Arihant NCERT Notes Indian History Class 6-12 PDF

 Only & Only NCERT The Best Way to Read NCERT... NCERT NOTES Indian History Class 6-12 (Old+New)  Only & Only NCERT The Best Way to Read NCERT... NCERT NOTES Indian History Class 6-12 (Old+New) Authors Janmejay Sahani Sujeet Ya...

 Only & Only NCERT The Best Way to Read NCERT... NCERT NOTES Indian History Class 6-12 (Old+New)  Only & Only NCERT The Best Way to Read NCERT... NCERT NOTES Indian History Class 6-12 (Old+New) Authors Janmejay Sahani Sujeet Yadav ARIHANT PUBLICATIONS (INDIA) LIMITED  ARIHANT PUBLICATIONS (INDIA) LIMITED All Rights Reserved © Publisher No part of this publication may be re-produced, stored in a retrieval system or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, web or otherwise without the written permission of the publisher. Arihant has obtained all the information in this book from the sources believed to be reliable and true. However, Arihant or its editors or authors or illustrators don’t take any responsibility for the absolute accuracy of any information published and the damage or loss suffered thereupon. All disputes subject to Meerut (UP) jurisdiction only Administrative & Production Offices Regd. 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Your valuable suggestions have always inspired us to strive for useful, authentic and more trustworthy publications. So your inputs and suggestions are welcomed for subsequent editions. We wish you all the very best for your preparation and journey!! Authors  CONTENTS ANCIENT HISTORY Chapter 1. Sources of Ancient Indian History 1-6 l Archaeological Sources 1 l Literary Sources 4 l Foreign Accounts 5 l Modern Historians of Ancient India 6 Chapter 2. Pre-Historic Cultures 7-13 l Division of Ancient Indian History 7 l The Neolithic Age: Food Producers 9 l Chalcolithic Age 11 l Megalithic Culture or Iron Age 13 l Historical Age 13 Chapter 3. Indus Valley Civilisation 14-23 l Origin and Geographical Extent 14 l Phases of Indus Valley Civilisation 14 l Cities of Indus Valley Civilisation 15 l Important Sites of Indus Valley Civilisation 17 l Economic Conditions in Indus Valley Civilisation 18 l Social Conditions in Indus Valley Civilisation 19 l Art and Craft of Indus Valley Civilisation 20 l Religious Practices of Indus Valley Civilisation 21 l Decline of Indus Valley Civilisation 22 l Contribution of Indus Valley Civilisation 23 Chapter 4. The Vedic Age 24-31 l Advent of the Aryans in India 24 l Vedic Literature 24 l Vedic Age (1500-1000 BC) 26 l Later Vedic Age (1000-600 BC) 29 Chapter 5. Religious Movements 32-39 l Rise of New Religious Sects 32 l Jainism 33 l Buddhism 35 l Other Heterodox Religious Movements 37 l Bhagwatism 38 l New Dynamic Force : Islam 39 Chapter 6. Mahajanapadas 40-43 l Emergence of Mahajanapadas 40 l Sixteen Mahajanapadas 40 l Republics in the Sixth Century AD 42 l Foreign Invasion 43 Chapter 7. Mauryan Empire 44-49 l Sources of Mauryan Dynasty 44 l Rulers of Mauryan Dynasty 44 l Chandragupta Maurya 44 l Bindusara 45 l Ashoka 45 l Mauryan Administration System 47 l Mauryan Art and Architecture 48 l Decline of Mauryan Empire 49 Chapter 8. Post-Mauryan Period 50-55 l Indigenous Kingdoms in Post-Mauryan Period 50 l Shunga Dynasty (185-75 BC) 50 l Kanvas Dynasty (75-30 BC) 50 l Satavahana Dynasty (230 BC- 220 AD) 51 l Foreign Kingdoms in Post-Mauryan Period 53 l Post-Mauryan Administration 54 Chapter 9. The Age of the Guptas 56-60 l Gupta Empire 56 l Rulers of Gupta Empire 56 l Society and Administration in Gupta Empire 58 l Decline of the Gupta Empire 60 Chapter 10. Post-Gupta Era 61-67 l Harshavardhana (606-647 AD) 61 l Spread of Civilisation in Eastern India : Kamarupa Kingdom 63 l Other Dynasties in Post-Gupta Era 64 l Pala Dynasty 64 l Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty 65 l Rashtrakuta Dynasty 65 l Economic Life in Post-Gupta Era 66 l Art and Architecture in Post-Gupta Era 67 Chapter 11. History of South India 68-74 l Sangam Age 68 l Megalith Culture in South India 69 l Three Early Kingdoms 69 l Organisation of New Kingdoms in Deccan 71 l Imperial Cholas 72 MEDIEVAL HISTORY Chapter 12. Arab and Turk Conquest in India 75-78 l Arabs in India 75 l Turkish Conquest in India 76 l Effects of Turkish Invasion 78 Chapter 13. Delhi Sultanate 79-86 l Establishment of Delhi Sultanate 79 1. Mamluk Dynasty (1206-1290 AD) 79 2. Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320 AD) 81 3. Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414 AD) 83 4. Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451 AD) 85 5. Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526 AD) 86 l Mongol Invasion in Delhi Sultanate 86 Chapter 14. Delhi Sultanate : Administration, Economy, Society and Arts 87-91 l Administration in Sultanate Period 87 l Economy in the Sultanate Period 89 l Social Life of Sultanate Period 90 l Literary Works in Sultanate Period 90 l Architecture of Sultanate Period 91 Chapter 15. Vijayanagara and Bahmani Empire 92-97 l Vijayanagara Empire 92 l Sangama Dynasty (1336-1485 AD) 92 l Tuluva Dynasty (1505-1570 AD) 93 l Aravidu Dynasty (1570-1652 AD) 94 l Vijayanagara Administration 94 l Bahmani Kingdom 96 l Decline of Bahmani Empire 97 Chapter 16. Rise of Provincial Kingdoms 98-100 l Reasons for the Rise of Provincial Kingdoms 98 l Provincial Kingdoms of Eastern India 98 l Provincial Kingdoms of Western India 99 l Provincial Kingdoms of North-West and North India 100 Chapter 17. Bhakti and Sufi Movements 101-108 l Bhakti Movement 101 l Bhakti Saints 102 l Saguna Saints 104 l The Vaishnavite Movement 105 l Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra 105 l Sufi Movement 106 l Important Sufi Saints 107 Chapter 18. The Mughal Empire and Its Decline 109-116 l Rulers of Mughal Empire 109 l Babur 109 l Humayun (1530-1540 AD), (1555-1556) 110 l Sur Empire (1540-55 AD) 110 l Sher Shah 110 l Akbar (1556-1605 AD) 112 l Jahangir (1605-1627 AD) 113 l Shah Jahan (1628-1658) 114 l Aurangzeb (1658-1707) 115 l Decline of Mughal Empire 116 Chapter 19. Mughal Administration, Society, Economy and Arts 117-122 l Mughal Administration 117 l Society During Mughal Period 120 l Economy During Mughal Period 120 l Mughal Paintings 121 l Literature During Mughal Period 121 l Music in Mughal Period 121 l Mughal Art and Architecture 122 Chapter 20. Emergence of Maratha Empire 123-127 l Rise of Marathas 123 l Maratha Rulers 123 l Rise of the Peshwas 126 l Maratha Confederacy 127 l Decline of Maratha Empire 127 MODERN HISTORY Chapter 21. Later Mughals (18th Century) 128-131 l Disintegration of Mughal Empire 128 l Bahadur Shah I (1707-1712) 128 l Jahandar Shah I (1712-13) 129 l Muhammad Shah (1719-48) 129 l Bahadur Shah II (1837-58) 130 l Causes for the Decline of the Mughal Empire 131 Chapter 22. Arrival of European Powers in India 132-137 l Advent of Europeans in India 132 l Portuguese 132 l The Dutch 133 l The English 134 l The Danes (Danish) 135 l The French 136 Chapter 23. Rise of New and Autonomous States 138-146 l Successor States 138 l Independent Kingdoms 141 l New States 143 l Socio-Economic Conditions During 18th Century 145 l Development of Art and Architecture During 18th Century 146 Chapter 24. Administrative & Economic Policies Under British Rule 147-155 l Acts and Amendments Under British Rule 147 l Phase I Company Rule (1773-1857) 147 l Phase II Crown Rule (1858-1947) 148 l Provincial Administration 150 l Economic Policies of British 150 l Banking System Under British Rule 151 l Evolution