AQA Psychology Paper 2 Approaches Study Guide 2023-2025 PDF

Artwork by Sabina Simms AQA PSYCHOLOGY PAPER 2 PSYCHOLOGY IN CONTEXT APPROACHES STUDY GUIDE 2023-2025 NAME TEACHE R BLOCK 1 The ‘AQA’ specification What you need to know about approaches for the exam Approache...

Artwork by Sabina Simms AQA PSYCHOLOGY PAPER 2 PSYCHOLOGY IN CONTEXT APPROACHES STUDY GUIDE 2023-2025 NAME TEACHE R BLOCK 1 The ‘AQA’ specification What you need to know about approaches for the exam Approaches in Psychology 1. Origins of psychology: Wundt, introspection and the emergence of psychology as a science. 2. The basic assumptions of the following approaches:  Learning approaches: the behaviourist approach, including classical conditioning and Pavlov’s research, operant conditioning, types of reinforcement and Skinner’s research; social learning theory including imitation, identification, modelling, vicarious reinforcement, the role of mediational processes and Bandura’s research.  The cognitive approach: the study of internal mental processes, the role of schema, the use of theoretical and computer models to explain and make inferences about mental processes. The emergence of cognitive neuroscience.  The biological approach: the influence of genes, biological structures and neurochemistry on behaviour. Genotype and phenotype, genetic basis of behaviour, evolution and behaviour.  The psychodynamic approach: the role of the unconscious, the structure of personality, that is ID, ego and superego, defence mechanisms including repression, denial and displacement, psychosexual stages.  Humanistic psychology: free will, self-actualisation and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, focus on the self, congruence, the role of conditions of worth. The influence on counselling psychology.  Comparison of approaches (see separate Study Guide and Independent Learning Activity) Where possible, students should aim to refer to the issues & debates below where appropriate:  Gender and culture in psychology – universality and bias. Gender bias including androcentrism and alpha bias and beta bias; cultural bias, including ethnocentrism and cultural relativism.  Free will and determinism: hard determinism and soft determinism; biological, environmental and psychic determinism. The scientific emphasis on causal explanations.  The nature-nurture debate: the relative importance of heredity and environment in determining behaviour; the interactionist approach.  Holism and reductionism: levels of explanation in psychology. 2  Biological reductionism and environmental (stimulus-response) reductionism.  Idiographic and nomothetic approaches to psychological investigation.  Ethical implications of research studies and theory, including reference to social sensitivity. 3 Concepts In Psychology: Approaches 3 Sentence Challenge CONCEPT: INTROSPECTION 1 Introspection was the method developed by Wundt when he set up the first experimental laboratory in Psychology. 2 It involves the examination of a person’s own thought processes, feelings and sensations. Introspection involved training people to analyse and report in detail their inner thoughts and then break them down into their separate parts. 3 Introspection was used in carefully controlled laboratory conditions with researchers being presented with standardised tasks or stimuli to observe, such as a visual illusion. Learning Approaches CONCEPT: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING 1 2 3 CONCEPT: OPERANT CONDITIONING 1 2 3 CONCEPT: TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT 1 2 3 CONCEPT: IMITATION 1 2 3 CONCEPT: IDENTIFICATION 1 2 3 CONCEPT: MODELLING 1 2 3 CONCEPT: VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT 1 2 3 CONCEPT: MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES 1 2 3 Cognitive Approach 4 CONCEPT: INTERNAL MENTAL PROCESSES 1 2 3 CONCEPT: SCHEMA 1 2 3 CONCEPT: THE COMPUTER MODEL 1 2 3 Biological Approach CONCEPT: GENE 1 2 3 CONCEPT: GENOTYPE 1 2 3 CONCEPT: PHE NOTYPE 1 2 3 CONCEPT: EVOLUTION 1 2 3 The Psychodynamic Approach CONCEPT: THE UNCONSCIOUS 1 2 3 CONCEPT: ID 1 2 3 CONCEPT: EGO 1 2 3 CONCEPT: SUPEREGO 1 2 5 3 CONCEPT: REPRESSION 1 2 3 CONCEPT: DENIAL 1 2 3 CONCEPT: DISPLACEMENT 1 2 3 Humanistic Approach CONCEPT: FREEWILL 1 A core assumption of the humanistic approach is that humans have freewill which is the ability to choose how to behave. 2 An implication of the belief in freewill is that a person is responsible for their own behaviour, be it social or anti-social. 3 The humanistic approach does, however, acknowledge that we have some constraints on our freewill and that we have a limited number of options to choose from due to social rules, laws, and morals. These affect whether we actually do behave as we would wish. CONCEPT SELF-ACTUALISATION 1 2 3 CONCEPT HIERARCHY OF NEEDS 1 2 3 CONCEPT THE SELF 1 2 3 CONCEPT CONGRUENCE 1 2 3 CONCEPT CONDITIONS OF WORTH 1 2 3 6  Origins Of Psychology: Wundt, Introspection And The Emergence Of Psychology As A Science Wundt (1832 – 1920) The origin of psychology as a discipline is widely thought to have occurred in Germany from the work of Wilhelm Wundt. He was the first person to call himself a psychologist, believing that all aspects of nature (including the human mind) could be studied scientifically. In 1879, Wundt established the first psychology laboratory. He worked at Leipzig University and had a room dedicated to conducting psychological experiments. He later founded the Institut fur Experimentelle Psychologie (the Institute of Experimental Psychology) in 1879 with his colleague Gustav Fechner. It is at this point in time when the discipline moved from the realms of philosophy, biology and physiology into psychology. AQA (AO1 – Mark scheme) Possible content:  Wundt known as ‘the father of psychology’ – moved from philosophical roots to controlled research  Set up the first psychology laboratory in Liepzig, Germany in 1870s  Promoted the use of introspection as a way of studying mental processes  Introspection – systematic analysis of own conscious experience of a stimulus  An experience was analysed in terms of its components parts eg sensations, emotional reaction etc.  His work paved the way for later controlled research and the study of mental processes eg by cognitive psychologists. Introspection Introspection: - the systematic analysis of one's own conscious experience, thought processes, feelings, emotions and sensations. Introspection involved training people to analyse and report in detail their inner thoughts and then break them down into their separate parts. Introspection was used in carefully controlled laboratory conditions with researchers being presented with standardised tasks or stimuli, such as a visual illusion. Wundt claimed that, with sufficient training, introspection can be used to systematically observe mental processes such as memory and perception. Method of introspection: In Wundt's room at the university Wundt and his colleagues recorded their own conscious thoughts with the aim of breaking these down into their constituent parts. The researchers were presented with carefully controlled stimuli (e.g. visual images or auditory tones) and were asked to provide a description of the inner processes they were experiencing; they would report what they had experienced and their analysis of that experience. All introspections were recorded under strictly controlled conditions using the same stimulus every time (e.g. a ticking 7 metronome) and the same standardised instructions were issued to all participants. This allowed procedures to be repeated every single time. The Emergence Of Psychology As A Science Watson and behaviourism: By the beginning of the 20 th century, the scientific status and value of introspection was being question by many psychologists notably John Watson. Watson criticised introspection for not being objective as it varied from person to person so it became difficult to establish the general principles. Watson proposed that a truly scientific psychology should restrict itself to being empirical by studying phenomena that can be observed and from this principle stemmed the behaviourist approach. The scientific approach: Psychology today is considered to be a scientific discipline and, as such, uses a variety of methodologies, many of which are empirical and scientific. The legacy of the biological and physiological origins means that many psychologists apply the scientific method to their work and use empirical methods to test their hypotheses. However, this is not the case for all of psychology and some psychologists are not focused as much on the scientific aspects with their work as they argue that there will always be an element of subjectivity. Features of Science The empirical method: Empirical evidence is directly observable and is gathered through the senses. It can be verified by measurements and does not go beyond the boundaries of what can be observed. Objectivity: If a piece of research is objective it is free from bias; based on observable phenomena; is not influenced by personal opinion, prejudice or emotion; is empirical and