European Union Policy-Making PDF
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Hix Hoyland
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This document introduces the European Union (EU). It analyzes the EU as a political system using Easton's and Hix's models. It discusses various challenges faced by the EU and examines the EU's policy domains, institutional structure, and interactions with stakeholders.
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OPIC 1 T INTRODUCTION OF THE EUROPEAN UNION POLICY-MAKING READING 1: THE POLITICAL SYSTEM OF THE EUROPEAN UNION HIX HOYLAND The EU:...
OPIC 1 T INTRODUCTION OF THE EUROPEAN UNION POLICY-MAKING READING 1: THE POLITICAL SYSTEM OF THE EUROPEAN UNION HIX HOYLAND The EU: A Remarkable Achievement heEuropeanUnion(EU)isauniqueandsignificantpoliticalentitythatemergedfromthevoluntary T integration of European nation-states. Established in the 1950s with six founding members, it expandedto15statesbythe1990sand28bythe2000s.Initiallyconceivedasacommonmarketfor coalandsteel,theEUevolvedintoacomprehensiveeconomic,social,andpoliticalunionwithrobust supranational institutions wielding executive, legislative, and judicial powers. Challenges Facing the EU Despite its accomplishments, the EU confronts several systemic challenges: 1. E conomicInstability:Theglobaleconomiclandscapeandsovereigndebtcrisesinmember states threaten the Euro's sustainability. 2. MigrationPressures:InfluxesofmigrantsfromtheMiddleEastandNorthAfricastrainthe EU's open-border policies. 3. Geopolitical Tensions: Conflicts like Russia’s actions in Ukraine, instabilityintheMiddle EastandNorthAfrica,andChina'sgrowingglobalinfluencetesttheEU'sabilitytomaintain a unified foreign policy. 4. Populism and Brexit: The rise of populist anti-EU partiesandtheUK'sdeparturein2021 underscore internal divisions. Critical Questions About the EU The introduction raises several pertinent questions about the EU’s performance: hy are its leaders perceived as ineffective? W Does its legislative process overproduce or underdeliver? Does the Court of Justice favor certain member states? Is the EU democratically accountable, or does it serve special interests? Does the single market foster or hinder economic growth? Can the EU achieve sustainability in its currency, migration policies, and global influence? The EU as a Political System heEUisdescribedasa"politicalsystem,"albeitnotatraditionalstate.Whileitlacksfullstatehood, T it exhibitskey characteristics of political systems: 1. I nstitutional Framework: Stable institutions for collective decision-making with defined rulesthat guide the interaction between and withinthe institutions. 2. Public Participation: Citizens and interest groups influence policy through democratic mechanisms, eitherdirectlyorthrough gate keepers(interest groups and political parties) 3. Policy Impact: EU decisions significantly affect resource allocation and societal values across member states. 4. Dynamic Evolution: TheEUadaptscontinuouslythroughinteractionsbetweeninstitutions, governments, and stakeholders. There is continuous feedbackbetweenthepoliticaloutputs, new demands to the system, new decisions, etc. avid Easton’s model conceptualizes a political system as a dynamic process that continuously D interacts with its environment. 1. Demand and Support Inputs: ○ Citizensandgroupswithinsocietygeneratedemands(requestsforpolicyactions)and provide support (resources such as compliance, votes, or legitimacy). ○ These demands and supports serve as inputs into the political system. 2. Gatekeepers: ○ These are actors or mechanisms thatfilterandprioritizedemandsbeforetheyreach the political system. Examples includepolitical parties,interest groups, or media. 3. The Political System: ○ Refers narrowly to decision-making bodies (e.g., government institutions) that process inputs to produce authoritative decisions. ○ The system functions through established rules, processes, and institutions. 4. Authoritative Decisions (Outputs): ○ Decisions made by the political system(laws,policies,andregulations)addressthe demands raised by society. 5. Feedback: ○ Once decisions are implemented, they generate feedback from society. ○ Feedback informs the system whether outputs satisfy the demands or require adjustments, creating a continuous cycle of interaction. Hix’s Model of the European Union Political System imon Hix’smodelprovidesadetailed,institution-focuseddepictionoftheEU’spoliticalsystem.It S adapts Easton’s general framework to the unique supranational and multi-level governance of the EU. 1. Policy Domains: ○ Regulatory Policies:Cover the single market, environmental,and social standards. ○ Redistributive Policies: Include the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and regional cohesion efforts. ○ Citizen Policies:Address justice and home affairs,asylum, and immigration. ○ Global Policies: Encompass trade, Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), and external relations. ○ Macroeconomic Stabilization Policies: Focus on Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). 2. Institutional Structure: ○ European Commission: Serves as the executive and regulator withagenda-setting powers. It proposes policies and ensures compliance with EU law. ○ European Parliament: Represents citizens directly through elections. It acts as a secondary legislature, amending and approving legislation. ○ Council of the European Union (Council):Composedofnationalgovernments,it serves as the primary legislature. Decisions often require consensus or qualified majority voting. ○ European Court of Justice (CJEU): Ensures the supremacy and consistent application of EU law across member states. ○ European Central Bank (ECB):Manages monetary policyfor the Eurozone. 3. Key Actors and Processes: ○ PoliticalParties:CompeteforpowerinnationalandEUelections.Partycoalitionsin the European Parliament influence legislation. ○ Interest Groups: Include business associations, trade unions, and NGOs, which lobby EU institutions and national governments. ○ Citizens: Participate through elections, public opinion, andmembershipinpolitical parties or interest groups. 