and Reforms in Civil Services 152 l Police System Under British Rule 153 l Transport and Communication System Under British Rule 154 l Impact of Economic Policies of British in India 155 Chapter 25. Civil Uprisings, Peasant, Tribal & Labour Movements 156-162 l Civil and Peasant Uprisings in India 156 l Tribal Movements in British India 160 l Movement of Working Class (1899) 162 Chapter 26. Socio-Religious Reform Movements in India 163-169 l Social Reform Movements 163 l Religious Reform Movements 167 Chapter 27. Development of Education and Press During the British Rule 170-175 l Development of Education Under East India Company 170 l Development of Education Under Crown Rule 171 l Development of Press in India 174 Chapter 28. The Revolt of 1857 176-179 l Causes of the Revolt 176 l Beginning and Course of Revolt 177 l Weakness of Revolt and Failure 178 l Impact of Revolt of 1857 179 Chapter 29. Indian National Movement : First Phase (1885-1915) 180-189 l Emergence of Nationalism in India 180 l Moderate and Extremists Phase of Congress 183 l First Phase of Revolutionary Activities (1907-17) 187 l World War I and Nationalist’s Response 189 Chapter 30. Indian National Movement : Second Phase (1915-1935) 190-201 l Lucknow Pact (1916) 190 l Home Rule League Movement 191 l Gandhian Era of Indian National Movement 192 l Khilafat Movement, 1919 193 l Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM) 193 l Simon Commission (1927-28) 195 l Nehru Report, 1928 196 l Civil Disobedience Movement : Second Phase 198 Chapter 31. Indian National Movement : Third Phase (1935-47) 202-211 l Government of India Act, 1935 202 l Provincial Elections 203 l Cripps Mission, 1942 204 l Quit India Movement, 1942 205 l Subhas Chandra Bose and Indian National Army 206 l Course of Events for Independence 207 l Partition of India 211 l Integration of Princely States After Independence 211 Chapter 32. Governors, Governor-Generals and Viceroys 212-219 l Governors of Bengal (1757-1774) 212 l Governor-Generals of Bengal (1773-1833) 213 l Governor-Generals and Viceroys of India (1828-1950) 215 Chapter 33. India After Independence 220-224 l Challenges for Newly Independent India 220 l Making of the Constitution 220 l Integration of Princely States 222 l Development and Planning 223 l An Evaluation of the Ideals of Our Country 224 ART AND CULTURE Chapter 34. Indian Paintings 225-235 l Origin of Indian Paintings 225 l Development of Indian Paintings 225 l Paintings of Historic Age 226 l Painting in Colonial Age 232 l Modern Indian Art 233 l Living Art Traditions of India 234 Chapter 35. Sculpture Art of India 236-239 l Art Forms of Harappan Civilisation 236 l Mathura, Sarnath and Gandhara Schools of Art 238 l Indian Bronze Sculpture 239 Chapter 36. Indian Architecture : Styles & Development 240-252 l Harappan Architecture 240 l Mauryan Architecture 240 l Post-Mauryan Architecture 242 l Temple Architecture 243 l Buddhist and Jain Architectural Developments 248 l Indo-Islamic Architecture 249 l Regional Architectural Style 250 l Colonial Architecture 252 Chapter 37. Music, Dance and Theatre Craft 253-257 l Indian Classical Music 253 l Dance Forms of India 255 l Theatre Crafts 257 l Puppetry 257 Chapter 38. Indian Languages, Literature and Philosophy 258-261 l Classical Literature in India 258 l Literature in the Medieval Period 260 l Other Regional Literature 260 l Development of Indian Philosophy 261 l APPENDIX 262-272  NCERT Notes INDIAN HISTORY Ancient History 01 CHAPTER 01 Sources of Ancient Indian History Sources Class VI New NCERT Chap 1 (What Books and Burials Tell Us), Class-XI Old NCERT (1) Chap 2 (The Importance of Ancient Indian History), Class-XI Old NCERT (II) Chap 2 (Modern Historians of Ancient India), Class-XI Old NCERT Chap 3 (Types of Sources and Historical Construction), Class-XII New NCERT Chap 1 (Bricks, Beads and Bones), Chap 2 (Kings, Farmers and Towns) The study of ancient Indian history is important as it Material Remains tells us how, when and where people developed the Archaeological excavations show the layout plan of earliest cultures in our country. the settlements in which people lived, the type of It indicates how they started their agriculture which pottery they used, the form of houses in which made life secure and settled. It shows how the ancient they dwelt, the kind of cereals they used as food Indians discovered and utilised natural resources and and the type of tools and implements they how they created the means for their livelihood. handled. Sources that are responsible for providing information Vertical digging of sites provides us a good about history are known as Historic Sources. chronological sequence of material culture. It also tells us about the material culture of the ancient Sources of Ancient Indian History period. Buildings made of stone and bricks tell us of great The sources responsible for the information about ancient building activities in the past. history can be broadly categorised as archaeological and literary sources. Ring wells are rows of pots or ceramics rings arranged one on top of other. They have been found Sources in many cities and seem to have been used as toilets as drains and garbage dumps. These were usually Archaeological Sources Literary Sources found in individual houses. In South India, megaliths provide us information about the life of people of post iron age. Some of the Material Pottery Religious Foreign largest collection of iron tools and weapons were Coins Inscriptions Secular Remains Accounts found in the megalithic burials. Archaeological Sources The use of iron began in the Indian sub-continent around 3000 years ago. Around 2500 years ago, These sources include material remains, pottery, there are evidences of ample use of iron tools, which inscriptions and coins. The one who studies archaeological include iron axes for clearing forests and the iron sources is known as archaeologist. ploughshare.  NCERT Notes INDIAN HISTORY 02 Major Archaeological Sites and their Findings The coins were not inscribed, but were stamped with symbols using dies or punches. Hence, they are Site Findings called punch-marked coins. These coins are found Narmada Valley Early hunting and gathering communities. over most parts of the sub-continent and remained North of Vindhyas In India, rice was first grown here. in circulation till the early centuries AD. Magadha The first kingdom of India established here. The largest numbers of coins were found in post-Mauryan times. These were made of lead, Sulaiman and First crops such as wheat and barley about Kirthar hills to the 8000 years ago began to grow here. potin, copper, bronze, silver and gold. North-West Importance of Coins Garo hills Early agriculture in India. The following points highlight importance of coins : Indus and its The first cities in Indian sub-continent. The areas of their findings indicate the region of tributaries coinage circulation. This enables to reconstruct the Ganga Valley Cities developed about 2500 years ago. history of several ruling dynasties, especially of the Indo-Greeks. Dating in Archaeology Coins also throw significant light on the economic The dates of material remains are fixed according to the history. The coins issued by the guilds of merchants radio-carbon method (Carbon-14 dating). The history of and goldsmiths show that craft and commerce had climate and vegetation is known through an become important. examination of plant residue and especially