is available to other scientists to check and verify. Replicability: The extent to which a study can be repeated so that the reliability of results can be judged. Falsifiability: When it is possible to prove a statement, hypothesis or theory wrong. This is only possible if a study is replicable and the hypothesis is operationalised/testable. Theory construction and hypothesis testing: In order to make scientific progress it must be possible to test and falsify a theory. The theory therefore needs to be rigid and hypothesis within studies must be clear (operationalised). If you create a testable theory and fully operationalise your variables/hypotheses then the theory can be tested and proven correct or incorrect (falsified) 8 Paradigms and paradigm shifts: A paradigm is distinct set of concepts or thought patterns within a specific domain. Each psychological approach has its own paradigm as you will see below. A paradigm shift happens when a theory is falsified and a new paradigm is created that is based on the newly discovered information. Summary of key points for essay questions Wundt was the first person to call himself a psychologist. He established the first psychology laboratory at Leipzig university where he and his colleagues would use introspection (the examination of thought processes, feelings, emotions and sensations). Wundt would present carefully controlled stimuli e.g. visual images or auditory tones and his colleagues would provide a description of the inner processes they were experiencing. Wundt’s work marked the beginning of the scientific approach in psychology and he moved psychology away from the realms of philosophy, biology and physiology into a discipline in its own right. Evaluation of Wundt’s methods and the scientific approach P A limitation of Wundt’s research is that his method was not scientific. E Many psychologists (particularly behaviourists) criticised Wundt’s use of introspection because it is a non-empirical, subjective method (it relied primarily on non- observable' responses). Although participants could report on their conscious experiences, the processes themselves (e.g. memory, perception) were considered to be unobservable. Wundt's approach ultimately failed because of the lack of reliability of his methods. E This is a limitation because, as he did not use scientific methods, Wundt’s research cannot be properly replicated and the Introspection ‘experimental’ results were not reliably reproduced by other researchers in other laboratories. In contrast, the early behaviourists such as Pavlov and Thondike were already achieving reliable results and discovering findings that could be easily generalised to all human beings. P A strength of using the Wundt’s methods is that some of the aspects would still be considered scientific today E For instance, he recorded the introspection within a controlled lab. He also standardised his procedures so that all participants received the same information and were tested in the same way E This is a strengths as for this reason Wundt’s research can be considered a forerunner to the later scientific approaches in psychology that were to come. However, many psychologists believe that it is not valid to use purely empirical methods because subjective experiences and perception are part of being a human and are therefore worth studying. P A limitation of using the scientific method is that it has low ecological validity. E Many psychologists (particularly those favouring the humanistic approach) believe that concentrating purely on objective and controlled methods does not reveal a great deal about how people behave in natural settings particularly as much of the subject matter of psychology is unobservable (e.g. the mind) and therefore cannot be 9  measured in an empirically way. Most psychologists tend to accept Nisbett and Wilson's (1977) claim that we have very little knowledge of the causes of, and processes underlying, our behaviour and attitudes. Nisbett and Wilson found, for example, that participants were remarkably unaware of factors that had been influential in their choice of a consumer item. E This is a limitation because, although such research is likely to produce reliable data, it is unlikely to be valid and, as psychologists aim to investigate realistic human behaviour, it is arguably pointless to adopt a purely scientific approach. Many psychologists agree that the most effective approach is to use a range of different methods (lab experiments, case studies, observations etc.) to investigate one aim/hypothesis so that they gather reliable and valid data to test a theory. This is called triangulation. P A strength of introspection is that it is still being used as a useful method by modern psychologists. E For example, Hunter et al. (2003) used introspective methods as a way of making 'happiness' a measurable phenomenon. They gave a group of teenagers beepers that went off during random times throughout the day, surprising participants and requiring them to write down their thoughts and feelings in the moment before the beep. Most of the entries indicated that the teens were unhappy rather than happy, but Csikszentmihalyi and Hunter also found that when their energies were focused on a challenging task, they tended to be more upbeat E This is a strength because such research demonstrates how introspection is a useful tool and can be used with scientific methods to provide a greater understanding of human behaviour. The fact that introspection is still being used in contemporary psychology demonstrates the long-lasting influence that Wundt has had on the discipline of psychology. 10 The Approaches in Psychology The differing ways of seeing and testing behaviour and thought are called the approaches. All of these approaches have a different way of explaining the same behaviour. Learning Approach Suggests that behaviour is influenced by patterns of learning which take place in the environment Cognitive Approach Suggests that the mind works like a computer. This approach believes that behaviour is influenced by thought processes taking place in the mind Biological Approach Biological psychology states that human behaviour is influenced by physiological, genetic or evolutionary forces. Psychodynamic Approach Emphasise the psychodynamics of the mind - the different forces that operate in the mind, and at times, cause unconscious mental conflict and cause problems for the person. Humanistic Approach An approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each person’s capacity for self-determination. 11 Learning Approaches The learning approach focuses on how we are a product of our experience (learning) and incorporates both Behaviourism and Social Learning Theory. All human behaviour is learnt, and we are born ‘blank slates’. The Behaviourist Approach (ASSUMPTIONS) The behaviourist approach emerged at the beginning of the 20 th century and became the dominant approach in psychology for half of that century. It is also credited as the driving force in the development of psychology as a scientific discipline. The basic assumptions of the behaviourist approach are: 1. Behaviour is learned from experience (according to the behaviourist approach we are born a blank slate so there is no genetic influence on behaviour). 2. Only observable behaviour is measureable scientifically and it is only these behaviours that should be studied as thought processes are subjective and difficult to test. 3. Psychologists should use lab experiments as it is the best way to maintain objectivity. 4. The basic processes that govern learning are the same in all species. It is therefore valid to study the behaviour of animals as they share the same principles of learning as humans (i.e. classical and operant conditioning). AQA (AO1 – Mark scheme) Possible content: Classical conditioning:  Detail of Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiments into salivation reflex in dogs 12   Knowledge of Pavlovian concepts in the context of Pavlov’s experiments: unconditioned stimulus; conditioned stimulus; unconditioned response; conditioned response  Detail of Pavlovian theory – learning by association; temporal association/contiguity Operant conditioning: basic idea behind Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning positive reinforcement negative reinforcement positive/negative punishment Classical conditioning Classical conditioning is learning by association. Both humans and animals can be classically conditioned and this is one of the ways they learn behaviour. The key idea is that learning occurs when an association is made between a previously neutral stimulus and reflex response. This reflex response can be positive or negative. If the association of the stimulus is with a positive response, then that positive response will arise whenever the person comes into contact with that specific stimulus. The same is true for negative associations. One of the most memorable ways that someone can be conditioned is when they acquire a phobia. They will make an association between an object/situation and fear. Pavlov’s research Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936) - context Pavlov was a physiologist whose research initially focused on the digestive system of dogs. He abandoned his early theological schooling to study science and his ground breaking work on the digestive systems of dogs earned him the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1904. Pavlov was inspired by the ideas of Charles Darwin and I.M. Sechenov, the father of Russian physiology. Ivan Pavlov first described the process of classical conditioning in 1904 from his observations of salivation, dogs automatically salivate when presented with food – this is a reflex response and no learning is required (i.e., it is automatic). The food is referred to as the unconditioned stimulus and the salivation to the food is called the unconditioned response. However, Pavlov conditioned (i.e., they learnt) dogs to salivate to the sound of a bell. They had learned from the environment to do this. It is not a natural/instinctive response. He carried out an experiment where he repeatedly presented food to the dogs whilst at the same time ringing a bell. Eventually, the animals began to salivate without any food being presented i.e. they salivated to the sound of a bell alone! The experiment supported Pavlov's hypothesis; and he consequently developed the notion of classical conditioning. He argued that if a neutral stimulus (such as a bell – which causes no response when presented alone) is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (the food), the two become associated. The result of this is that the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus, able to cause the previously instinctive (and now conditioned) response (salivation). Pavlov argues that, ultimately, even the most 13 complicated behaviour can be explained as complex webs and chains of classical conditioning UCS=Unconditioned Stimulus UCR=Unconditioned Response NS=Neutral Stimulus CS=Conditioned Stimulus CR=Conditioned Response This is illustrated by Watson & Rayner (1920) who classically conditioned a boy named ‘Little Albert’ to become phobic of rats. This was done by the presentation of an unconditioned stimulus of a loud noise at the same time as the rat. After following this procedure several times, Little Albert started to cry whenever he was shown a rat, even though he had previously not been scared of it. Evaluation of Pavlov’s research P A strength of Pavlov’s research is that he used the experimental method. E Pavlov used controlled conditions (dogs harnessed in the lab) to discover possible causal relationship between the IV and DV. By manipulating the unconditioned and neutral stimuli (the independent variable), he was able to accurately measure the effect on the amount the dog salivated (the dependent variable). E This is a strength of Pavlov’s research because it allowed him to establish the cause and effect relationship between stimulus and response. 14 P A limitation of Pavlov’s research is that he studied non-human animals in his experiments. E Critics claim that using dogs to test the effects of classical conditioning cannot reveal a great deal about human behaviour. Such psychologists claim that, unlike animals, humans have free will and hence that their behaviour is not purely determined by the association made between stimulus and response. E This is a limitation of Pavlov’s research because his conclusions about classical conditioning might not provide a valid explanation of all human behaviour as we are unable to extrapolate findings from animal studies to humans. P A limitation of Pavlov’s research is that it could be considered unethical. E Before carrying out his experiments Pavlov performed surgery on the dogs’ saliva glands so that salivation was easy to measure and, during the experiment, the dogs were strapped in harnesses so that they were kept in the same place for many hours at a time. E This is a limitation because, although the BPS guidelines do not apply to animals, some psychologists argue that animals have rights and should never be used in such experiments especially as the findings may not be representative of human behaviour. However, other psychologists believe that Pavlov’s research is acceptable as such research has provided insight into the role of classical conditioning on behaviour and such research on humans would not be accepted under BPS guidelines. Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning is another learning principle of the behaviourist approach. It works on the principle of learning by consequences (reinforcement) of one’s behaviour. Reinforcement means something in the environment that strengthens a behaviour and makes it more likely to occur. For example, if you want your dog to sit on command, you may give him a treat (reinforcement) every time he sits for you. The dog will eventually come to understand that sitting when told to will result in a treat. Types of Reinforcement There are four types of reinforcement: 1. Positive reinforcement: Receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed. Behaviour is more likely to reoccur if it is rewarded by positive consequences. 2. Negative reinforcement: Occurs when the individual is rewarded by avoiding something unpleasant. Behaviour is more likely to reoccur if it is rewarded by the avoidance of negative consequences. 3. Punishment: An unpleasant consequence of a behaviour. Behaviour is less likely to reoccur if it results in negative consequences. Skinner’s research 15  Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904 – 1990) Skinner earned a B.A in literature and tried to become a novelist, but was unsuccessful. He was influenced by Thorndike’s work and was a major force in the behaviourism movement. His work was prolific and focused around work in laboratories on animals, investigating the role of reward and punishment in shaping behaviour. In 1943 he designed the “baby tender”, a crib that was designed to be safer than a normal crib and in 1944, he worked on the Project Pigeon which trained pigeons during World War II to direct bombs by pecking at a target. Skinner’s box was important in his research. Skinner worked predominantly on animals such as rats and pigeons and his ‘Skinner box’ contained a response lever, loudspeakers and lights which acted as visual and auditory signals when needed. Finally, the floor was metal and had the capacity to administer an electric shock to the rat if the experiment so required. Skinner’s method: Skinner studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals which he placed in a ‘Skinner Box’. Skinner showed how positive reinforcement worked by placing a hungry rat in his Skinner box. The box contained a lever on the side and as the rat moved about the box it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately after this, a food pellet would drop into a container next to the lever which would act as positive reinforcement for the behaviour. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box – Skinner had conditioned the rats to engage in an unnatural (learned) behaviour of pushing a lever. Skinner showed how negative reinforcement worked by placing a rat in his Skinner box and then subjecting it to an unpleasant electric current which caused discomfort. As the rat moved about the box it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it did so the electric current would be switched off which would act as negative reinforcement for the behaviour. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box. Skinner took this one step further and taught the rats to avoid the electric current by turning on a light just before the electric current came on. The rats soon learned to press the lever when the light came on because they knew that this would stop the electric current being switched on. Punishment: a direct negative outcome following a particular behaviour. Once the rat had been taught to press the lever, for instance, Skinner 16 trained it to cease this behaviour by electrifying the floor each time the lever was pressed. Evaluation of Skinner’s research P A strength of Skinner’s research is that he used the experimental method. E Skinner used controlled conditions (the Skinner box) to discover the possible causal relationship between two or more variables. By manipulating the consequences of behaviour (the independent variable), he was able to accurately measure the effect on the rat’s behaviour (the dependent variable). E This is a strength of Skinner’s research because it allowed him to establish the cause and effect relationship between the consequences of a behaviour (positive or negative) and the future frequency of its occurrence. P A limitation of Skinner’s research is that he studied non-human animals in his experiments. E Critics claim that his reliance on rats and pigeons means that Skinner’s studies reveal little about human behaviour. Such psychologists claim that, unlike animals, humans have free will and their behaviour is not determined by positive and negative reinforcement in the same way. E This is a limitation of Skinner’s research because it might not provide a valid