4. Interactions and Feedback: ○ Policies created byEUinstitutions(outputs)areimplementedacrossmemberstates, generating societal responses (feedback). ○ Feedback loops inform future policyadjustments,ensuringresponsivenesstopublic demands. Comparison Between Easton’s and Hix’s Models Easton’s Model Hix’s Model Scope eneral framework for any Specific to the European Union’s governance. G political system. Inputs emand and support from D D emands from citizens, parties, and interest citizens. groups. Gatekeepers ctors like political parties I nstitutions like the Commission and interest A and the media. groups. Decision-Making Single, centralized system. ulti-level governance (supranational and M national). Outputs olicies P addressing D iverseEUpoliciesinareasliketrade,justice, demands. and macroeconomics. eedback F imple cycle from society C S omplex interactions between citizens, Mechanism to government. member states, and EU institutions. Toshkov (2011): Responsiveness in the EU here is a notable overlap between fluctuations in T publicsupport(blackline)andlegislativeactivity(red line), suggesting a degree of responsiveness. eaks in legislative output align with periods of P increased public support (e.g., the late 1980stoearly 1990s). eclines in public support (e.g., late 1990s) D correspond to lower legislative activity, implying potentialcautionbyEUinstitutionsinpushingpolicies during times of public discontent. eedbackLoop:Legislativedecisionsmayinfluencepublicsupport,whichinturncouldshapefuture F policy initiatives.ThisfeedbackloopalignswithEaston’smodelofpoliticalsystems,whereoutputs generate feedback that influences new demands. he EU appears somewhat responsive to public sentiment, adjusting its legislative intensityinline T with public support. However, the relationship is not perfectly consistent, suggesting other factors (e.g., institutional dynamics or external events) also influence legislative output. Alexandrova, Rasmussen, & Toshkov (2016): Responsiveness in Policy Priorities This analysis examines how EU institutions align their agenda-setting with public priorities. here is a lagged but visible correlation between T public priorities and theEU’sfocusonemployment, especially during economic crises. The Commission increasedattentiontoemploymentwhenGDPdecline heightened public concern. here is weaker alignment between public concern T aboutinflationandtheCommission’sagenda-setting. The EU’s economic stability priorities may guide inflation-related decisions more than direct public pressure. he EU’s responsiveness to economic crises is T evidentinshiftingagendastowardGDPrecoveryand macroeconomic stabilization. Public importance and institutional focus converge during times of crisis. he EU is more responsive to public priorities in areas like employment, where direct public T impact isevident,thanintechnicalareaslikeinflation.However,alaggedresponseimpliespublic concern often precedes institutional action, indicating reactive alignment rather than proactive alignment with citizen preferences. What Is the EU? A Political System but Not a State heEuropeanUnion(EU)occupiesauniqueposition,beingneitheraninternationalorganizationlike T the United Nations nor a federal state such as the USA. While it wields significant executive, legislative, and judicial powers similar to those of a state, its member states retain sovereignty in critical areas, including budget control, law enforcement, and treaty-making. This hybrid model enables the EU to function as a political system without achieving full statehood. Characteristics of the EU as a Political System 1. I nstitutional Framework: The EU has a stable set of institutions (e.g., the European Commission,EuropeanParliament,EuropeanCouncil)andrulesthatgoverndecision-making and interactions among these bodies. 2. P ublic and Group Participation: Citizens, corporations, trade unions, environmental groups, and political parties actively influence the EU’s policymaking, reflecting a vibrant network of demands from public and private sectors. Unlike traditional international organizations,EUgovernmentsdonotmonopolizethesedemands,highlightingitsdemocratic underpinnings. 3. Significant Policy Impacts:EU decisions affect awide range of areas, including: ○ M arket regulation, Environmental and social policies, Agriculture, Research and development, Policing and migration, Foreign and defense policies. U laws take precedence over national laws and influence thedistributionofpowerandresources, E encroaching on traditionally domestic domains like taxation and immigration. 4. D ynamic Interaction: EU governance is an ongoing process involvinginteractionsamong institutions,memberstates,andprivatestakeholders.TheseinteractionsoccurinBrussels,at national government levels, and in bilateral or multilateral settings. The EU’s Distinction from a State N o Monopoly on Coercion: Unlike a traditional state, the EU lacks direct control over coercive powers, such aspolice or military forces,which remain under national governments. Decentralized Governance: The EU relies on voluntary commitment from member states and citizens, operating as adecentralized politicalsystemrather than a centralized state. The EU’s Distinction from international organizations N o Monopoly on Political Demands: In international organizations, member states often dominatepoliticalagendas.IntheEU,politicaldemandscomefromadiverserangeofactors, including citizens, political parties, interestgroups,corporations,andNGOs.Memberstates are influential but do not monopolize the decision-making process. Permanent Show: EU politicsareongoingandconstant,unlikeinternationalorganizations, which often operate through periodic meetings or summits. The EU's decision-making isa continuous process involving its institutions and stakeholders at all levels. Theoretical Perspectives olitical theorists have debated whether a political system can exist withoutastate.Earlytheorists P likeGabrielAlmondandDavidEastonemphasizedthestateascentraltopoliticalsystems.However, contemporary views (e.g., Bertrand Badie and Pierre Birnbaum) argue that governance can exist without the classic state apparatus,as exemplifiedby the EU. H istoricalContext:Thestateisseenasaproductofspecificpolitical,economic,andsocial conditions in Western Europe from the 16th to 20th centuries. In today’s context, the EU demonstrates that effective governance can occur through decentralized, voluntary cooperation. The EU’s Challenge: How to Govern a Diverse Continent he European Union (EU) was created in response to Europe’s historical need for peace and T reconciliation after the devastation of two World Wars, often referred to as "European civil wars." Since then, it has evolved into a solution to the challenges posed by globalization. Competing Logics in a Globalizing World The EU addresses two opposing forces driving global societies: 1. Economic Logic: The Need for Larger Economies ○ Larger economic entities benefit from diversity, specialization, and economies of scale, offering: Broader access to goods and services. Lower per capita costs for public goods. Higher productivity, employment, and overall wealth. ○ Small economies like Switzerland and Singapore succeed by specializing in niche markets and aligning their policies with larger economies. In contrast, larger economies (e.g., the USA) can diversify and maintain greater control over their standards and policies. 