through The Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins. pollen-analysis. It indicates that trade and commerce flourished, Carbon dating has suggested that agriculture was especially in the post-Mauryan and Gupta times. practiced in Rajasthan and Kashmir as far back as Only a few coins belonging to post-Gupta period 6000 BC. have been found. It indicates the decline of trade and An examination of the animal bones enables us to find commerce at that time. out whether the animals were domesticated and for Coins also contain religious symbols and legends, finding out their use. which throw light on the art and religion of the time. Beginning of Eras They also give information about natural resources Vikram Samvat 58 BC available in various regions. Satavahanas, who ruled in Andhra and Maharashtra in the first two Saka Samvat 78 AD centuries AD, issued a large number of lead coins Gupta Era 319 AD since, the Andhra region possessed rich sources of lead. Pottery Various kinds of pottery have been discovered during Inscriptions excavations. The study of inscriptions is called Epigraphy. Red and Black pottery was used by the people of Indus The study of old writings used in inscriptions and Valley Civilisation. While the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) old record is called Palaeography. pottery was in use during Vedic Age. Inscriptions were carved out on seals, stone pillars, rocks, copper plates, temple walls and bricks or Coins images. The study of coins is called Numismatics. In early centuries of the Christian era, copper plate Ancient coins were made of various metals like copper, began to be used along with stone inscriptions. silver, gold or lead. The earliest inscriptions are found on the seals of Coin moulds, made of burnt clay have been discovered Harappa belonging to about 2500 BC, but they have in large numbers belong to Kushana period. Such not been deciphered so far. moulds disappeared in the Post-Gupta period. The oldest inscription deciphered so far is Brahmi The earliest coins, called the Punch-Marked Coins, script that was issued by Ashoka in the third were largely made up of silver. They contain a few century BC. symbols but the later coins mention the names of kings, The Ashokan epigraphs were first deciphered in 1837 gods or dates of issuance. They were generally by James Princep, a civil servant in the employment rectangular or sometimes square or round in shape. of the East India Company.  NCERT Notes INDIAN HISTORY 03 Two Ashokan pillars were found by Firoz Shah (iii) The third types of inscriptions throw light on attributes Tughlaq and re-established by him at Firoz Shah and achievements of kings and conquerors. Allahabad Kotla Fort and in ridge area in Delhi. pillar inscription of Samudragupta belongs to this category. Language Used in Inscriptions (iv) Finally, there are donation records which refer The earliest inscriptions were written in the specially to gifts of money, cattle, land etc, mainly for Prakrit language in the third century BC. Sanskrit religious purposes, made not only by kings and princes was adopted as an epigraphic medium in the but also by artisans and merchants. second century AD. In the ninth and tenth centuries AD, the inscriptions began to be Inscriptions recording land grants, made mainly by composed in regional languages. chiefs and princes, are very important for the study of the land system and administration in ancient India. These Ashokan inscriptions were engraved in the Brahmi were mostly engraved on copper plates. They contain the script, which was written from left to right. Some grants of lands revenues and villages made to monks, inscriptions were written in Kharosthi script priests, temples, monasteries, vassals and officials. which was written from right to left. Brahmi script was prevailed in the whole country, Important Ancient Inscriptions except for the North-Western part. It continued to Inscriptions Location Significance be the main script till the end of Gupta era. Uttaramerur Chengalpattu l It is noted for its temple Greek and Aramaic scripts were used in writing Inscription (now inscriptions that describe a Ashokan inscriptions in Afghanistan. Kanchipuram) self-governance system existing district South of around seventh to ninth century The Boghaz-Koi inscription found in Asia Minor Chennai AD. mentions Vedic Gods Mitra, Varuna, Indra and Eran Sagar district, l It is an earliest evidence of Sati Nasatya. Inscription Madhya Pradesh found in India here. on the bank of Bina river Besnagar/ Vidisha in l This pillar inscription was Vidisha present Madhya constructed by Heliodorus, a Inscription Pradesh Greek ambassador and belongs to Sunga period (second century BC). l It is written in Prakrit language (with a few Sanskritic spellings) and Brahmi script. l This pillar inscription is devoted to Lord Vasudeva. Junagarh Junagarh l It is first pure Sanskrit Inscription district, Gujarat inscription, by king Rudraman of Saka dynasty in around 150 AD. Ancient Inscription l It says that Pushyagupta, the Governor of Chandragupta Maurya, built a dam on Types of Inscriptions Sudarshan lake. The following four types of inscriptions help us in Mehrauli Originally at l It is probably erected by understanding history of ancient India : Inscription/ Vishnupada Chandragupta Vikramaditya. Garuda pillar (Udayagiri), l It mentions Chandragupta II (i) Some inscriptions convey royal orders and Madhya Pradesh conquest over Vanga countries decisions regarding social, religious and but was and Vatakas. The pillar bears a administrative matters to officials and public in transported to Sanskrit inscription in Brahmi Delhi later script. general. Ashokan inscriptions are of this category. Aihole Bagalkot, l It is a eulogy of Chalukya king Inscription Karnataka Pulakeshin II and mentions his (ii) Other inscriptions are votive records of the victory over Harshavardhan. followers of Buddhism, Jainism, Vaishnavism, l It is written in Sanskrit, etc, who put up pillars, tablets, temples or images composed by Ravikirti, the court as marks of devotion. poet of Pulakeshin II.  NCERT Notes INDIAN HISTORY 04 Inscriptions Location Significance Mahabharata and Ramayana Allahabad Allahabad , l It is issued by Samudragupta and The two epics Mahabharata and Ramayana seem Pillar Uttar Pradesh composed by Harisena. Inscription to have been finally compiled by 400 AD. Of this, l It is written in refined Sanskrit (Prayag language in Champu Kavya style. the Mahabharata is older and possibly reflects the Prasasti) l It mentions the conquest of state of affairs from the 10th century BC, to the Samudragupta both in North and fourth century AD. South and described the Originally, it consisted of 8800 verses and was boundaries of Gupta Empire and his diplomatic relations. called Jaya Samhita or the collection dealing with victory. These were raised to 24000 and came to Hathigumpha Udayagiri, near l It was erected by Kharavela, the Inscription Bhubaneshwar, ruler of Kalinga during second be known as Bharata, named after one of the Odisha century BC. oldest Vedic tribes. l It mentions the military The final compilation brought the verses to expeditions carried by Kharavela. 