explanation for all human behaviour. However, Skinner argued that free will was merely an illusion and that all behaviour is the product of external influences so testing animals is a valid way to investigate human behaviour. P A limitation of Skinner’s research is that it could be considered unethical. E Skinner kept animals in small cages and subjected them to a range of different tests some of which would have caused them pain and anxiety e.g. being given electric shocks. E This is a limitation because, although the BPS guidelines do not apply to animals, some psychologists argue that animals have rights and should never be used in such experiments especially as the findings may not be representative of human behaviour. However, other psychologists believe that Skinner’s research is acceptable as such research has provided insight into the role of operant conditioning on behaviour and such research on humans would not be accepted under BPS guidelines. Behaviourist approach: summary of key points for essay questions The behaviourist approach suggests that behaviour is learned from experience and is environmentally determined. Behaviourists believe that we are born a blank slate and there is no genetic influence on behaviour. The approach also suggests that only observable behaviour should be studied as this enables generalisation and the development of laws and principles; Behaviourists therefore believe that only lab experiments should be used when investigating human behaviour. Behaviourists believe that behaviour is learned through operant and classical conditioning; operant conditioning means learning through the consequences of your behaviour (positive/negative reinforcement) and classical conditioning means learning through association. 17 Overall Evaluation of the Behaviourist Approach P A strength of the behaviourist approach is that is has practical applications as it has produced successful treatments for phobias and patients in institutions, E Classical conditioning has led to the development of systematic d18esensitization which works by eliminating the learned anxious response (CR) that is associated with a feared object or situation (CS). The therapist tries to replace the maladaptive learned response (anxiety) with a more positive response (relaxation) so that the patient is no longer anxious in the presence of the feared object. Operant conditioning has led to the use of a token economy system within institutions to reward appropriate behavior with tokens that are exchanged for privileges. Treatments like these are suitable for patients who lack the insight into their condition and are not capable of talking about their problems. E These treatments has been found to be effective for a range of conditions and demonstrates the contribution that the behaviourist approach has made to psychology. As the treatment is based on the assumptions of the approach, its effectiveness suggests that the approach must have some validity and merit. P A strength of the behaviourist approach is that it is supported by evidence. E For example, Skinner demonstrated how positive and negative reinforcement can condition the behaviour of rats. He rewarded the rat each time it pressed a lever and this encouraged it to repeat the behaviour. He also conditioned the rat to press a lever to avoid the punishment of electrocution. For example, Pavlov classical conditioned a dog to salivate at the sound of a bell by ringing a bell each time he fed the dog. After many repetitions the dog eventually learned to associate the bell with food and would salivate at the sound of the bell alone. E This is a strength because this research suggests that the behaviourist approach provides an accurate explanation of behaviour. *If you are going to use the point above you may choose to then evaluate the study. However, it is absolutely ESSENTIAL that you LINK your point back to the APPROACH e.g. the study therefore provides strong/weak evidence for the behavioural approach. P A strength of the behavioural approach is that it uses the scientific method when investigating human behaviour and the assumptions are based on strong empirical evidence. E Behaviourist psychologists believe that only observable behaviour should be 18  studied and therefore use experiments as their main method of investigation. This provides researchers with a rigorous method for understanding the effect of operant and classical conditioning on behaviour. E This is strength because the assumptions of the approach are based on research that establishes cause and effect and is likely to be objective and reliable. The approach has therefore enhanced the scientific status of psychology and has led to scientific progress within the discipline. P A limitation of the behavioural approach is that it is over-simplistic as it favours the nurture side of the nature vs nurture debate. E Behavioural psychologists believe that behaviour is learned through classical and operant conditioning and they therefore ignore the wealth of evidence that suggests that biological factors also contribute (e.g. genes or hormones). E This is a limitation as it takes a very one-sided view of human behaviour and does not provide a holistic explanation. The approach ignores any evidence to suggest that behaviour is caused by nature and many psychologists disagree with this standpoint. P A limitation of the approach is that it supports the determinism side of the freewill vs determinism debate. E Behavioural psychologists claim that human behaviour is the product of external influences (environmental determinism) and , as the individual cannot control these processes, they cannot be held responsible for their own behaviour. Skinner argued that freewill was merely an illusion and he believed that human behaviour is caused by factors that are out of the individual’s control. E This is a limitation because many psychologists would disagree with this view and believe that humans have the freewill to choose how to behave e.g. humanistic psychologists. Extend your Understanding: Psychology in the real world 1. Research how operant conditioning was used at ‘Tranquility Bay’ a co- educational behaviour modification school in rural Jamaica 2. Research how Skinner's work on operant conditioning was used in the Second World War, for training pigeons to guide and release bombs onto enemy targets. 19 Social Learning Theory Albert Bandura Bandura has received more than sixteen honorary degrees; He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1980 and in 2014, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada "for his foundational contributions to social psychology, notably for uncovering the influence of observation on human learning and aggression". Bandura is a learning theorist but not strictly a behaviourist as his theory also considers the thought processes that underlie our behaviour. He challenges Skinner's idea that reward and punishment will prompt or stop a behaviour automatically. He argues that reinforcers and punishments merely inform the individual of likely consequences and it is down to the individual as to whether their behaviour is affected by the potential consequences. This acknowledgement of mediational processes has meant that the theory is sometimes referred to as social cognitive theory. Bandura's basic idea is that we learn behaviour by observing the positive and negative consequences of someone else's behaviour. This means we learn the behaviour vicariously - we don't receive the reward or punishment ourselves, the person who is modelling the behaviour does. They are referred to as the role model. The basic assumptions of Social Learning Theory are: 1. Behaviour is learned from the environment and thus genetics do not influence behaviour. 