2. Political Logic: The Push for Decentralization ○ At the same time, globalization drives societies to demand local control: Decentralized systems allow people to have a greater say in decision-making. Smaller,morehomogeneouspopulationscancreatepoliciesthatbetterreflect their values, language, or traditions. ○ Regions like Scotland, Catalonia, Flanders, and Lombardy push for more local decision-making power to align governance with their unique cultural and social needs. Europe’s Historical Struggles with Integration Before the late 20th century, Europe struggled to balance these opposing logics: E conomicViability:ManyEuropeanstatesweretoosmalltosustainindustrialdevelopment independently. Responses to Economic Pressure: ○ Britain and France pursued overseas colonization to fuel their economies. ○ Germany sought European territorial expansion, leading to conflict. Result:CompetitionbetweenstatesledtotwodevastatingWorldWars,destabilizingEurope and impacting the world. The EU as a Solution:The EU represents an innovativeresponse to these challenges 1. E conomicArchitecture:Asingle,integratedmarketpromotesinternaleconomicactivityand leverages Europe’s geographic and human diversity. 2. Political Structure: A multi-level governance system delegates regulatory decisions tothe EU level while preserving national control over taxation and public spending. Global Influence of the EU Model The EU offers an alternative to two less desirable outcomes: . A 1 uthoritarian control of a large economy. 2. Fragmented small states, economically dependent on external systems. he EU’s model has inspired regions like Latin America, Southeast Asia, West Africa, and the T Caribbean, though it remains imperfect. The Challenge of Diversity Governing a continental-scale polity like the EU is inherently difficult due to its vast diversity: S ocial and Economic Diversity: The EU’s population surpasses that of the USA,butitis divided by numerous national identities and languages. Economic Comparisons: While the EU exhibits greater inequality at the state level, individual inequality is higher in the USA. Cultural and Religious Variation: Europeans are linguistically diverse but share similar levels of religious diversity with Americans. critical distinction is that Americans largely identify as onenation,whereasEuropeansprioritize A national identities over a collective European identity. Shared Values Among Europeans Despite national differences, Europeans share several political and social values: S upport forsocial welfare,public services, andenvironmentalprotection. Progressive views ongender equality,gun control,and minority rights. Challenges p ersist in racial and ethnic tolerance, particularly in Eastern Europe, whichhas less experience as a multicultural society. hesesharedvaluesunderpinthegovernanceoftheEU’sintegratedmarketbyestablishingcommon T assumptions and minimum standards. Decision-Making and Democratic Deficit 1. Unanimity vs. Majority Rule: ○ Unanimity ensures all member states' interests are protected but risks policy stagnation and inefficiency. ○ Majority rule accelerates decision-making butraisesquestionsaboutlegitimacyand "losers' consent"(the acceptance of decisions bythose on the losing side). 2. Legitimacy Issues: ○ TheEUfacesa"democraticdeficit"duetothelimiteddirectinfluenceofcitizensin decision-making. ○ Marginalized groups, such as low-skilled workers affected by competition and austerity,often oppose EU policies, fuelingsupportfor populist parties. Spill-Over Effects The EU’s integration in one policy area often creates pressures for further unification: R emoving trade barriers necessitates common policiesoncurrency,migration,security,and policing. These interconnected issues push the EU toward deeperpoliticalandeconomicintegration, including: ○ Ashared treasury andfinance ministry. ○ Unified immigration policiesandborder management. ○ Acoordinated foreign policyandmilitary capacity. The Ultimate Test The EU now faces critical challenges: C an it achieve deeperintegrationwithoutalienatingmarginalizedgroupsorexacerbatingits democratic deficit? Will it establish the legitimacy needed to evolve into a genuine political union,potentially with a single elected president and stronger central governance? Types of EU Policy The EU has five primary types of policy, each addressing different aspects of governance: 1. Regulatory Policies: ○ Focusonensuringthefreemovementofgoods,services,capital,andpersonswithin the single market. ○ Involveharmonizingnationalproductionstandards,suchasenvironmentalandsocial policies, and implementingcompetition policies. 2. Expenditure Policies: ○ Govern theredistribution of resourcesthrough theEU budget. ○ Key areas include the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), regional cohesion initiatives, andresearch and development programs. 3. Macro-Economic Policies: ○ Managed within the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU): The European Central Bank (ECB) controls the money supply and interest rates. TheCouncilcoordinatesexchangeratepoliciesandoverseesnationaltaxand employment strategies. 4. Interior Policies: ○ Extend and protect the economic, political, and social rights of EU citizens. ○ Includeasylum,immigration,policeandjudicialcooperation,andprovisionsforEU citizenship. 5. Foreign Policies: ○ Aim to present a unified EU voice on the global stage. ○ Encompass trade, external economic relations, the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), and the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP). Competences and Policy Levels EU competences fall into three categories: 1. Exclusive Competences: ○ Areas where the EU has full control, such as: Single market regulations. Monetary policies for Eurozone members. Common Agricultural and Fisheries Policies. ○ National governments cannot legislate independently. 2. Shared Competences: ○ Policy areas where the EU supplements national initiatives, e.g., labor regulation, regional spending, and immigration policies. 3. Coordinated Competences: ○ PoliciesprimarilyhandledatthenationallevelbutcoordinatedattheEUleveldueto spill-over effects (e.g., macroeconomic strategies and policing). reas likehealthcare,housing,welfare,andpensionsremaintheexclusiveresponsibilityofmember A states, with minimal EU interference. EU Policy-Making Processes The EU employs two primary processes for policymaking: 1. Supranational Processes: ○ Cover most regulatory, expenditure, macro-economic, and interior policies (e.g., asylum and immigration). ○ Features: EuropeanCommissionactsastheexecutivewithexclusivepolicyinitiation powers. Ordinary Legislative Procedure(bicameral process): EuropeanParliament(electedbycitizens)andtheCouncil(composed of national ministers) share legislative power. Decisions often made viaqualified majority voting(QMV)in the Council. Laws are directly effective and supreme over national laws, with judicial oversight by theCourt of Justice of the EU (CJEU). 