100,000 which came to be known as the Lumbini Located in Nepal l It is a royal commemorative Mahabharata or the Satasahasri Samhita. It Pillar inscription recording Ashoka’s contains narrative, descriptive and didactic Inscription visit to Buddha’s birth place. material. Mandasor Mandsor district, l It mentioned about the Inscription Madhya Pradesh construction of Sun temple. Ramayana originally consisted of 12000 verses, l It is composed by Vattasbhatta. which were later raised to 24000. It seems to have been composed later than the Mahabharata. Literary Sources Jaina and Buddhist Literature The religious books of Jainas and Buddhists refer Literary sources are the most authentic sources for the to historical personalities and incidents. reconstruction of history. The earliest Buddhist texts were written in Pali The most ancient manuscripts, hand written material, in language, which was common man’s language in India are not older than the fourth century AD and have Magadha or South Bihar. been found in Central Asia. They were finally compiled in the second century In India, they were written on birch bark and palm BC in Sri Lanka, but the canonical portions reflect leaves, but in Central Asia manuscripts were written on the state of affairs in the age of Buddha in India. sheep leather and wooden tablets. They tell us not only about the life of Buddha but The literature can be classified into religious and secular some of the Buddhist kings who ruled over literature. Magadha, Northern Bihar and Eastern Uttar Pradesh. Religious Literature Jatakas are the birth stories of Buddha’s previous The Vedic, Buddhist, Jain and other contemporary years. These were probably composed by ordinary literature are the religious literary sources of Ancient people and then written down and preserved by Indian History. Buddhist monks. They throw light on social and They throw light on the social and cultural conditions of economic conditions between fifth to second ancient times but it is difficult to make use of them in the century BC. They also make incidental references context of time and place. to political events in the age of Buddha. Vedic Literature The Jaina texts were written in Prakrit and were finally compiled in sixth century AD at Vallabhi in The Vedic literature gives us a clear picture of the Gujarat. They contain many passages which help political, social and economic life of the Aryans and of the us to reconstruct political history of Eastern Uttar conflict between the Aryans and the non-Aryans. Pradesh and Bihar in the age of Mahavira. The Puranas Jaina texts refer repeatedly about trade and traders. The Puranas contain mythological information. There exists total 18 Puranas. They give the genealogical Secular Literature records (Vanshavali) of the ancient rulers of Kali Yuga. Secular class of literature refers to the law-books They are very much useful for studying history. Important called the dharamsutras, smritis, biographies, Puranas are Vayu Purana, Skanda Purana, Matsya plays, dramas and the literature of South India Purana, Vishnu Purana, etc. called Sangam literature. NCERT Notes INDIAN HISTORY 05 The Dharamsutras were compiled in 500-200 BC, Foreign Accounts and the principal Smritis were codified in the first six centuries of Christian era. They laid The Greek, Roman, Chinese and Arab visitors came to down the duties or different varnas as well about India, either as sailors, travellers or religious missionaries. the kings and their officials. They left behind accounts of details that they saw in India. They prescribed the rules according to which Greek and Roman Sources property is to be held, sold and inherited. They The accounts of Greek and Roman authors, such as also prescribe punishments for person guilty of Megasthenes, Arrian, Curtius, Plutarch, Diodorus, theft, assault, murder, adultery etc. Dionysius, etc, gave valuable information of India’s An important law book is the Arthashastra of contemporary situation. Kautilya. It is divided into 15 books, of which The Greek writer, Herodotus, had never been to India and Book II and III may be regarded of an earliest yet his book has reference to the conquests of date. The book was put in its final form in the North-Western India by the Persian emperors. It constituted beginning of Christian era. Its earliest portions the twentieth province of the empire of Darius, the Persian reflect the state of society and economy in the age emperor. of Mauryas. It provides rich material for the study The Greek visitors mention Sandrokottas, who is of ancient Indian polity and economy. identified with Chandragupta Maurya, whose date of The secular literature also includes the work of accession is fixed at 322 BC. Bhasa, Kalidasa and Banabhatta. They throw The Indica of Megasthenes, who came to the court of light on the conditions of the time to which these Chandragupta Maurya, has been lost and preserved only in writings belonged. They also throw light on the fragments quoted by subsequent classical writers. Indica social and cultural life of Northern and Central furnishes valuable information not only about Mauryan India in the age of Guptas. administration but also about social classes and economic The works of Kalidasa comprise kavyas activities in that period. and dramas, the most famous of which is Greek and Roman accounts of the first and second Abhijyana Shakuntalam. centuries AD mentioned many Indian ports and various Harshacharita, by Banabhatta in the seventh items of trade between India and Roman Empire. century AD, is a semi-biographical work written The ‘Periplus of The Erythrean Sea’ by unknown author in Sanskrit language and in fancy style. and Ptolemy’s Geography (150 AD), both written in Greek, It describes the early career of Harshavardhana. provide valuable data for the study of ancient geography It gives excellent idea of the court life under and commerce. Harsha and the social and religious life in his age. An account of a Greek sailor provides detailed account of Sandhyakara Nandi’s Ramcharita narrates the port of Barygaza (the Greek name of Bharuch). story of conflict between the Kaivarta peasants and the Pala prince Rampala. Chinese Sources Bilhana’s Vikramankadevacharita recounts the Fa-Hien (fifth century AD) and Hiuen Tsang (seventh achievements of his patron, Vikramaditya VI century AD), were Buddhist travellers from China, who (1076-1127), the Chalukyan king of Kalyan. came to visit the Buddhist shrines and to study Buddhism. The Rajatarangini or The Stream of Kings written Fa-Hien describes the social, religious and economic by Kalhana in 12th century AD is a string of conditions of India in the age of Guptas and Hiuen Tsang biographies of the kings of Kashmir. presents a similar account of India in the age of Harsha. I-Tsing visited India in seventh century after the death of Sangam Literature Harsha. n It comprises the earliest Tamil texts, composed around 2300 years ago in assemblies (known as Arab Sources Sangama) of poets that were held in city of Some earlier Arab writers were Sulaiman Madurai. (Silsilat-ut-Tawarikh) and Al Masudi (Muruj-ul-Zahab). n It is a major source of information regarding Al-Biruni gave important information about India in his social, economic and political life of the people books ‘Tahqiq-i-Hind’ and Kitab-ul-Hind. He was Arab living in the Delta. scholar and contemporary of Mahmud of Ghazni.  