2. Behaviour is learned from observing others and the reinforcement or punishment they receive. On the back of these experiences individuals will decide whether to imitate the behaviour or not. 20 Identification Identification is when an individual is influenced by another because they are in some way similar to that person or they wish to be like them (they identify with the model). Individuals are much more likely to imitate the behaviour of people with whom they identify. There are many factors influencing the choice of model including: same gender and ethnicity, higher status and greater expertise. These need not all be present but identification does not occur unless there is a reason. Imitation This is the term used to describe when an individual observes behaviour from a role model and copies it. The key determinants of whether a behaviour is imitated are: the characteristics of a model, the observer’s ability to perform the behaviour and the observed consequences of the behaviour. Modelling Modelling is observing the behaviour of a role model. An individual might observe a live model e.g. a parent, teacher, older brother/sister or they might copy a symbolic model e.g. a character on T.V. These models provide examples of behaviour that may be imitated at a later stage. Vicarious Reinforcement This is the term used to describe the reinforcement the observer sees the model receiving. They do not receive the reward themselves; they see someone else get it. A reinforcement, such as a reward, makes a behaviour more likely to be imitated e.g. a younger sister observing an older sister for getting good grades which motivates the younger sister to work hard so that she can also receive the reward. It is more likely a rewarded behaviour is copied than a behaviour that is punished. The Role of Mediating Processes Social learning theory (SLT) is not strictly a behaviourist approach as it does not look solely at behaviour, it also considers cognitive processes. The theory suggests there is some thought prior to imitation that intervenes between stimulus and response (mediational processes). There are four mediational processes documented by Bandura (1977): attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation. Attention: For a behaviour to be imitated we have to notice it. We observe many A behaviours on a daily basis and many of these are not noteworthy. Attention is therefore pivotal to whether a behaviour will be imitated. Retention: The behaviour may be noticed, but it is not always remembered, R which obviously prevents imitation. It is important therefore that a memory of the behaviour is formed for it to be imitated later by the observer. Much of social 21  learning is not immediate so this process is especially vital in those cases. Even if the behaviour is reproduced shortly after seeing it there needs to be a memory to refer to. Motor Reproduction: We see lots of behaviour on a daily basis that we would R like to be able to imitate but that is not always possible. We are limited by our physical ability and for that reason, even if we wish to reproduce the behaviour, we cannot. This influences our decision whether to try and imitate it or not. Motivation: The desire to perform the behaviour. The rewards/punishments M following a behaviour will be considered by the observer. If the perceived rewards outweigh the perceived costs then the observer will be more motivated to imitate it. If the vicarious reinforcement is not seen to be important enough to the observer then they will not be motivated to imitate the behaviour. For example, Natasha notices her mum putting on lipstick prior to going out for the evening. She then hears her dad complimenting her mum on how she looks. She notices this (attention). She remembers where her mum keeps her make-up and how to open the lipstick (retention). She is also able to apply it (reproduction). She knows she will probably be told off but she wants to get compliments from her dad too and wants to look grown up like her mum, which is more important than the telling off (motivation). In all likelihood Natasha will imitate the behaviour. Bandura’s research Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) Aim: To examine if children will imitate an aggressive adult model and to discover the extent to which the gender of the model influences the child’s motivation to imitate. Method: Participants were 36 males and 36 females aged 37 to 69 months (mean age - just over 4 years). A male and female adult each served in the role of the model and participants were put in a room one at a time to observe their behaviour. Half of the groups observed an aggressive role model and the other half observed a non-aggressive role model. The groups were subdivided by gender and whether the model was the same sex or opposite sex of the participants (see below). There was also a control group who was not exposed to the model. Aggressive Aggressive Aggressive Aggressive Condition Condition Condition Condition 6 boys – same sex 6 boys – opposite sex 6 girls – same sex 6 girls – opposite sex model model model model Non-Aggressive Non-Aggressive Non-Aggressive Non-Aggressive Condition Condition Condition Condition 6 boys – same sex 6 boys – opposite sex 6 girls – same sex 6 girls – opposite sex 22  model model model model In the room there was a Bobo doll, a hammer and other toys. The aggressive model hit the Bobo doll with the hammer and shouted abuse at it. The non-aggressive model played with the toys and ignored the Bobo doll. After witnessing the behaviour for about 10 minutes participants were taken down the corridor to another room where they experienced aggression arousal (they were told that they couldn't play with the toys in the room as they were being saved for other children but that they could play with the toys in a neighbouring room). The neighbouring room contained a range of toys including a 3-foot Bobo doll, a mallet, dart guns, and 'non aggressive toys'. Participants were observed for 20 minutes in this room and researchers rated the extent that they imitated the model’s behaviour. Results: Children who had observed aggressive behaviour acted more aggressively; boys acted more aggressively than girls and there was also a greater level of imitation of same-sex role models. Conclusion: Children learn social behaviour such as aggression by observing the behaviours of others. This is most likely to happen when the behaviour is modelled by someone of the same gender. Identification & Vicarious Reinforcement Imitation & Modelling Bandura followed up his 1961 study a few years later with another (Bandura, Ross & Ross 1963). Children of 2 ½ to 6 years watched a film of a model punching and screaming aggressively at a Bobo doll. There were three different conditions: the film ended with a scene in which the model was rewarded, punished or ended right after the aggression scene. When given their own Bobo doll to play with, the first group showed much more aggression, followed by the third group and then the second. Bandura’s research: summary of key points for essays Boys and girls around the age of 4 observed the behaviour of either a male or female adult. Half of the groups observed an aggressive role model and the other half observed a non-aggressive role model. There was also a control group who was not exposed to the model. The aggressive model hit a Bobo doll with a hammer and shouted abuse at it whereas the non-aggressive model played with the toys and ignored the Bobo doll. After witnessing the behaviour for about 10 minutes participants were taken down the corridor to another room where they experienced aggression arousal. They were then taken to another room which contained a range of toys including a Bobo doll. Bandura found that children who had observed aggressive behaviour acted more aggressively; boys acted more aggressively than 23 girls and there was also a greater level of imitation of same-sex role models. He concluded that children learn social behaviour such as aggression by observing the behaviours of others and that this is most likely when the behaviour is modelled by someone of the same gender. Evaluation of Bandura’s Studies P A strength of Bandura’s studies is that he used the experimental method. E Bandura used controlled conditions (the rooms filled with toys) to discover a possible causal relationship between the modelling and imitation of aggression. By manipulating the gender and behaviour of the model (the independent variable), he was able to accurately measure the effect on the children's behaviour (the dependent variable). E This is a strength because it allowed Bandura to establish the cause and effect relationship between the observation and imitation of behaviour. P A limitation of Bandura’s studies is that it has been criticised for having low ecological validity. E The experiment was conducted in an unfamiliar controlled environment (the rooms with toys); there was no interaction between the child and the model, the model and child were strangers to one another. Lastly, the effects of the modelled aggression were measured almost immediately. E This is a limitation because these conditions are quite unlikely to happen in real life and this ‘snapshot’ may therefore exaggerate the effects of modelling on behaviour. P A limitation of Bandura’s studies is that he used children as participants. E The results of the study demonstrated that participants exposed to the aggressive model behaved more aggressively towards the Bobo doll than those exposed to the non-aggressive model. However the children in the aggressive condition may have thought that they were being tested for the ‘right’ response and thus were required to behave aggressively towards the doll. It is impossible to establish if the participants would have imitated the aggressive behaviour had they not have been in a laboratory setting which means that the results may not reflect the participants’ true behaviour. E This is a limitation because, if this is the case, the results would not be valid. P A limitation of Bandura’s studies is that it could be considered unethical. E Bandura manipulated some participants to respond in an aggressive manner and purposely made all of the children experience aggression arousal which could have caused participants to experience psychological harm such as stress. E This is a limitation because Bandura’s experiment raises ethical concerns and would not be acceptable under current BPS guideline for ‘protection of participants’. Social Learning Theory: Summary of key points for essay questions. 