The Birth & Evolution of Al-Andalus PDF

# The Birth & Evolution of al-Andalus ## The Muslim Conquest - The Muslim conquest began in **711** when the Visigothic kingdom faced a serious crisis. - Musa and Tariq crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and defeated King Rodrigo in the Battle of Guadalete (**711**). - Toledo was easily conquered in *...

# The Birth & Evolution of al-Andalus ## The Muslim Conquest - The Muslim conquest began in **711** when the Visigothic kingdom faced a serious crisis. - Musa and Tariq crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and defeated King Rodrigo in the Battle of Guadalete (**711**). - Toledo was easily conquered in **713**. - The Muslims called *al-Andalus* their territory, with its capital in Cordoba. - It was organized as an *emirate* (province) ruled by an Emir who was dependent on the Caliph of Damascus. - The defeat at Poitiers (**732**) ended the Muslim expansion into Gaul. - The Umayyad dynasty ruled until **756**. - In **751**, Abd al-Rahman I declared independence in Cordoba. ## The Independent Emirate (756-927) - Abd al-Rahman I established a new state. - It was politically independent of the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad, with Cordoba as its capital. - Local emirs reorganized administration in Al-Andalus. - They increased taxes and created a better army. - Al-Andalus faced many internal conflicts, such as: - Rebellions by local leaders on the frontiers with Christian kingdoms. - Social unrest due to increased taxes. - Resistance to military expeditions from the Franks and Christians. ## The Caliphate of Cordoba - The Córdoba emirate faced a major crisis in the early 10th century due to threats from Christian kingdoms. - In **912**, Abd al-Rahman III inherited the throne. - The caliphate was established in **929**. - The caliphate benefitted from many victories that brought prestige. - *Hayib* was the title for the prime minister, who had various responsibilities, including administration of provinces. - Al-Hakam II, a very important figure, emphasized culture and art. - The caliphate lost power under Almanzor, a powerful *hayib* who was politically and militarily influential. - Almanzor’s sons led to political instability and internal conflicts that caused the caliphate's demise. - **1031**: Al-Andalus dissolved politically. ## Evolution of Al-Andalus After the Caliphate (1031-1086) - Muslim territories were divided into small kingdoms called *taifas.* - This period of *taifa* rule was marked by a grave political crisis. - *Taifas* fought amongst themselves. - The major taifas were Seville, Badajoz, and Zaragoza. - *Taifas* paid *parias* (tribute money) to Christian kingdoms to protect their territories. - To pay the *parias*, these kings increased the tax burden on the population, causing unrest. ## The Almoravids and Almohades (1086-1246) - In **1085**, Toledo fell to Christian forces. - The Almoravids from Morocco arrived to repel the Christians. - The Almohades from Morocco replaced the Almoravids, forming a large empire with its capital in Marrakech. - The Almohades invaded the Iberian Peninsula to stop Christian advances. - Al-Andalus was divided into *taifas* once again. ## The Almohades (1146-1212) - In **1146**, the Almohades launched an offensive against Christian kingdoms. - The Christian forces stopped the Almohade advance in **1212** at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa. - The Almohade empire soon collapsed. ## The Kingdom of Granada (1246-1492) - The only territory that was not conquered by Christian forces was Granada. - The *Nazarí* dynasty ruled over Granada, which included the cities of Málaga, Almería, Granada, and part of Cadiz. - The *Nazarí* dynasty was weak and became a vassal state of Castile by the 14th century. - The last Muslim kingdom in Iberia fell to the Christians in **1492**. ## Life in Al-Andalus - Society was divided into: - **Arabs:** The most privileged group, holding the top positions in government and the military. - **Berbers:** Important in the military. - **Mozárabes:** Christians who converted to Islam. - **Muladies:** Children of Christian fathers and Muslim mothers. - **Jews:** Occupied the lowest rung of society. - **Slaves:** The bottom of the social order. - **Economic activities:** - Agriculture was the primary economic activity. - The main craft industries were located in cities and specialized in high-quality ceramics, weapons, and silk. - Trade was important in cities and used gold dinars and silver dirhams as currency. ## Culture and Art in Al-Andalus - Islamic/Hispano-Muslim art was influenced by both Islamic principles and local traditions. - It is characterized by: - **Materials:** Beautiful bricks and ornate decorations. - **Arches:** Varieties of arches, including horseshoe, pointed, interlaced, and polylobed. - **Roofs:** Flat ceilings made with mud, particularly in buildings. - **Light and Shadow:** Buildings create a play of light and shadow through their design. - **Chronological overview of