 mi). Covering roughly half of South America‟s land area, it borders all other countries and territories on the continent except Ecuador and Chile. Brazil‟s Amazon basin includes a vast tropical forest home to diverse wildlife, a variety of ecological systems, and extensive natural resources spanning numerous protected habitats. This unique environmental heritage positions Brazil at number one of 17 megadiverse countries. The country‟s natural richness is also the subject of significant global interest, as environmental degradation (through processes such as deforestation) has direct impacts on global issues such as climate change and biodiversity loss. The territory of present-day Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500. Subsequently claimed by the Portuguese Empire, Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro. In 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, now called the National Congress. Slavery was abolished in 1888. The country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup d‟état. An authoritarian military dictatorship emerged in 1964 and ruled until 1985, after which civilian governance resumed. Brazil‟s current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. Due to its rich culture and history, the country ranks thirteenth in the world by number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. QUESTIONS Fill in the Blank: 1. The world‟s first deaths from ________ fever have been recorded in ________. 2. The virus causing Oropouche fever, ________, was first identified in Brazil in 1960. 3. Brazil remained a ________ colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to ________. 4. The present President of Brazil is ________. 5. The Capital of Brazil is ________. Page 20 Manthan 2.O | August 2024 : Week-1 9. Australia bans uranium mining at Indigenous site Australia moved to ban mining at one of the world‟s largest high-grade uranium deposits, highlighting the site‟s “enduring connection” to Indigenous Australians. The Jabiluka deposit in northern Australia is surrounded by the heritage-listed Kakadu national park. Prime Minister Anthony Albanese said the national park would be extended to include the Jabiluka site - - which has never been mined -- honouring the decades-long desires of the Mirrar people. Archaeologists discovered a buried trove of stone axes and tools near the Jabiluka site in 2017, which they dated at tens of thousands of years old. Discovered in the early 1970s, efforts to exploit the Jabiluka deposit have for decades been tied-up in legal wrangling between Indigenous custodians and mining companies. It is one of the world‟s largest unexploited high-grade uranium deposits, according to the World Nuclear Association. Rio Tinto-controlled company Energy Resources of Australia previously held mining leases at Jabiluka. The conservation of Indigenous sites has come under intense scrutiny in Australia after mining company Rio Tinto blew up the 46,000-year-old Juukan Gorge rock shelters in 2020. Australia‟s conservative opposition has vowed to build nuclear power plants across the country if it wins the next election, overturning a 26-year nuclear ban. Uranium Uranium is a chemical element; it has symbol U and atomic number 92. It is a silvery-grey metal in the actinide series of the periodic table. A uranium atom has 92 protons and 92 electrons, of which 6 are valence electrons. Uranium radioactively decays, usually by emitting an alpha particle. The half-life of this decay varies between 159,200 and 4.5 billion years for different isotopes, making them useful for dating the age of the Earth. The most common isotopes in natural uranium are uranium-238 (which has 146 neutrons and accounts for over 99% of uranium on Earth) and uranium-235 (which has 143 neutrons). Uranium has the highest atomic weight of the primordially occurring elements. Its density is about 70% higher than that of lead and slightly lower than that of gold or tungsten. It occurs naturally in low concentrations of a few parts per million in soil, rock and water, and is commercially extracted from uranium-bearing minerals such as uraninite. Many contemporary uses of uranium exploit its unique nuclear properties. Uranium-235 is the only naturally occurring fissile isotope, which makes it widely used in nuclear power plants and nuclear weapons. However, because of the low abundance of uranium-235 in natural uranium (which is, overwhelmingly, mostly uranium-238), uranium needs to undergo enrichment so that enough uranium-235 is present. Uranium-238 is fissionable by fast neutrons and is fertile, meaning it can be transmuted to fissile plutonium-239 in a nuclear reactor. Page 21 Manthan 2.O | August 2024 : Week-1 Another fissile isotope, uranium-233, can be produced from natural thorium and is studied for future industrial use in nuclear technology. Uranium-238 has a small probability for spontaneous fission or even induced fission with fast neutrons; uranium-235, and to a lesser degree uranium-233, have a much higher fission cross-section for slow neutrons. In sufficient concentration, these isotopes maintain a sustained nuclear chain reaction. This generates the heat in nuclear power reactors and produces the fissile material for nuclear weapons. Depleted uranium (238U) is used in kinetic energy penetrators and armor plating. The 1789 discovery of uranium in the mineral pitchblende is credited to Martin Heinrich Klaproth, who named the new element after the recently discovered planet Uranus. Eugène-Melchior Péligot was the first person to isolate the metal, and its radioactive properties were discovered in 1896 by Henri Becquerel. Research by Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner, Enrico Fermi and others, such as J. Robert Oppenheimer starting in 1934 led to its use as a fuel in the nuclear power industry and in Little Boy, the first nuclear weapon used in war. An ensuing arms race during the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union produced tens of thousands of nuclear weapons that used uranium