24 Social Learning Theory was put forward by Bandura and suggests that we learn how to behave by observing the positive and negative consequences of someone else's behavior (vicarious reinforcement). The theory emphasises the importance of modelling which occurs when an individual observes the behaviour of a role model (e.g. a parent, teacher, or a character on T.V). The reinforcers and punishments the model experiences inform the observer of the likely consequences of their own behavior and this contributes to their decision to imitate (copy) the model. Bandura suggested that imitation is more likely to happen if the individual identifies with the model (the model is similar to the observer or they wish to be like them) but he also emphasised the importance of mediating processes. By this he was referring to the thought that occurs prior to imitation that intervenes between stimulus and response. There are four mediational processes documented by Bandura: attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation. Evaluation of the Social Learning Theory P A strength of Social Learning Theory is that it is supported by evidence. E For example Bandura demonstrated that children who observed an aggressive model behaved more aggressively than children who observed a non-aggressive model and there was also a greater level of imitation of same-sex role models. E This is a strength because this research suggests that Social Learning Theory provides an accurate explanation of aggression and it also might be able to accurately explain other behaviours. *If you are going to use the point above you may choose to then evaluate the study. However, it is absolutely ESSENTIAL that you LINK your point back to the APPROACH e.g. the study therefore provides strong/weak evidence for Social Learning Theory. P A strength of Social Learning Theory is that it acknowledges the role of cognitions in behavior. E Bandura emphasised the role of mediating processes in behaviour and suggested that cognitions intervene between stimulus and response. The implication of this is that there is more than one factor causing behavior and the individual has at least some control over their actions. E This is a strength as it is provides a more holistic and less deterministic view of behavior than operant or classical conditioning which many psychologists favour. 25 P A strength of Social Learning Theory is that is enables us to understand cultural differences in behaviour E Social learning principles can help us to understand the diversity of cultural norms across different cultures. The theory helps us to understand how individuals will display different behaviours as a result of being exposed to different models and this can help us to understand how cultural norms are tranmistted through a particular society. E This is a strength as it enhances our understanding of a number of different behaviours for example, how children acquire their gender role. P A limitation of Social Learning Theory is that it favours only the nurture side of the nature vs nurture debate. E Bandura suggested that we learn behaviour through observation and vicarious reinforcement and this claim ignores the wealth of evidence that suggests that biological factors also contribute to behaviour (e.g. genes or hormones). E This is a limitation as it takes a very one-sided view and Bandura is criticised for ignoring the fact that, in his research, boys were more aggressive than girls regardless of the specifics or the experimental setting. These findings suggests that there is a biological component to aggression but Bandura fails to consider this within his theory. The Cognitive Approach 26 Cognitive psychologists believe that we must refer to thought processes in order to explain behaviour. They make the Following assumptions.  Thought processes can be, and should be, studied scientifically and well controlled laboratory studies can investigate what we are thinking.  The mind works like a computer in that it has an input from our senses which it then processes and produces an output such as language or specific behaviours.  Stimulus and response is appropriate but only if the thought processes that occur between the stimulus and response are acknowledged (this is a direct criticism of behaviourism). The study of internal mental processes The cognitive approach studies information processing i.e. ways in which we extract, store and retrieve information to guide our behaviour. Cognitive psychologists study non-empirical thought processes by observing behaviour and making inferences (making an assumption about mental processes that cannot be observed directly) about what is going on in people’s minds. They use the experimental method which enables them to develop theories about the mental processes that led to the behaviour being demonstrated. The Role of Schemas A schema is a mental framework that Egg Schema incorporates our ideas about a person or situation. Schemas help the brain to organise and interpret information and are formed through experience. Schemas are useful because they allow us to process information quickly and to take shortcuts when interpreting the huge amount of data we have to deal with on a daily basis. They also allow us to predict what may happen in our world which enables us to respond appropriately to new situations. Each individual has a distinctive set of schemas as their experience of the world is unique. This ultimately means that each individual will see things in their own unique way. However, people from the same cultures often form similar schemas due to shared experience. Babies are born with some innate schemas e.g. sucking and, as we get older, our schemas become more detailed and sophisticated. 27 The use of theoretical and computer models to explain and make inferences about mental processes One way to study internal mental processes is through the use of theoretical models. Models are theories that can be represented as diagrams and can be used to provide testable hypotheses about mental processing and these can be studied scientifically and inferences made. Cognitive psychologists will use a model to describe a behaviour through a series of distinct steps which enables them to test the components individually and examine them in detail. An important theoretical model is the information processing approach which suggests that information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages like a computer (see diagrams below). The information-processing approach dominated research in the 1980s and still has strong influence today. The computer analogy suggests that the human mind is like a computer. Such computational models use the concepts of a central processing unit (the brain); coding (to turn information into a usable format) and the use of ‘stores’ to hold information. The way a computer works is by a series of processing steps, and cognitive psychologists see no reason why behaviour should not be explained the same way. This approach has proved useful in the development of artificial intelligence. Input Processing Output Information from The information, the environment is once encoded, The person gathered via the is processed in responds senses and is the individual’s through their encoded by the mind. behaviour individual. Input Processing Output 28  A good example of a computer analogy A student processing information knows They think it The student their A level approach is theexams Multi may be useful to starts a areModel. Store comingEach up. store do some revision has its own coding and revision so they programme. each is connected to the can do well. others by cognitive processes such as retrieval and elaborative rehearsal. However, there are a number of ways that our brains differ from a computer (see below) Computer Human brain 1. A computer receives all input 1. The brain only pays attention to a very 2. A computer cannot lose information small amount of information input (unless data becomes corrupt or 2. The brain can easily misplace there is damaged loss of data) information and experience difficulty 3. You can choose to delete certain recalling information information from a computer 3. You cannot push something unpleasant permanently deliberately from your mind 4. A computer is emotionless 4. Emotions have a strong impact on the 5. A computer only knows as much as way our minds function the information which has been 5. The brain can try to piece together input memories and fill in the gaps Evaluation Of The Use Of Theoretical And Computer Models To Explain And Make Inferences About Mental Processes P A limitation of the computer analogy is that it could be considered over-simplistic. E The analogy attempts to explain behaviour by comparing humans to computers which ignores individual differences and the role of emotion in behaviour. This could be considered machine reductionism, the belief that human functions are the result of the 'units' of activity in information processing systems, such as memory stores. E This is a limitation because many psychologists believe that explaining behavioural processes in this way overlooks the complexity of human behaviour and does not provide an adequate explanation. P A limitation of the computer analogy is that it offers a determinist view of human behaviour. E By comparing people to computers and seeing them as mechanistic it suggests that humans lack the free will to control their own behaviour and thus cannot be held responsible for their actions. E This is a limitation because many psychologists disagree with this view and believe that humans have the ability to use their free will to act in a unique and unpredictable fashion e.g. humanist psychologists. 