NCERT Notes INDIAN HISTORY 06 Al-Biruni studied Sanskrit and acquired knowledge British historian and noted Indologist AL Basham had of Indian literature. He did not give any political written the book The Wonder that Was India in 1951, information of his times but gave details insights of where he attempted to correct the negative stereotypes contemporary society and culture. of India. DD Koshambi in his book ‘An Introduction to the Modern Historians of Ancient India Study of Indian History’ published in 1956 The first book, which was translated by the East India revolutionised Indian Historiography with his realistic Company in India was Manusmriti, that was and scientific approach. published as ‘A Code of Gentoo Laws’ in English by Nathaniel Brassey Halhed in 1776 AD. Important Books and Their Authors The Asiatic Society of Bengal was established in 1784 Books Authors AD by Sir William Jones in Calcutta. He later Mudrarakshasa Vishakdatta translated Abhijyana Shakuntalam into English in 1789 AD. Rajtarangini Kalhana William Jones was the first scholar to propogate the Kathasaritsagar Somdeva deep relationship between the Indo-European Kamasutra Vatsayana languages with Sanskrit as well as Persian. Prashnottarmalika Amoghavarsha In the year 1785, Sir Charles Wilkins translated the Bhagavad Gita into English as Bhagavad Swapanvasdattam Bhasa Gita-Dialogues of Krishna. Buddha Charita Asvaghosa German scholar, Max Muller contributed immensely Natyashastra Bharata on Indology. He translated Vedas, Upanishads, Hitopadesha etc and published as Sacred Books of the Abhigyan Shakuntalam, Vikramorvashi and Kalidasa Raghuvansam East in total 50 part series. The Early History of India, written by Vincent Arthur Amarkosha Amarsimha Smith (1843-1920) in 1904, is considered as the first Panchasidhantika and Brihat Samhita Varharmihara systematic work in Ancient Indian History. Surya Sidhanta Aryabhatta An eminent scholar RG Bhandarkar, reconstructed Panchtantra Vishnu Sharma Satavahana dynasty in Deccan as well Vaishnavism and other religious sects. Nitisara Kamandaka Social Activist Pandurang Vaman Kane (1880-1972) Aihole Prasasti Ravi Kriti wrote the History of Dharmashastras, which is Indica Megasthenes considered as Encyclopedia of social code and Ethics. Arthasastra Kautilya Raja Rajendralal Mitra was among the first Indian cultural researcher and historian who published Charaka Samhita Charaka various manuscripts of Vedic literature. He also Lilawati Bhaskaracharya wrote the Sanskrit Buddhist Literature of Nepal in 1882. Harshacharita, Kadambari Nagananda Harshavardhana and Ratnavali Eminent historian RC Majumdar (1888-1980) had presented History and Culture of Indian people, Gathasaptashati Hala where he propounded Indian Renaissance in Astadhyayi Panini descriptive manner. Mahabhasya Patanjali Another scholar Nilakantha Shastri has vividly Naishadhacharitra Sri Harsha described about the history of South India in his work History of South India. Mrichhakatika Shudraka Historian KP Jayaswal in his work ‘Hindu Polity’ in Gitagovinda Jayadev 1924 had proved the existence of Mahajanapadas and Navratna Virsena other republic states in Ancient period.  INDIAN HISTORY NCERT Notes CHAPTER 02 7 Pre-Historic Cultures Sources Class-VI New NCERT Chap 2 (From Hunting-Gathering to Growing Food), Class-VI Old NCERT Chap 1 (Early Man), Class-IX Old NCERT Chap 1 (Life in Pre-historic Times), Class-XI Old NCERT Chap 1 (The Stone Age : The Early Man), Class-XI Old NCERT Chap 6 (Chalcolithic Farming Cultures) Earliest human remains associated with stone tools 3. Historical Period It is the period whose found in Africa have been dated as old as 3.5 million information is available in written records. years ago. Humans of this period were civilised and In India, the evidence of first occupation are not earlier historical activities after 600 BC included in this than the Middle Pleistocene, which began about period. 5,00,000 years ago. Initially, men were nomads. They History wandered in groups from place to place in search of food and shelter. There was no cultivation. So, they consumed Pre-Historic Period Proto-Historic Period Historical Period all they could find in a certain place and had to move (Stone age) place to place in search of food. They also hunted animals and they had to go elsewhere in their search. People either lived in caves or built small shelters on the Palaeolithic Age Mesolithic Age Neolithic Age leafy branches of large trees. Sohan Valley Son Valley Belan Valley Belan Valley Belan Valley Chhota Nagpur Plateau In the later part of stone age (Neolithic), man stopped Narmada Valley Karnataka being a nomad and began to settle down in one place as Tungabhadra Valley Andhra Pradesh an agriculturist. Central India It took almost 3,00,000 years for men to change from a ‘food-gatherer’ to a ‘food producer’. Palaeolithic Age: Division of Ancient Indian History Hunters and Food Gatherers History of ancient India has been divided by the historian The earliest period is called the Palaeolithic. The into three heads as follows: term is derived from two Greek words, ‘palaeo’, meaning old and ‘lithos’, meaning stone. This 1. Pre-Historic Period It is the period of human culture period developed in the Pleistocene period or the for which no written records are available. The Ice Age. humans of this period were not civilised. The history of this period is studied by archaeological evidences The Palaeolithic period extends from 2 million only. This period is divided into three parts viz. years ago to about 12,000 years ago. This long span Palaeolithic Age, Mesolithic Age and Neolithic Age. of time covers 99% of human history. 2. Proto-history Period It is the period between As per the evidences found in form of tools in pre-history and history during which a culture or South India and in the Sohan Valley in Pakistan, civilisation has not yet developed writing, but other humans have been living in India roughly from cultures have already noted its existence in their own 5,00,000 BC. Such sites have also been discovered writings. Duration of this period is 2500 BC to 600 BC. in Kashmir.  NCERT Notes INDIAN HISTORY 08 The early man used stone tools for hunting, cutting and other This helped people to start thinking about purposes. The tools were made of stone, wood and bone. herding and rearing these animals. Fishing also Some of these stone tools, were used to cut meat and bone, became an important occupation. scrape bark (from trees) and hides (animal skins), chop This was also the period when several grain fruit and roots. bearing grasses, including wheat, barley and rice Some may have been attached to handles of bone or wood, grew naturally in different parts of the to make spears and arrows for hunting. Other tools were sub-continent. used to chop wood, which was used as firewood. Men, women and children probably collected these grains as food, learnt where they grew and when they ripened. This may have led them to think about growing plants on their own. Phases in the Palaeolithic Age The Palaeolithic Age in India is divided into three phases according to the nature of the stone tools used by the people and also according to the nature of change in the climate. 