metal and uranium-derived plutonium-239. Dismantling of these weapons and related nuclear facilities is carried out within various nuclear disarmament programs and costs billions of dollars. Weapon-grade uranium obtained from nuclear weapons is diluted with uranium-238 and reused as fuel for nuclear reactors. The development and deployment of these nuclear reactors continue globally as they are powerful sources of CO2-free energy. Spent nuclear fuel forms radioactive waste, which mostly consists of uranium-238 and poses a significant health threat and environmental impact. Uranium in the environment Uranium in the environment is a global health concern, and comes from both natural and man-made sources. Beyond naturally occurring uranium, mining, phosphates in agriculture, weapons manufacturing, and nuclear power are anthropogenic sources of uranium in the environment. In the natural environment, radioactivity of uranium is generally low, but uranium is a toxic metal that can disrupt normal functioning of the kidney, brain, liver, heart, and numerous other systems. Chemical toxicity can cause public health issues when uranium is present in groundwater, especially if concentrations in food and water are increased by mining activity. The biological half-life (the average time it takes for the human body to eliminate half the amount in the body) for uranium is about 15 days. Uranium‟s radioactivity can present health and environmental issues in the case of nuclear waste produced by nuclear power plants or weapons manufacturing. Uranium is weakly radioactive and remains so because of its long physical half-life (4.468 billion years for uranium-238). The use of depleted uranium (DU) in munitions is controversial because of questions about potential long-term health effects. Jabiluka deposit Jabiluka is a pair of uranium deposits and mine development in the Northern Territory of Australia that was to have been built on land belonging to the Mirarr clan of Aboriginal people. The mine site is surrounded by, but not part of, the World Heritage–listed Kakadu National Park. Page 22 Manthan 2.O | August 2024 : Week-1 QUESTIONS Fill in the Blank: 1. ________ moved to ban mining at one of the world‟s largest high-grade uranium deposits, highlighting the site‟s “enduring connection” to Indigenous Australians. 2. The ________ mine site is surrounded by, but not part of, the World Heritage–listed ________. 3. ________ is a pair of ________ deposits and mine development in the Northern Territory of ________ that was to have been built on land belonging to the Mirarr clan of Aboriginal people. 4. ________ Uranium in the environment is a global health concern, and comes from both natural and ________ sources. 5. Uranium is weakly radioactive and remains so because of its long physical half-life (4.468 billion years for ________). 10. India’s biggest crypto exchange WazirX loses nearly half its reserves Mumbai-based crypto exchange WazirX has halted withdrawals from the platform after suffering a major hacking attack. WazirX, which popularly calls itself as „India Ka Bitcoin Exchange‟, primarily targets the Indian market. It is said to be among the few Financial Intelligence Unit (FIU) registered exchanges in the country, allowing it to offer crypto exchange services to Indian citizens. The company called the security breach a “force majeure event” that has reportedly resulted in the loss of $230 million. “This is a force majeure event beyond our control, but we are leaving no stone unturned to locate and recover the funds. We have already blocked a few deposits and reached out to concerned wallets for recovery. We are in touch with the best resources to help us in this endeavor,” WazirX said. “The cyber attack stemmed from a discrepancy between the data displayed on Liminal‟s interface and the transaction‟s actual contents. During the cyber attack, there was a mismatch between the information displayed on Liminal‟s interface and what was actually signed. We suspect the payload was replaced to transfer wallet control to an attacker.” Reports suggest that the platform has lost about $230 million. What makes the amount of missing assets significant for WazirX is that the company reported holdings of about $500 million in its June proof-of- reserves disclosure. This means that WazirX has lost almost half its reserves. According to Cyvers estimate, the amount lost from the multiple-signature wallet on WazirX would be one of the biggest crypto thefts in recent years. Listing of what all has been stolen from WazirX Lookchain, a third-party blockchain explorer, reported that more than 200 cryptocurrencies, including Page 23 Manthan 2.O | August 2024 : Week-1 5.43 billion SHIB tokens, over 15,200 Ethereum tokens, 20.5 million Matic tokens, 640 billion Pepe tokens, 5.79 million USDT and 135 million Gala tokens were “stolen” from the platform. What about WazirX’s biggest rivals CoinSwitch and CoinDCX are the two other leading crypto exchanges in India. The two companies assured their customers that their funds were secure and unaffected by this incident. What investigations reportedly say According to media reports quoting Blockchain sleuth Elliptic, the North-Korea linked hackers appear to be behind the attack. Leakage of a private key providing access to the wallet reportedly led to the hack. The leaked private keys reportedly are used to upgrade a safe multi-sig wallet, which holds a large number of assets, to a malicious contract WazirX vs Binance India‟s largest crypto platform WazirX separated from global crypto major Binance in early 2023. The two crypto exchanges had public and high-profile fallout in 2022. Two ownership disputes started two years after Binance announced it had acquired WazirX. Binance founder Changpeng Zhao eventually said that the two firms hadn‟t been able to conclude the deal and moved to terminate Binance‟s businesses with the Indian firm. Cryptocurrency A cryptocurrency, crypto-currency, or crypto is a digital currency designed to work as a medium of exchange through a