2. Intergovernmental Processes: ○ Applytoforeignpolicies,somemacro-economicpolicies,andcertaininteriorpolicies (e.g., policing and judicial cooperation). ○ Features: The Council serves as the main executive and legislative body, typically requiringunanimity. The Commission plays a limited role in agenda-setting. The European Parliament is consulted but has minimal power. The CJEU’s role in judicial review is restricted. Intermediary Associations in EU Politics 1. Political Parties: ○ National parties compete for government positions, withwinnersrepresentedinthe Council. ○ European Parliament elections produce transnational political groups, which influence the EU legislative process. 2. Interest Groups: ○ Include trade unions, business associations, consumer groups, and environmental organizations. ○ They lobby national governments and EU institutions, forming policy networks to negotiate compromises. ○ Interest groups also influence the application of EU law through legal actions in national courts and the CJEU. Evolution of EU Treaties 1. T reaty of Rome (1957): This treaty established the common market to allow free trade betweenmemberstatesandcreatedinstitutionstomakedecisionsattheEUlevel.However, theLuxembourgCompromisein1966requiredunanimousdecisionsformajorissues,which reduced the authority of these institutions. 2. Single European Act (1986): This treaty advanced the EU’s shared authority by allowing moredecisionstobemadeusingQualifiedMajorityVoting(QMV),meaningnotallcountries had to agree. It also gave the European Parliament more power to participate in law-making. 3. Maastricht Treaty (1992): This treaty created the framework for the euro (Economic and MonetaryUnion)andintroducednewareasofcooperation,suchasjusticeandhomeaffairs, andacommonforeignandsecuritypolicy.However,decision-makingintheseareasremained largely intergovernmental, meaning all countries still had to agree. 4. AmsterdamTreaty(1997):ThistreatyexpandedEUdecision-makinginareaslikefreedom, security, and justice, making it easier to create laws together in these fields. 5. NiceTreaty(2001):ThistreatyfocusedonpreparingtheEUforenlargementbyreformingits institutions and decision-making processes. It also introduced a defense policy under the European Security and Defense Policy (ESDP). 6. Lisbon Treaty (2007): This treaty simplified how voting works in the EU Council, introduced permanent leadership roles (such asthePresidentoftheEuropeanCouncil),and made the Charter of Fundamental Rights legally binding across the EU. ach treaty has generally been less ambitious than its predecessor, reflecting the difficulty of E achieving consensus among an expanding membership. Theoretical Approaches to EU Politics hetheoreticalframeworksusedtoanalyzeEUpoliticsprovideinsightsintohowdecisionsaremade, T power is distributed, and integration progresses. . Intergovernmentalism 1 Emphasizes thecentral role of member statesin shapingEU politics and policy outcomes. Core Assumptions: State Dominance: Member states, particularly the larger ones, dominate EU decision-making, even when policies are enacted throughsupranational mechanisms. NationalPreferences:Eachstatehasclearpreferencesthatcanvarybypolicyareaandover time. These preferences reflect the interests of their citizens and are articulated through national governments. Key Propositions: 1. Controlled Delegation: ○ StatescarefullydelegatespecificpowerstoEUinstitutionsonlywhenitbenefitstheir collective interests. Examples include: Agenda-setting to the European Commission to address coordination challenges. Legislative powers to the European Parliament to enhance legitimacy and provide checks on the Commission. Judicial powers to the Court of Justice of the EU (CJEU) to ensure the consistent application of EU law. 2. Asymmetric Power Dynamics: ○ WhileallmemberstatesbenefitfromEUintegration,powerimbalancesexist.Larger or moreinfluentialstatesoftensecurefavorableoutcomesthroughnegotiationorby demanding compensation (e.g., budget adjustments or policy concessions). 3. Rational Decision-Making: ○ Decisionsreflectrationalcalculationsbystatestomaximizenationalbenefits.States will not agree to policies that harm their interests without adequate compensation. Strengths and Criticisms: Strengths: ○ Provides a clear explanation of treaty negotiations and major policy agreements. ○ Highlights the importance of national sovereignty and citizen accountability. Criticisms: ○ Underestimates the independent influence of supranational institutions. ○ Struggles to explain the unintended consequences of integration and the growing complexity of EU politics. . Supranationalism 2 Supranationalism argues that EU institutions,independentactors,andstructuralfactorssignificantly influence policymaking, often beyond the control of member states. Core Assumptions: Institutional Independence: ○ TheEuropeanCommission,EuropeanParliament,andCJEUarenotmerelyagentsof the member states but have their own interests, preferences, and resources. Multi-Actor Dynamics: ○ Private interest groups (e.g., business associations, NGOs) bypass national governmentstolobbydirectlyattheEUlevel,shapingpoliciesbyprovidingcritical information and support. Key Propositions: 1. Institutional Influence: ○ Supranational institutions shape outcomes through: Agenda-setting powers: The Commission initiates legislation and coordinates policy. Legislative roles: The European Parliament uses its increasing powers to influence or veto proposals. Judicial review: The CJEU ensures the supremacy of EU law, sometimes producing rulings that diverge from state preferences. 2. Impact of Rules: ○ Decision-making rules (e.g., qualified majority voting) shape policy outcomes unpredictably. For example: QMVenablesdecisionsevenifsomestatesoppose,broadeningtherangeof possible policies. Expanded legislativepowersfortheParliamentcreateadditionalvetopoints and agenda-setting opportunities. 3. Diverse Preferences: ○ Political actors (e.g., governments, parties, interest groups) have variedpreferences that extend beyond the binary debate of national sovereignty versus European integration.Issueslikeeconomicpolicy,socialreforms,andenvironmentalstandards are often shaped by ideological positions (e.g., left-right divisions). 4. Public Opinion and Political Salience: ○ Increasingly, EU decisions are influenced by public opinion and domestic political dynamics: Rising awareness and debate over EU policies have made integration a "p ost-functionalist" process, wheremass publics constraindecision-making. Divergent public preferences across member states can lead to gridlock (obstruction) on contentious issues. 5. Unintended Consequences: ○ DelegationtoEUinstitutionsoftenle adstopolicyoutcomesthatdivergefrominitial governmental intentions. These "unintended consequences"arise from: Institutional autonomy. Thecomplex interplay of actors and rules. Shifts in public reactions to policies. 