29 Link to Issues and Debates The use of simple theoretical and computer models to explain and make inferences about mental processes can be reductionist because a series of cognitive processes may under- value the role of other factors such as biological and learning experiences. However, the cognitive approach did incorporate many aspects of the role of biology in cognition with the development of Cognitive Neuroscience. The Emergence Of Cognitive Neuroscience Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes. Its main focus is to look for a biological basis to thought and to understand the role of neurons within those processes. As early as the 1860’s Paul Broca had identified how damage to an area of the frontal lobe (now called Broca’s area) could permanently impair speech production. Within the last twenty years advances in brain imaging techniques such as fMRI and PET scans have enabled psychologists to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes by studying the living brain. This allows psychologists to have detailed information about the brain structures involved in different kinds of mental processes and has led to a better understanding of a range of behaviours including psychological disorders. Psychologists working in this discipline believe that it is necessary to consider physiological reasons for thought and that the mind/computer analogy was important in understanding how we think. Specifically it helps psychologists to understand how the brain supports different cognitive activities and emotions by showing what parts become active in specific circumstances. Cognitive neuroscientists study many different aspects of human cognition including the neural processes underlying memory, attention, perception and awareness. They are also interested in social cognition, the brain regions involved when we interact with others, and how impairments in these regions may characterise different psychological conditions. Cognitive neuroscience has led to the development of the following scanning techniques (practical application): 30  Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a brain-scanning technique that measures blood flow in the brain when a person performs a task. fMRI works on the idea that neurons in the brain that are the most active during a task use the most energy. An increase in blood flow is a response to the need for more oxygen in that area of the brain when it becomes active, suggesting an increase in neural activity. Positron emission tomography (PET) scans for activity in the brain that shows up because of the presence of a radio-active glucose molecule tracer. Glucose is a source of energy for any part of the body including the brain. Wherever energy is being used these tracers will build up and this will show up on the scan as a bright colour. This activity is then analysed by a computer to build up an overall picture of the part of the body being studied. P A Strength of cognitive neuroscience is the use of PET scans to test LTM E For example, Tulving et al (1994) conducted a laboratory experiment in which their participants did different memory tasks and used a PET scan to determine which parts of the brain they were using. Tasks that used semantic memory used the left side of the prefrontal cortex and those that used episodic memory used the right side of the prefrontal cortex. E This is evidence that episodic memory and semantic memory are 2 separate stores in LTM because they are controlled by different parts of the brain. Therefore the PET scan was able to provide evidence for Tulving’s model of different types of LTM. P A limitation of cognitive neuroscience is that practical applications can be controversial. E For example, the use of brain fingerprinting for lie detection in courts. This is a technique that measures brain waves from a electroencephalography (EEG) to determine whether specific information is stored in the subjects cognitive memory. Brain fingerprinting was first used in a criminal case in 1999, when a man named James Grinder confessed to committing a murder that happened 15 years prior. In a short time after his confession, he retracted his statements. The police were struggling to incriminate Grinder because of the evidence being old. The police reached out to Dr. Lawrence Farwell, the man who discovered Brain Fingerprinting. Soon after taking the test Grinder confessed to the murder of Julie Helton and three other murders as well. E This is a limitation because it could lead to an overreliance on science without human scrutiny and lead to wrongful convictions. Cognitive Approach: Summary of key points for essay questions. Cognitive psychologists study non-empirical thought processes by observing behaviour and making inferences about what is happening in people’s minds. The cognitive approach emphasises the role of schemas in behavour. A schema is a mental framework that is formed through experience and incorporates our ideas about a person or situation. They help the brain to interpret information and therefore significantly affect how we behave. The cognitive approach uses theoretical models to explain how the mind works which involves describing a behaviour through a series of distinct steps. Similarly, the cognitive approach puts forward the computer analogy which suggests that the human mind is like a 31 computer. The cognitive approach has influenced psychology by devising cognitive neuroscience. This is the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes. Its main focus is to look for a biological basis to thought and to understand the role of neurons within those processes. Evaluation of The Cognitive Approach P A strength of the cognitive approach is that it has produced a successful treatment. E For example, CBT aims to identify and challenge maladaptive thoughts and to alter dysfunctional behaviours. This treatment has been found to be effective for treating a range of psychological abnormalities e.g. Holon et al (2006) found that fewer depressed patients relapse after 12 weeks of CBT (40%) than those taking drugs (45%). E This is a strength because it demonstrates the contribution that the cognitive approach has made to psychology and, as the treatment is based on the assumptions of the approach, its effectiveness suggests that the approach must have some validity and merit. P A strength of the cognitive approach is that the assumptions stem from research that mostly uses human participants. E This is different to the behaviourist and biological approach whose research often studies animals. E This is a strength because it is possible to generalise the results from such research to human behaviour and suggests that the cognitive approach might provide a more valid explanation of human behaviour than the other approaches. P A strength of the cognitive approach is that it uses the scientific method when investigating human behaviour and the assumptions are based on strong empirical evidence. E The approach uses experiments as its main method of investigation which provides researchers with a rigorous method for understanding how the mind works. For example Peterson and Peterson’s conducted a lab experiment to test the duration of short-term memory by asking participants to recall trigrams after intervals of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds in controlled conditions. E This is strength because the assumptions of the approach are based on research that establishes cause and effect and is likely to be objective and reliable. The approach has therefore enhanced the scientific status of psychology and has led to scientific progress within the discipline. P A limitation of the approach is that it is based on research that may be low in ecological validity. E Many studies of cognitive psychology tend to use tasks that do not reflect participants' natural everyday experiences e.g. Baddeley’s experiment into the encoding of long-term memory asked participants to recall 10 words they had heard in the correct order. Such experiments use artificial test materials 32  that are relatively meaningless in everyday life. E This is a limitation because, as this research is unlikely to reflect the participants’ genuine behaviour, the assumptions of the approach might not be valid and may not adequately explain the complexities of real life behaviour. Link To Issues And Debates P A strength of the cognitive approach is that it takes a soft determinism approach. E The approach recognises that our cognitive systems can only operate within the limits of what we know but that we are free to think before we respond to stimulus. E This is a strength because it provides a more interactionist approach than the hard determinism approach put forward by behaviourism and the biological approach. P A limitation of the cognitive approach is that it may be reductionist and hence over-simplistic. E The approach may demonstrate Cognitive Reductionism because it argues all behaviour, no matter how complex, can be reduced to simple cognitive processes like memory or perception. You could also argue that it demonstrates Machine Reductionism when we treat the human mind as a computer, we fail to consider the impact of emotion on decisions. E This is a limitation because the approach may not provide a complete explanation of human behaviour. 