computer network that is not reliant on any central authority, such as a government or bank, to uphold or maintain it. Individual coin ownership records are stored in a digital ledger, which is a computerized database using strong cryptography to secure transaction records, control the creation of additional coins, and verify the transfer of coin ownership. Despite the term that has come to describe many of the fungible blockchain tokens that have been created, cryptocurrencies are not considered to be currencies in the traditional sense, and varying legal treatments have been applied to them in various jurisdicitons, including classification as commodities, securities, and currencies. Cryptocurrencies are generally viewed as a distinct asset class in practice. Some crypto schemes use validators to maintain the cryptocurrency. In a proof-of-stake model, owners put up their tokens as collateral. In return, they get authority over the token in proportion to the amount they stake. Generally, these token stakers get additional ownership in the token over time via network fees, newly minted tokens, or other such reward mechanisms. Trace amounts of cryptocurrency that are not worth spending because of the fee needed are called “dust”. Cryptocurrency was not intended to exist in physical form (although there have been some experiments and physical coins created as souvenirs). Also, it is typically not issued by a central authority. Cryptocurrencies typically use decentralized control as opposed to a central bank digital currency (CBDC). Page 24 Manthan 2.O | August 2024 : Week-1 When a cryptocurrency is minted, created prior to issuance, or issued by a single issuer, it is generally considered centralized. When implemented with decentralized control, each cryptocurrency works through distributed ledger technology, typically a blockchain, that serves as a public financial transaction database. The first cryptocurrency was Bitcoin, which was first released as open-source software in 2009. As of June 2023, there were more than 25,000 other cryptocurrencies in the marketplace, of which more than 40 had a market capitalization exceeding $1 billion. Blockchain A blockchain is a distributed ledger with growing lists of records (blocks) that are securely linked together via cryptographic hashes. Each block contains a cryptographic hash of the previous block, a timestamp, and transaction data (generally represented as a Merkle tree, where data nodes are represented by leaves). Since each block contains information about the previous block, they effectively form a chain (compare linked list data structure), with each additional block linking to the ones before it. Consequently, blockchain transactions are irreversible in that, once they are recorded; the data in any given block cannot be altered retroactively without altering all subsequent blocks. Blockchains are typically managed by a peer-to-peer (P2P) computer network for use as a public distributed ledger, where nodes collectively adhere to a consensus algorithm protocol to add and validate new transaction blocks. Although blockchain records are not unalterable, since blockchain forks are possible, blockchains may be considered secure by design and exemplify a distributed computing system with high Byzantine fault tolerance. A blockchain was created by a person (or group of people) using the name Satoshi Nakamoto in 2008 to serve as the public distributed ledger for bitcoin cryptocurrency transactions, based on previous work by Stuart Haber, W. Scott Stornetta, and Dave Bayer. The implementation of the blockchain within bitcoin made it the first digital currency to solve the double-spending problem without the need for a trusted authority or central server. The bitcoin design has inspired other applications and blockchains that are readable by the public and are widely used by cryptocurrencies. The blockchain may be considered a type of payment rail. Bitcoin Bitcoin is the first decentralized cryptocurrency. Nodes in the peer-to-peer bitcoin network verify transactions through cryptography and record them in a public distributed ledger, called a blockchain, without central oversight. Consensus between nodes is achieved using a computationally intensive process based on proof of work, called mining, that guarantees the security of the bitcoin blockchain. Mining consumes large quantities of electricity and has been criticized for its environmental effects. Based on a free market ideology, bitcoin was invented in 2008 by Satoshi Nakamoto, an unknown person. Use of bitcoin as a currency began in 2009, with the release of its open-source implementation. In 2021, El Salvador adopted it as legal tender. Bitcoin is currently used more as a store of value and less as a medium of exchange or unit of account. Page 25 Manthan 2.O | August 2024 : Week-1 It is mostly seen as an investment and has been described by many scholars as an economic bubble. QUESTIONS Fill in the Blank: 1. Mumbai-based crypto exchange ________ has halted withdrawals from the platform after suffering a major hacking attack. 2. Cryptocurrencies typically use decentralized control as opposed to a ________ (CBDC). 3. The first cryptocurrency was ________ which was first released as open-source software in ________. 4. Each block contains a cryptographic hash of the previous block, a timestamp, and transaction data (generally represented as a ________ tree, where data nodes are represented by leaves). 5. ________ are typically managed by a ________ computer network for use as a public distributed ledger. 6. The ________ may be considered a type of payment rail. 7. The implementation of the ________ within ________ made it the first digital currency to solve the double-spending problem without the need for a trusted authority or central server. 8. A blockchain was created by a person (or group of people) using the name ________ in 2008. 9. ________ is the first decentralized cryptocurrency. 10. In 2021, ________ adopted it as legal tender. Page 26 Manthan 2.O | August 2024 : Week-1