architecture:** - **Caliphate period (929-1031):** The Great Mosque of Cordoba and the Madinat al-Zahra (a magnificent palace-city) are the iconic landmarks of this era. - **Taifa period (1031-1086):** Notable examples including the fortress of Málaga and the Aljafería Palace in Zaragoza. - **Almohade period (1146-1212):** Simpler buildings like the Giralda Tower in Seville, a minaret that was converted into a bell tower by Christians. - **Nazarí period (1232-1492):** Famed for its intricate decorations. The Alhambra palace in Granada is the finest example of this period. ## The Rise of Christian Kingdoms in Iberia - When the Muslims invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 711, many Visigoths fled to the north. - They established several Christian kingdoms: - The Kingdom of Asturias (formed in 718) - The Kingdom of Leon (formed from Asturias in the 10th century) - The Kingdom of Navarre (formed in the 9th century) - The County of Aragon (formed in the 9th century) - The County of Catalonia (formed in the 9th century) - **Asturias:** - The first Christian kingdom in Iberia. - The battle of Covadonga in 722 under Pelayo marked the start of the reconquista. - King Alfonso III (886-910) moved the capital to León. ## The Crown of Castile - The King was the most important person in the kingdom, with more authority than other monarchs in the Peninsula. - The king was in charge of governing, leading the army, issuing laws, and administering justice. - The *Cortes* (parliament) brought together nobles, clergy, and representatives of cities and towns. It discussed and approved taxes. - The first *Cortes* were held in the Kingdom of Leon in the 12th century. - The Royal Tribunal of Justice and the Royal Council were established in the 14th century. - The most important governing body in cities was the *concejo* (town council). ## The County of Castile - In the 10th century, the County of Castile faced internal conflicts and attacks from the Muslims. - The County of Castile was dominated by Count Fernán González, who defended his independent reign while remaining a vassal to the kings of León. - **The Kingdom of Castile was born in the 11th century.** - The King of Castile achieved independence under **Fernando I** in the 11th century. - Throughout the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries, the kingdoms of Castile and León experienced territorial expansion. - **Castile and León formally united in 1230.** ## Economic Activities in Castile - The people of Castile suffered several economic setbacks: - Crop failures - Famines - The plague - The population dwindled, and many farmlands were abandoned. - The resulting unrest sparked peasant uprisings, such as the *Irmandiño* uprising in Galicia. - **King Pedro I** (1369) was overthrown by his illegitimate half-brother, **Enrique II,** who established the *Trastámara* dynasty. - **Iñigo Arista of Pamplona**, a French mercenary, led a rebellion in the 11th century. - He dethroned the king of Pamplona and extended his kingdom into Navarre. - In 1033, **Ramiro I** became the king of Aragon. - Petronila and Ramon united the Crown of Aragon in the 12th century. ## The Crown of Aragon - The Kingdom of Aragon consisted of: - The County of Catalonia - The Kingdoms of Aragon, Valencia, and Majorca - Each region had its own laws and customs. - However, the king had less authority than his Castilian counterparts. - Each territory was governed by local councils and municipal officials. - The population of the Crown of Aragon relied on: - Agriculture - Livestock - Trade - The kingdom faced numerous challenges: - Epidemics - Social unrest - Civil war - The **Trastámara dynasty** began after the death of **Martin I** in **1412**. ## Christian Reconquest and Repopulation - **Initial expansion:** - The Christians slowly pushed back against the Muslims, taking advantage of the weakness of the *taifas* during the 11th century. - The Christian kingdoms focused on controlling the Guadalquivir Valley and the Tagus and Ebro valleys. - In 1212, the Christian armies of Castile, Leon, Navarre, Aragon, and Portugal defeated the Almohades in the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa. This victory marked a turning point in the *Reconquista* and led to the final push against the Muslims. - **Changes in settlement patterns:** - During the process of repopulation, Christian kingdoms settled the newly conquered territories. - These territories had been divided into smaller units called *aldeas* (villages). - The *cartas pueblas* (settlement charters) were introduced to incentivize people to colonize these areas by offering them land and privileges. - The Christian advance resulted in a new form of settlement: *latifundios* (large estates). - The religious orders played a role in military conquest and settlement. - Monasteries maintained a standing army. - **The king's role:** - The king was considered the ultimate authority in the process of repopulation, and the *Reconquista* continued until the fall of Granada in 1492.