6. Democratic Deficit: ○ Supranationalism highlights a "democratic deficit"in the EU: Decision-makingattheEUleveloftendriftsawayfromthepreferencesofthe average European citizen. Governments, while democratically elected, may isolate EUdecisionsfrom publicscrutinyto avoid backlash, furtheralienatingcitizens. Strengths and Criticisms: Strengths: ○ Explains the role of institutions, interest groups, and public opinion inshapingEU policies. ○ Addresses the complexity and unpredictability of policy outcomes. Criticisms: ○ May overstate the autonomy of supranational institutions. ○ Struggles to reconcile the role ofstatesinmajortreatynegotiationsandhigh-stakes decisions. omparison of the Two Approaches C Whileintergovernmentalismandsupranationalismappeartoconflict,theysharesomemethodological similarities: Both derive propositions from theoretical assumptions and test them empirically. Both acknowledge the influence of states, institutions, and broader political dynamics in shaping EU outcomes. Key Differences: 1. State Control: ○ Intergovernmentalism views statesasdominantactors,carefullylimitingthepowers of EU institutions. ○ Supranationalismarguesthatinstitutionsandotheractors(e.g.,interestgroups)wield significant influence, often beyond state control. 2. Policy Outcomes: ○ Intergovernmentalism predicts outcomes closely aligned with state preferences. ○ Supranationalism highlights unintended consequences and divergence from initial state intentions. 3. Public Opinion: ○ Intergovernmentalism sees governments as responsive to domestic publics. ○ Supranationalismemphasizesthegrowingroleofpublicopinioninconstrainingboth governments and EU institutions. OPIC 2 T ISTORY AND INSTITUTIONAL ARCHITECTURE OF THE EU H What is Europe? A Geographic Region: A physical space defined by natural boundaries (e.g., Ural Mountains, Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea). APoliticalUnion:RepresentedbytheEuropeanUnion(EU),acollectionofmemberstates united by shared institutions, laws, and policies. ACulturalandHistoricalEntity:Aregionlinkedbysharedhistory,traditions,andvalues, despite significant diversity. Where Are the Limits of Europe? G eographical Limits:Defining where Europe ends (e.g.,Turkey, Russia, and the Caucasus region). Europe’s limits are not fixed. Cultural Inclusion:Deciding which countries share"European" values or heritage. Political Membership:Membership in the EU is notsynonymous with being geographically in Europe, and evolves with the time and context. Europe can be considered: ○ Anideal: A vision of unity, cooperation, and sharedvalues. ○ Areality: Tangible in the form of the EU’s institutionsand policies. Can a continent as culturally diverse as Europe develop a shared identity? Challenges include differences in language, history, and national interests. Efforts like promoting European citizenship and shared values aim to foster unity while respecting diversity. Europe exists geographically, but geopolitics complicate its identity: The EU seeks to balance the interests of its members with global influence. Non-EU countries in Europe may share geographic ties but not political integration. A Cultural/Historical Entity United by Common Heritage? Europe has a shared cultural and historical heritage (e.g., Renaissance, Enlightenment, democratic principles). However, historical conflicts and differences (e.g., religion, colonial legacies) create challenges for unity. The EU provides a regulatory framework designed to: Strengthen the single market. Promote economic cooperation and reduce barriers between member states. Foster economic growth and stability, making the EU more than just a cultural or geographic concept. Beyond identity, Europe functions as a practical economic and regulatory system, embodied in the EU. Roots of European Integration 1. After World War I (1914–1918): ○ Richard Coudenhove-Kalergi (1923):Proposed a united Europe in his work Pan-Europa. ○ Aristide Briand (1929):Suggested creating aEuropean League of Nationsto prevent future wars. 2. After World War II (1939–1945): ○ Altiero Spinelli (1943):Wrote theVentotene Manifesto, advocating for a federal Europeto ensure peace. ○ Winston Churchill (1946):Called for a "United States of Europe" to unify the continent politically and economically. History of European Integration 1. 1 945:End of World War II left Europe devastated, with millions dead or displaced, and economies in ruins. 2. 1948 – Marshall Plan:A U.S.-led recovery plan torebuild Europe, modernize industries, and prevent the spread of communism. 3. 1949 – NATO Formation:The North Atlantic Treaty Organization was established to ensure collective security among Western allies. 4. 1949 – Council of Europe:A forum to promote democracy, human rights, and the rule of law among European nations. 5. 1950 – Schuman Plan:French Foreign Minister RobertSchuman proposed integrating coal and steel industries, laying the foundation for European economic cooperation. The Role of the United States 1. Marshall Plan (1948): ○ Provided financial aid ($13.3 billion, approximately $150 billion today) to rebuild Europe: Reconstructed war-torn regions. Removed trade barriers. Promoted collective organization. Prevented the spread of communism. 2. NATO (1949): ○ Article 5 established mutual defense, stating that an attack on one member is considered an attack on all. Why European Integration? 1. N ationalism:Discredited as the sole basis for politicalorganization after leading to two world wars. 2. Federalists:Advocated for a united Europe immuneto war, inspired by figures like Jean Monnet. 3. France:Sought to keep Germany under control whilerebuilding alliances. . G 4 ermany:Needed reintegration into European politics and cooperation. 5. Economic Devastation:The Marshall Plan offered anopportunity for collective reconstruction. 6. Security Concerns:NATO and the Truman Doctrine addressedmilitary and geopolitical stability. 7. International Context:The division of Europe duringthe Cold War and U.S. involvement shaped the climate for cooperation. The Schuman Declaration (May 9, 1950) 1. Key Quotes: ○ "World peace cannot be safeguarded without efforts commensurate with the dangers that threaten it." ○ "Europe will not be made all at once... it will be built through concrete achievements." 2. Proposal: ○ Suggested placing French and German coal and steel production under aJoint High Authority, forming thebasis of a European Federation. 