1. Early or Lower Palaeolithic (5,00,000 BC and 50,000 BC) The Lower Palaeolithic age covers the greater part of the Ice Age. Its characteristic feature is the use of hand-axes, cleavers and choppers. Its sites are found in the valley of river Soan or Tools of Palaeolithic Age Sohan in Punjab, (now in Pakistan). Other sites were found at Hunsgi, Karnataka. The Palaeolithic men discovered fire, which is evidenced The Early Palaeolithic tools have found in the by the traces of ash found in Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh. Belan valley. The Belan sites contain caves and In winters, earlier man wrapped animal skins or leaves of rock shelters, which could have served as trees around to keep themself warm. seasonal camps for human beings. In this period, man barely managed to gather his food and The sites found in the desert area of Didwana in lived on hunting. He had no knowledge of cultivation and Rajasthan, in the valleys of the Belan and the house-building. Animal remains found on Belan Valley in Narmada (Madhya Pradesh) and in the caves and Mirzapur district in Uttar Pradesh show that goats, sheep rock shelters of Bhimbetka near Bhopal in and cattle were domesticated around 25,000 BC. They Madhya Pradesh roughly belong to 1,00,000 BC. hunted wild animals, caught fish and birds, gathered At some sites, a large number of tools, were found fruits, roots, nuts etc. that were used for all sorts of activities. These The life was not settled yet, the hunter-gatherers of this were probably habitation-cum factory sites. age moved from place to place : — in search of food Habitation and Factory Sites — to follow the movements of animals they hunted Habitation sites These are the places where people — in search of different kind of plants lived. These include caves and rock shelters. They — to meet their friends and relatives provided shelter from the rain, heat and wind. Around 12,000 years ago, there were major changes in the Factory sites These are the places where stone was climate of the world, with a shift to relatively warm found and where people made tools. conditions. In many areas, this led to the development of Habitation-cum-factory sites These are the sites grasslands. This in turn led to an increase in the number of where people lived for longer time. Here large deer, antelope, goat, sheep and cattle, i.e., animals that number of tools are found. survived on grass.  NCERT Notes INDIAN HISTORY 09 2. Middle Palaeolithic Pre-historic Art (50,000 BC and 40,000 BC) The people of Palaeolithic and Mesolithic ages The Middle Palaeolithic industries are mainly based practised painting. upon flakes, which are found in different parts of Pre-historic art appears at several places, but India and show regional variations. Bhimbetka is a striking site which has more than 500 The principal tools are varieties of blades, points, painted rock shelters, distributed in an area of 10 sq km. borers and scrapers made of flakes. The rock paintings extend from the Palaeolithic to the Middle Palaeolithic sites are found in Soan Valley, Mesolithic period, but a majority of rock shelters are Narmada River valley and at places South of associated with the Mesolithic occupation. Tungabhadra river. Many birds, animals and human beings are painted. 3. Upper Palaeolithic (40,000 BC and 10,000 BC) Most probably, most of the birds and animals that The Upper Palaeolithic phase was less humid. It appear in paintings were hunted for the sake of coincided with the last phase of the Ice Age, when livelihood. Perching birds, which live upon grain, are climate became comparatively warm. absent in the earliest group of painting. In the world context, it marks the appearance of new flint industries and modern men (Homo sapiens). Caves and rock shelters used by human beings in the Upper Palaeolithic phase have been discovered at Bhimbetka, 45 km South of Bhopal. This phase was characterised by massive flakes, blades, burins and scrappers, which have been found in upper level of Gujarat dunes. The Mesolithic Age: Hunters and Herders The Upper Palaeolithic Age came to an end with the end of Ice Age around 9000 BC and the climate became warm and dry. From 9000 BC, an intermediate stage emerged in Stone Age culture, which is called the Mesolithic Age. Tools of Mesolithic Age It intervened as a transitional phase between the Palaeolithic Age and the Neolithic or new Stone Age. The Neolithic Age: Food Producers It is also called the Later Stone Age. In the context of the world, the New Stone Age began In case of India, it started about 8000 BC and in 9000 BC. However, the Neolithic settlements in the continued up to 4000 BC. Indian sub-continent are not older than 7000 BC. The characteristic tools of the Mesolithic Age are Whereas Neolithic settlements found in South India microliths. are not older than 2500 BC. The people of this age The Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing and used tools and implements of polished stone. They food gathering. At a later stage, they also domesticated particularly used stone axes. animals. The Neolithic settlers were the earliest farming Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh and Bagor in communities. They also started to tame animals. Rajasthan provide the earliest evidence for the The first animal to be domesticated was dog. Other domestication of animals. animals like sheep, goat, cattle and pig were Mesolithic sites are found in Chhota Nagpur plateau, domesticated by them and they became herders. Central India and South of River Krishna. With various discoveries and developments, the The Mesolithic site Bagor in Rajasthan is very well Neolithic man settled in one place, forming a village. preserved. It had a distinctive microlithic industry, These were the earliest village. They were to be found and its inhabitants depended on hunting and all over India but more often in river valleys and on pastoralism. the flat plains, where the soil was more fertile and it was easier to grow crops.  NCERT Notes INDIAN HISTORY 10 The Neolithic villages were small and the houses It is one of the earliest villages, that we know about and were made of mud and reed and situated close to dates back to 7000 BC. Archaeologists have found each other. The area of huts was probably evidence of many kinds of animal bones from the surrounded by a mud wall or fence. The field lay earliest levels. These included bones of wild animals outside the fence. such as the deer and pig. The village itself was usually built on slightly higher The Neolithic people of Mehrgarh were more ground than the fields. The huts were thatched and advanced. They produced wheat, cotton and lived in ordinarily consisted of just one room. A fire was lit in mud-brick houses. Other finds at Mehrgarh include the hut on, which the cooking was done. They remains of square or rectangular houses. Each house cultivated crops like rice, wheat, barley, ragi and had four or more compartments, some of which may horsegram (Kulathi). have been used for storage. Since, in the Neolithic phase several settlements First Area came to be acquainted with the cultivation of cereals and the domestication of animals, they needed pots Burzahom, situated near Srinagar (Jammu and in which they could store their food grains. Kashmir), dated back to 2400 BC. The Neolithic people Hence, pottery first appears in this phase. In many of Burzahom lived there on a lake-side in pits and areas, they began making large clay pots or wove probably had hunting and fishing economy. They were baskets or dug pits into the ground. Hand-made not acquainted with agriculture or domestication of potter is found in the early stage. animals. They used tools and weapons made of Later, they used wheel made pottery. polished stone and bone. They used coarse grey pottery. Domestic dogs were found to be buried with A very important discovery was that of the wheel. Its their masters in their graves. discovery led to a big advance in the pattern of living. It helped men to travel easily from one place to Gufkral (literally the ‘cave of the potter’) is another another. The use of wheel also improved the making Neolithic site located 41 km South-West of Srinagar. of pottery. The people of Gufkral practised both agriculture and domestication of animals. Neolithic Society Chirand, near Patna, dates back to 1600 BC. It is the When men became settled, it became necessary to only site in India where bone implements have been make rules of conduct. The first thing was to decide found in large number. what each person’s job was to be. There used to be In addition, sites in Mirzapur and Allahabad have division of labour and men and women had to been found. The site in Allahabad district is noted for perform different functions/ tasks. the cultivation of the rice in the 6th millennium BC. Generally, the oldest man in the village had to be Second Area leader who could give commands. But sometimes, it was the strongest and the bravest man. The second group of Neolithic people lived in South India to the South of river Godavari. The Neolithic Religion in Neolithic Age phase in South India seems to have covered the period Sky-God and Earth-goddess were worshipped. The from 2500 BC to 1000 BC. dead were buried in a grave. Several burial sites have Here, the people settled on the tops of granite hills or been found at Mehrgarh. In one instance, the dead on the plateau near the river banks. They possessed person was buried with goats. cattle, sheep and goats. They used stone axes and stone blades. The rubbing Neolithic Areas stone shows that, they were acquainted with art of The sites are found all over the sub-continent. Some producing grains. of the most important ones are in the North-West, in Important sites in South are Maski, Brahmagiri, present-day Kashmir and in East and South India. Hallur, Kodekal, Sangankallu, Tirumakudal Narsipur, Mehrgarh was the earliest Neolithic settlement Takkalakota in Karnataka, Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu found in Indian sub-continent, which is located in a and Utnur and Piklihal in Andhra Pradesh. fertile plain near the Bolan Pass, at Baluchistan The Neolithic settlers in Piklihal were cattle herders. (Pakistan). It was probably one of the places where They domesticated cattle, sheep and goats etc. It is people learnt to grow barley and wheat, and rear evidenced by the ash mounds and habitation sites sheep and goats for the first time in this area. discovered in Piklihal.  NCERT Notes INDIAN HISTORY 11 Third Area The settlements at Kayatha and Eran in Madhya The third area from which Neolithic tools have been Pradesh and at Inamgaon in Western Maharashtra recovered is in the hills of Assam. Neolithic tools were fortified. On the other hand, the remains of have been found in the Garo Hills in the Meghalaya structures in Chirand and Pandu Rajar Dhibi in as well. Eastern India were poor in nature, giving indications of sinkholes. Daojali Hading is a site on the hills near the Brahmaputra Valley, close to routes leading into Tools and Weapons China and Myanmar. Here stone tools, including The people of Chalcolithic cultures used small tools mortars and pestles, have been found. These indicate and weapons made of stone. In certain settlements, that people were probably growing grain and copper implements are found in good numbers. At preparing food from it. Ahar, stone tools are completely absent. In Gilund, copper blade industry has been found. Chalcolithic Age The Chalcolithic people used different types of pottery, The use of metal began towards the end of the one of which is called Black and Red. It was wheel Neolithic age and thus the Chalcolithic age. The first made and occasionally painted with white linear metal to be used was copper. Later, it was mixed with designs. However, people of different cultures used metals such as tin, zinc and lead to make new metal different types of pottery and implements. of alloy called bronze. Known Animals The Chalcolithic man was fond of ornaments and The people living in South-Eastern Rajasthan, Western decoration. The women wore ornaments of shell and Madhya Pradesh and Western Maharashtra bone. Man had invented the technique of spinning domesticated animals and cultivated foodgrains. They and weaving cloth. domesticated cow, sheep, goat, pig, buffalo and hunted There were several cultures that were using stone deer. implements along with the copper implements. Such Remains of camel have also been found. It is not clear cultures are called Chalcolithic cultures. whether, they were acquainted with the horse. Some As per scientific analysis, Chalcolithic cultures were animal remains are identified either to the horse or not older than 1800 BC. They seem to have continued donkey or wild ass. in some areas till 1000 BC and in other areas till Food 800 BC. They used to cultivate wheat, rice, bajra, lentil, green The Early Settlers gram, black gram and grass pea. All these foodgrains The Chalcolithic communities founded the first have been found at Navadatoli in Maharashtra. In villages in India (not in Indian sub-continent) and addition, ber, linseed, ragi and cotton were also grown. cultivated barley, wheat, lentil in Western India and They also ate non-vegetarian food. In Eastern India, rice in Southern and Eastern India. fish hooks and remains of rice have been found, which suggests that the people in Eastern region lived on fish Except for the alluvial plains, Chalcolithic cultures and rice. have been discovered almost all over the country. Their earliest settlements appear in Malwa and Houses Central India such as those in Kayatha and Eran. The Chalcolithic people were not acquainted with Settlements in Western Maharashtra appeared later burnt bricks. Occasionally, their houses were made up and settlements in West Bengal were the last to of mud bricks, but mostly these were constructed with emerge. wattle and daub and seem to have been thatched In Western Madhya Pradesh sites at Eran, Kayatha houses. and Navdatoli on Narmada have been discovered. In Inamgaon, in earlier phase, large mud houses with The sites in Western Maharashtra are at Jorwe, ovens and circular pit houses have been discovered. In Nevasa and Daimabad in Ahmednagar district; the later phase, discovery of house with five rooms Chandoli, Inamgaon and Songaon in Pune district and suggest that families were large. at Nasik. Settlements became stable and widespread in this In Eastern India, Chirand, Pandu Rajar Dhibi in phase. This is termed as Jorwe culture because of its Burdwan district and Mahisdal in Midnapore district type-site is provided by Jorwe, a village situated near in West Bengal are important Chalcolithic sites. Some Pravara River. Every Jorwe village was a nucleated Chalcolithic sites have also been found in Allahabad settlement with houses of different size, circular or rectangular in shape. region.  