3. Significance: ○ Marked the beginning of economic integrationthrough shared markets. ○ Introduced the concept ofspillover effects, wherecooperation in one area (coal and steel) would lead to further integration in others. his declaration is celebrated as the starting point of modern European integration, symbolized by T Europe Day on May 9. Treaties and Enlargement 1. Early Failures: ○ European Defense Community (EDC)andEuropean PoliticalCommunity (EPC): Proposed in the early 1950s to create a European army and a stronger political union. Both plans failed in1954when the French National Assembly rejectedit. ○ Result of Failure: European integrationshifted focus toward economic collaboration, leading to the creation of the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM). Paris & Rome 1. Treaty of Paris (1951): ○ Established theEuropean Coal and Steel Community(ECSC). ○ Key goals: Removed tariffs and subsidies on coal and steel, tooperate in a free market. Raised funds through taxeson coal and steel production. Created asingle marketfor coal and steel (sectoralintegration). 2. T reaties of Rome (1957): Created theEuropean Economic Community (EEC)andEURATOM. ○ Objectives: EEC: Aimed to establish a common market. EURATOM: Promoted cooperation in atomic energy. ○ Founding members: France, West Germany, Italy, and the Benelux countries (Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg). ○ Institutions: Some institutions, like theParliamentary AssemblyandCourt of Justice, were shared among ECSC, EEC, and EURATOM. Council and Commission: Each community had its ownCouncil of Ministers and its own executive Commissions. heMerger Treaty (1965)unified the separate Councilsand Commissions into a single structure for T all three communities and introduced the principle of budgetary unity for better financial management. he Council (1970)created a system of the Community'sown resourcescollectingfunds T independently, which replaced the direct financial contributions of the Member States, meaning the introduction ofbudgetary powers.This was done byestablishing: - ustoms Duties:Taxes on goods imported into the EECfrom outside countries. C - Agricultural Levies:Taxes on agricultural imports. - A Percentage of VAT (Value Added Tax):A portion ofVAT revenue from member states. he European Parliament (1979)gained new legitimacyand authority asdeputies were elected T directly by citizensthroughuniversal suffrage.This was the first elections in the EU parliament held across 9 member states. Development of the EEC 1. EEC Goals: ○ The EEC aimed tocreate a common marketwithin12yearsthrough atransitional perioddivided into three stages: Customs union:(taxes on goods imported at bordersfrom other countries) established quickly to eliminate tariffs between member states. Internal customs barriers:(administrative checks)disappeared by1968. Some barriers tofree movementremained even afterthe transitional period. 2. Key Developments: ○ 1962:Introduction of theCommon Agricultural Policy(CAP)to regulate agriculture across member states. ○ Creation of theEuropean Agricultural Guidance andGuarantee Fund (EAGGF) to support CAP. 3. Additional Milestones: ○ 1960:Establishment of the European Free Trade Association(EFTA) as a separate entity (not part of the EEC). ○ 1963:First applications for EEC membership from non-foundingcountries. New Members 1. 1973: ○ U K Accession:The United Kingdom joined the EEC afterovercoming blockades from France under Charles de Gaulle. ○ Denmark and Ireland:Joined the EEC alongside theUK. ○ Norway:Applied but rejected membership after a nationalreferendum. 2. 1981: ○ Greece:Became a member of the EEC. 3. 1986: ○ Portugal and Spain:Joined the EEC, marking furtherexpansion to Southern Europe. 4. 1995: ○ Sweden, Austria, and Finland:Became members, representingthe inclusion of neutral countries. 5. 2000s: ○ MajorEastern Enlargement, with numerous Central andEastern European countries joining after the Cold War. EMS (European Monetary System) 1. Established in1979: ○ Aimed toimprove financial cooperationandmonetarystabilityin Europe. ○ Addressed economic imbalancescaused by thecollapseof the Bretton Woodssystem and the1970s oil crisis. 2. Objectives: ○ Achieveeconomic stability. ○ Manage theinterdependence of European economies. ○ Lay the foundation forEuropean monetary integration. 3. Legacy: ○ The EMS evolved into theEuropean Monetary Union (EMU),which later introduced theEuroas a common currency. SEA (Single European Act) 1. Adopted in1986: ○ Revised theTreaties of Rometo reinvigorate Europeanintegration. ○ Focused on completing theinternal marketby removingremaining barriers to trade and movement. 2. Institutional Reforms: ○ Expanded the powers of EEC institutions. ○ Introduced modifications to the EEC Treaty and policies forforeign and security cooperation. 3. Significance: ○ Strengthenedpolitical integrationand set the stagefor the creation of theeconomic and monetary union. ○ Paved the way for theMaastricht Treatyin 1992, whichformally established the European Union. Maastricht Treaty 1992 heMaastricht Treaty(signed in 1992, in force since1993) was a major step in European T integration. It officially created theEuropean Union(EU)and introduced a new framework for cooperation, structured intothree pillars: 1. European Communities (First Pillar): ○ Focused on economic and monetary integration. ○ Key elements: Creation of theEconomic and Monetary Union (EMU),including the foundation for theEuroand criteria for its adoption. Establishment of aSingle Marketto allow free movementof goods, services, capital, and labor. Decisions made usingsupranational mechanisms, suchasqualified majority voting. 2. Common Foreign and Security Policy (Second Pillar): ○ Aimed at creating a unified stance ondefense andforeign policy. ○ Policies requiredunanimous agreementsbetween memberstates. ○ Operated throughintergovernmental cooperation, meaningmember states retained significant control. 3. Justice and Home Affairs (Third Pillar): ○ Focused on cooperation in areas likeasylum, immigration,and police collaboration. ○ Decision-making also requiredunanimous agreementsand followed an intergovernmental approach. Key Innovations of the Maastricht Treaty: 1. Economic and Monetary Union (EMU): ○ Laid the groundwork for theEuro, the single Europeancurrency. ○ Definedconvergence criteria(e.g., inflation rates,public debt limits) that member states needed to meet to adopt the Euro. 2. European Citizenship: ○ Introduced the concept ofEuropean citizenship, allowingcitizens to: Move and reside freely within the EU. Vote and run for office in European and local elections in any member state. 3. Strengthening EU Institutions: ○ Enhanced the powers of theEuropean Parliament, givingit greater influence over EU legislation and policies. 4. New Policy Areas: ○ Established alegal basis for new EU policies, suchasenvironmentalprotection, education, andpublic health. Treaties and Enlargement: Amsterdam 1999 1. Overview: ○ TheTreaty of Amsterdam(signed on October 2,1997,and entered into force on May 1, 1999) amended theTreaty on European Unionand the treaties establishing the European Communities. ○ Itintroduced necessary changestoimprove the efficiencyof EU institutionsin light of theupcoming enlargement. 2. Key Features: ○ Stronger Role for the European Parliament: The Parliament's powers were significantly increased through theextension of the co-decision procedure, giving it greater influence over EU legislation. This enhanced the democratic legitimacy and control of EU decisions. ○ Closer Cooperation: For the first time, the treaties allowedenhancedcooperationbetween groups of member states. Under specific conditions, member states coulduse common institutionstocooperatemore closelyon particularissues, even if not all EU members participated. ○ Simplification: Outdated and obsolete provisions were removedfromthe treaties, making them clearer and more relevant. Institutional reforms included setting a limit of700 Members of the European Parliament (MEPs)toaccommodate the enlargement process. However, in the practice, this limit was surpassed in future treaties (Nice and Lisbon) due to the enlargement and the need of proportional representation. Treaties and Enlargement: Nice 2003 1. Overview: ○ TheTreaty of Nice(signed in 2001, entered into forcein 2003)addressed issues left unresolved by the Amsterdam Treaty. ○ Its goal was to further improve the effectiveness of EU institutions and prepare for the imminentenlargement of the Unionto include Centraland Eastern European countries. 2. Key Features: ○ Institutional Reforms: The treaty focused onmaking the EU institutions moreefficientto function effectively with a larger membership. (Nº MEP 732) It aimed to create a betterdivision of powersbetweenEU institutions and simplify decision-making processes. ○ Convention on the Future of Europe: A Convention was organizedto discuss the most pressingissuesfor the Union’s development. Simplifythe EU'sdecision-making tools. Promotedemocracy, transparency, and efficiency. Draft aEuropean Constitutiontoformalize these reforms. 3. S ignificance:The Treaty of Nice laid the foundation for theConvention on the Future of Europe, chaired byValéry Giscard d’Estaing, whichultimately worked ondrafting a constitution for the EU. Treaties and Enlargement: Constitution Preamble The preamble of the proposed European Constitution emphasized the following principles: 1. U niversal Values:Protecting the inviolable rightsof individuals, democracy, equality, freedom, and the rule of law. 2. Unity in Diversity:Acknowledged Europe's past strugglesand aimed to overcome old divisions with the motto “United in diversity.” 3. Continuity of Community Acquis:Ensured the continuationof the European Union’s existing achievements and legal framework. Title I 1. O rigin:The Constitution wascreated from the collective will of citizensandmember states to build a shared future. 2. Coordination:The Union was tasked withcoordinatingthe policies of its member states. 3. Purpose:Promotepeace, shared values, and the well-beingof all its people. 4. Social Justice:Combat social exclusion and discrimination,promote equality (e.g., gender equality), social justice, and solidarity between member states. 5. Free Movement:Guarantee the free movement of people,goods, services, and capitalacross the Union. The Proposed Constitution (2004) 1. G oal:The treaty sought to create a formalConstitutionfor the European Unionto simplify and unify its structure. 2. New Approach:It was a completely new text, not justan amendment of previous treaties. ○ End of Maastricht Pillars:Unified the EU's structurebyremoving the three-pillar system. ○ Charter of Fundamental Rights:Incorporated theCharterto protect basic human rightswithin the EU. ○ Citizens’ Initiative:Allowed EUcitizens to propose legislation directly. ○ President of the European Council:Created apermanentpositionfor leadership continuity. ○ Symbolic Elements:Introduced symbols like aconstitution,a flag, and an anthemto reinforce a shared European identity. Failure to Ratify 1. R ejection in 2005:The Constitution was rejected in referenda byFranceand the Netherlandsdue topublic opposition, causing thetreaty to fail. 2. Aftermath:Despite its failure, many elements of the Constitution were later incorporated into theTreaty of Lisbon (2007), which successfullyreformed the EU. Treaties and Enlargement: Lisbon 2009 1. Overview: ○ TheTreaty of Lisbonwas signed in 2007 and becameeffective in 2009. ○ It aimed toreform EU institutionsto makedecision-makingmore efficient, democratic, and transparent. 2. Key Reforms: ○ Double Majority Voting in the Council: Decisions require the approval of55% of member states,representing65% of the EU's population. ○ Permanent Leadership Positions: Created apermanent President of the European Council(currently Charles Michel). Introduced theHigh Representative for Foreign Affairsand Security (currently Josep Borrell) to enhance EU representation in global affairs. ○ Reduction in Members of the European Parliament (MEPs): 751 Members of Parliament including the President to improve efficiency. ○ Ordinary Legislative Procedure: Expanded the use of this procedure (formerly codecision), making the European Parliament and the Council co-legislators in most areas. ○ Role of the European Parliament in Selecting the Commission President: The Council must now consider the results of European Parliament elections when proposing a candidate for thePresident of theEuropean Commission. Treaties and Enlargement: Eastward Expansion 1. 1990: German Reunification ○ Following the fall of the Berlin Wall,East Germanyjoined the European Community as part of a unified Germany. 2. 2004: The "Big Bang" Enlargement ○ 10 new members joined the EU: Cyprus,Czech Republic,Estonia,Hungary,Latvia,Lithuania,Malta, Poland,Slovakia,Slovenia. 3. 2007: Bulgaria and Romania ○ Both countries became members, further extending the EU's presence in Eastern Europe. 4. 2013: Croatia ○ Croatia joined as the 28th member state, continuing the EU’s southeastern expansion. 5. 2020: Brexit ○ TheUnited Kingdom left the EUfollowing a 2016 referendum,marking the first member state to exit the Union. EU INSTITUTIONS European Council 1. Role: ○ Defines thegeneral political direction and prioritiesof the European Union. ○ Does not draft laws but sets strategic goals. 2. Members: ○ Heads of State or Governmentfrom all EU countries,thePresident of the European Council, and thePresident of the EuropeanCommission. 3. Meetings: ○ Heldat least 4 times a yearin Brussels, Belgium. 4. Established: ○ Informally in 1974, formally recognized as an EU institution in 2009. 5. President: ○ Appointed for a2.5-year term, renewable once. Council of the EU (Council of Ministers) 1. Role: ○ A cts as aco-legislator, sharing responsibility withthe European Parliament for passing laws and approving the EU budget. 2. Members: ○ Composed ofministersfrom each EU country, varyingbased on the policy area being discussed. 3. Presidency: ○ Rotatesevery 6 monthsamong member states. 4. Established: ○ Founded in 1958 as theCouncil of the European EconomicCommunity. 