NCERT Notes INDIAN HISTORY 12 Social Inequalities Chalcolithic Sites of Feature Culture Chalcolithic In this phase, we also find the beginning of social Culture inequalities. It is evidenced from the material/ Svalda Dhulia l Known for its non-Harappan remains found in the graves. In the graves at Chandoli Culture district of culture. and Nevasa in Western Maharashtra some children (2300-2000 Maharashtra. were buried along with copper-bead necklaces around BC) their neck while other children had grave goods Prabhas and Prabhas and l Both of them are derived from Rangpur Rangpur, the Harappa culture. The consisting only of pots. Culture Gujarat polished red ware is the hall The Chalcolithic economy was a village economy. (1700-1400 mark of this culture. These people had no urban civilisation. BC) Some settlements such as Inamgaon, Eran, Kayatha Importance of Chalcolithic Cultures were fortified and surrounded by a moat. Except for alluvial plains and the thickly forested Art and Crafts areas, traces of Chalcolithic cultures have been found A little is known about their art and crafts. They knew almost all over the country. the art of copper smelting. They were expert They used microliths and other stone tools coppersmiths and also good workers in stone as a supplemented by a little use of copper tools. It seems large number of microliths have been found. They that most of them knew, the art of copper smelting. knew the art of spinning and weaving. Spindle Almost all Chalcolithic communities used black and whorls have been discovered in Malwa and cotton red wheel-turned pots. They were, the first to use and silk have been found in Maharashtra. painted pottery. Their pots were meant for cooking, Burial Practices eating and storing. They used the lota, but there is no trace of the thali. Unlike Harappans, they did not use separate cemeteries. They had different burial practices. In In South India, the Neolithic phase imperceptibly Maharashtra, people used to bury their dead in urns faded into the stone-copper phase and so, these under the floor of their house in the North-to-South cultures are called Neolithic-Chalcolithic. position, but in the South India in the East-West In other parts, especially in Western Maharashtra and position. Rajasthan, the Chalcolithic people seems to have been Almost complete or extended burial obtained in colonisers. Maharashtra, but post-extraction or fractional burial The Chalcolithic communities founded the first prevailed in West Bengal. villages in India and cultivated far more cereals than is known in case of the Neolithic communities. Religion The burial practices were different in Maharashtra the Terracotta figures of women found in Inamgaon dead body was placed in the North-South position, but suggest that the Chalcolithic people prayed the in South India, towards East-West position. Almost Mother Goddess. In Malwa and Rajasthan stylised bull complete or extended burial obtained in Maharashtra, terracotta show that, the bull served as a religious cult. but post-extraction or fractional burial prevailed in Important Chalcolithic Cultures in India West Bengal. Chalcolithic Sites of Feature Culture Chalcolithic Limitations in Chalcolithic Cultures Culture In spite of a food-producing economy, the rate of Ahara Ahara l The distinctive feature is black Infant Mortality was very high. It is evident from the Culture (Rajasthan), and red ware, decorated with the large number of children graves in Western Balathal, white designs. Maharashtra. Gilund etc. Kayatha Near river in l The sturdy red slipped ware Though the copper metal was known but the Culture Chambal and with chocolate, colour designs is Chalcolithic culture was a rural culture since, as a (2000-1800 its tributaries. main feature. metal copper has its limitations and its supply was BC) also limited. Malwa Narmada and l One of the largest Chalcolithic Culture its tributaries settlements. Further, people did not know the art of mixing copper (1700-1200 in Gujarat. l The Malwa ware is slightly with Tin and thus, forging much stronger and useful BC) coarse in fabric, but has a thick metal called Bronze. It was the bronze tools, which buff surface over which designs facilitated the rise of earliest civilisations. were made either in red or black. NCERT Notes INDIAN HISTORY 13 They also did not know the art of writing nor did they The megalithic people did not practice advance type live in cities. of agriculture. It is evidenced from the fact that Although, the Chalcolithic cultures came much later compared to the number of agricultural tools those than the Indus Valley Civilisation, they did not derive meant for fighting and hunting have been found in any substantial benefit from the advance technological the megaliths. knowledge of the Indus people. The megaliths are found in all upland areas of peninsular India, but their concentration seems to be Copper Age in India in Eastern Andhra and in Tamil Nadu. n Hoards of copper objects have been found in a wide area The Chera, Chola and Pandyas mentioned in the ranging from the Chhota Nagpur plateau to the upper Ashokan inscriptions were probably in the Gangetic basin but, they are concentrated in megalithic phase of material culture. Ganga-Yamuna doab. The megalithic people in the Southern districts of n The artefacts found indicate good technological skill and Tamil Nadu had certain peculiar characteristics. knowledge on the part of the copper smiths and cannot They buried the skeleton of the dead in urns made of be the handwork of nomadic people or hunters. red pottery in pits. n At several places artefacts have been discovered in association with ochre-coloured pots and some mud The practice of urn-burial was different from that of structures, which shows that the people who used the pit-burial surrounded by stone circles, which copper hoards led a settled life and were one of the practice prevailed in Krishna-Godavari Valley. earliest primitive agriculturists and artisans to settle in The megalith is contain not only skeletons of people doab. but also pottery and iron objects. It indicates their n The period covered by the ochre-coloured pottery belief in the next world. These goods also give good culture is roughly placed between 2000 BC and 1800 BC. idea about source of their livelihood. The end of these settlements is not clear, but the sanctity and religious purity attached to copper vessels, utensils, The megalithic people produced ragi and paddy but etc, in Hindu religion may have started in the copper their area of cultivable land used by them was very age. limited and generally, they did not settle on the n The people of Copper Hoard Culture were plains or the low lands. contemporaries of Harappans and the ochre-coloured By the beginning of the Christian era, megalithic pottery area in which they lived was not far removed people moved from uplands into fertile river basins from that of Harappans. Therefore, some kind of barter and reclaimed marshy deltaic areas. system between these copper-using people and the bronze using Harappans can be expected. Under the stimulus of contact with the elements of material culture brought from the North to the South by traders, conquerors and Jain and Buddhist Megalithic Culture or Iron Age missionaries, they came to practice wet paddy Till second century BC, the phenomenon of large scale cultivation. They also founded numerous villages agricultural communities using iron implements, rise of and towns and came to have social classes. All these social classes, use of writing are not found in peninsula. created conditions for the rise of imperial States in the Southern India. The Southern tip of peninsular India was inhabited by the people called megalith builders. Megaliths usually refer to graves, which are encircled by big pieces of Historical Age stone. Historical Age basically started when people started writing. With the development of literary sources, The beginning of megaliths can be traced to 1000 BC,