5. Location: ○ Brussels, Belgium. European Commission 1. Role: ○ Proposes and enforces EU legislation, manages policies,and the EU budget. ○ Represents the EU globally, promoting thecommon Europeaninterest. 2. Members: ○ Acollege of Commissioners, one from each EU country. ○ Commissioners represent the EU, not their home countries. 3. Leadership: ○ Current President:Ursula von der Leyen. 4. Established: ○ 1958 (originally as the High Authority of the ECSC/EEC). 5. Location: ○ Brussels, Belgium. European Parliament 1. Role: ○ Theonly directly elected EU institution. ○ Holdslegislative, supervisory, and budgetary powers. 2. Members: ○ Composed of720 Members of the European Parliament(MEPs), elected every 5 years. 3. Elections: ○ First direct elections were held in1979. 4. Established: ○ 1952 (as Common Assembly of ECSC, renamed the European Parliament in 1962). 5. Location: ○ Strasbourg (France), Brussels (Belgium), and Luxembourg. Court of Justice of the EU 1. Role: ○ E nsuresEU law is interpreted and applied consistentlyacross all EU member states. ○ Monitors compliance with EU law by both countries and institutions. 2. Members: ○ Court of Justice:1 judge per EU country (27 judges)and 11 advocates general. ○ General Court:Includes 2 judges per EU country. 3. Established: ○ Founded in1952. 4. Location: ○ Luxembourg. High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security 1. Role: ○ T his positionmanages the EU's common foreign affairsand security policies. ○ The person in this role is also theHead of the EuropeanExternal Action Service, which handles the EU's diplomatic activities globally. 2. Double Role: ○ Chairing the Foreign Affairs Council:The High Representativepresides over meetings of EU foreign ministers to shape the EU's external policies. ○ Vice-President of the European Commission:The HighRepresentative also serves as a key member of the European Commission, linking foreign policy with other EU activities. 3. Current and Future Leaders: ○ Josep Borrellfrom Spain currently holds this position. ○ Kaja Kallasfrom Estonia is a potential successor(as per the image reference). Institution Role Members Established Location Leadership uropean E ets S political H eads 974 (formal Brussels of 1 resident P Council direction and State, EU 2009) (2.5-year priorities Council term, President, renewable) Commission President ouncil C of C o-legislator with M inistersfrom 1958 Brussels otating R the EU European member states presidency Parliament (6 months) uropean E roposes/enforces P 1 1958 Brussels President Commission legislation, Commissioner ( e.g., Ursula manages budget per member von der state Leyen) uropean E Legislative, 20 7 MEPs 1952 trasbourg, S Directly Parliament s upervisory, and (directly Brussels, e lected by budgetary powers elected) Luxembourg EU citizens ourt C f E o nsures consistent 2 7 judges ( 1 1952 Luxembourg resident of P Justice of application of EU per state), 11 the Court the EU law advocates general European Parliament Political Groups (2024–2029 Term) 1. Organization of Members: ○ Members of the European Parliament (MEPs)are notorganized by nationalitybut bypolitical affiliation. This means they group themselvesbased on political ideology, not the country they represent. 2. Political Groups: ○ There are currently8 political groupsin the EuropeanParliament. ○ Each group represents a different political ideology, ranging from center-right to left-wing and independent factions. 3. Distribution of Seats: ○ TheEuropean People's Party (EPP)is the largest group,with188 seats. ○ Other significant groups include: S&D (Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats):136 seats. Renew Europe:77 seats. Greens/EFA (European Free Alliance):53 seats. ECR (European Conservatives and Reformists):78 seats. Identity and Democracy (ID):84 seats. The Left:46 seats. Smaller groups and non-affiliated members are also represented. The European Central Bank (ECB) L ocation: Frankfurt, Germany. Roles: ○ Ensures price stability in the Eurozone. ○ Controls the money supply and decides interest rates (e.g., Euribor). ○ Supervises the safety and stability of banks. ○ Operates independently from national governments. Current President: Christine Lagarde. The European Court of Auditors C omposition: 27 independent members, one from eachEU country. Responsibilities: ○ Ensures EU funds are used properly. ○ Can audit any person or organization managing EU funds. The European Ombudsman C urrent Ombudsman: Emily O'Reilly. Responsibilities: ○ Investigates complaints about poor or failed administration by EU institutions. ○ Examples of issues: unfairness, abuse of power, delays, or discrimination. ○ Open to complaints from anyone in the EU. The Committee of the Regions P urpose: Represents local and regional governmentsin the EU. Functions: ○ Advises on new EU laws and policies. ○ Promotes the involvement of local and regional authorities in EU decision-making. The Economic and Social Committee P urpose: Represents civil society (e.g., trade unions,employers, farmers, and consumers). Functions: ○ Advises on EU laws and policies. ○ Promotes the involvement of civil society in shaping EU matters. Explanation of Decision-Making in the EU he European Union uses a complex system of decision-making designed to balance the interests of T Member States with the goals of the Union. This system is divided intosupranationaland intergovernmental regimes, each with distinct methodsand purposes. 1. Supranational Decision-Making: ○ This method prioritizes decisions that affect the entire EU and typically involves majority voting or centralized authority. ○ Examples: Community Method:Used for key areas like monetarypolicy. It involves collaboration between EU institutions, with laws being proposed by the European Commission and adopted by the Council and European Parliament. Regulatory Mode:Applied in policies such as competitionrules and the single market. It focuses on creating uniform regulations across Member States. 2. Intergovernmental Decision-Making: ○ This approach gives more power to individual Member States, often requiring unanimous decisions or coordination without transferring authority to EU institutions. ○ Examples: Distributional Mode:Deals with budgetary policiesand cohesion funds, ensuring resources are redistributed among Member States. Policy Coordination:Encourages countries to alignnational policies in areas like employment and fiscal matters, without binding decisions. Intensive Transgovernmentalism:Used for sensitiveareas like the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), where cooperation is close, but decision-making remains in national hands. Development Over Time: 1. Maastricht Treaty (1992/93): ○ Introducedthree pillarsto organize decision-making: Supranational Pillar:Focused on the Single Marketand the European Communities. I