33  The Biological Approach This approach believes that behaviour is rooted in the physiology and biology of the body. It examines the biological processes that occur and looks at how that may affect an individual. The core assumptions of biopsychologists are that behaviour is affected by: 1. Genetics - The genes an individual possesses influence his or her behaviour. 2. Evolution - Behaviour evolves in the same way as physical characteristics through the process of evolutionary adaptation. Biological psychologists believe that examination of non- human behaviour is useful because humans and animals have evolved through the same process. 3. The central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) - The brain is seen as the main focus when explaining behaviour as it is seen to be the origin of how the world is seen and acted upon by an individual. 4. Biochemistry - Varying levels of chemicals found in both the brain (neurotransmitters) and the body (hormones) are thought by biological psychologists to be related to an individual's behaviour. They are believed to influence reactions to the environment. From a biological perspective, the mind stems from the brain which means that all thoughts, feelings and behaviour ultimately have a physical basis. This is in contrast to the cognitive approach that sees the mind and brain as two separate entities. The Influence of Genes on Behaviour Heredity is the process where characteristics are passed from one generation to the next through genes. Genes carry the instructions (coding) for a particular trait and biological psychologists believe that behavioural characteristics such as intelligence and personality are inherited in the same way as physical characteristics such as height and eye colour. They suggest that behaviours (including psychological disorders) may be inherited from one or both biological parents as all individuals share 50% of their genes with each parent. 34 Genetic Basis of Behaviour Each individual is typically born with 23 pairs of chromosomes which have been inherited from their biological parents. This is known as the individual’s genotype and forms the basis for development. Each individual possesses a unique combination of genetic instructions and therefore differs from others in terms of personality, intelligence etc. Biological psychologists suggest that genes may underpin certain behaviours and they often use twin studies and adoption studies to establish if this is the case. Twin Studies: compare pairs of monozygotic (MZ)- identical and dizygotic (DZ) – non-identical twins as monozygotic twins are 100% genetically the same and dizygotic twins are 50% genetically similar. The number of MZ and DZ twins both having a behaviour is calculated (concordance rate) and compared which gives an indication of how much the behaviour is genetic. If the shared behaviour is more likely when the individuals are genetically the same (MZ twins), then the argument is that the behaviour has a genetic component. Examples of concordance rates from twin research is shown in the table below. Behaviour Research MZ Concordance DZ Concordance rate rate Schizophrenia Gottesman (1991) 48% 17% Bipolar Craddock & Jones 40% 5-10% Anorexia Walters & Kendler 23% 9% nervosa (1995) Adoption studies: Examine concordance rates for a behaviour between an adoptive child and their biological parent. This is because children share 50% of their genes with each biological parent but 0% with their adoptive parent. The implication of such studies is that, if there is a high concordance rate between the biological parent and child, the behaviour must be genetic because it is not possible that the child has learned the behaviour from their biological parent as they were not brought up by them. Genotype & Phenotype Genotype: An individual’s genetic make-up, which occurs at conception and provides the genetic code for how that individual will develop. The genotype dictates such characteristics as eye and hair colour. Each individual (apart from identical twins) has a genotype which is unique to them. 35 Phenotype: The expression of an individual’s genetic make-up which can be influenced by the environment. With a physical characteristic such as height the genotype dictates the potential height an individual can reach but environmental factors will affect how likely the person is to achieve that potential. For example, there may be a period of poor nutrition or they may take a drug which inhibits their growth. This means that the phenotype is the height they actually become, not their genetic potential. This is the same for psychological characteristics in that there may be a genetic predisposition to a behaviour (genotype) but it may not express itself due to the environment inhibiting its development (phenotype). Evolution and Behaviour 'We are survival machines-robot vehicles blindly programmed to preserve the selfish molecules known as genes. This is a truth which still fills me with astonishment.' Richard Dawkins, The Selfish Gene [1991) Biological psychologists believe that physical characteristics and behaviour evolve in humans because individuals within a species naturally differ from each other and at least some of this variation is inherited. As members of the same species must compete with each other for access to resources such as mates and food those who survive this competition go on to reproduce and pass on their genes. This theory of natural selection provides the basis for the concept that any genetically determined behavior is the result of an individual drive to survive. This means that certain behavioural characteristics that are genetically coded for in these individuals will be passed on to future 36 generations and these traits will eventually become more widespread in the population. This process of natural selection and happens in the following way:- Initially, there is a random change (mutation) in the genetic make-up of an individual which leads to a trait occurring (this could be physical or behavioural). If that change means that the survival and/or chance of reproduction is increased then the individual is more likely to mate and pass on the version of the gene that codes for this trait. T his trait will therefore continue to be passed on to future generations and will eventually become a prevalent trait within the human race. Evolution and Behaviour Human Behaviour that may have resultedd from the process of evolution  Maternal love is a form of parental investment that is an evolved behaviour in humans because it is a powerful emotion that increases the chances of a woman’s offspring surviving and therefore the chances of genes being passed on to a future generation. It is therefore adaptive.  Mate Preferences (who you want to form an ‘intimate relationship’ with) are an evolved behaviour because they are adaptive. Males prefer women who display characteristics of fertility so she is more likely to be able to give birth and females prefer characteristics in men that display status because this increases the chances of a male being able to provide resources to increase the chance of the survival of potential offspring.  Aggression is assumed to have evolved in animals as it is widespread across species. Aggression is believed to be adaptive as it can improve survival rates and increase access to resources. It also helps to protect territory. This can mean that an aggressive individual becomes more attractive to potential mates and this increases their chance of reproduction. The Influence of Neurochemistry on Behaviour Neurochemistry is the biochemistry of the central nervous system. In the brain, the transmission of chemicals is via the cerebral (brain) fluid through chemicals which include neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are seen to be very important by biological psychologists as they are thought to affect behaviour. An example of this is that high levels of a neurotransmitter called dopamine are related to schizophrenia. Neurotransmitters affect behaviour in the following way: When a nerve impulse reaches the end of one neuron a neurotransmitter is released. It travels from on neuron to the next across a junction called a synapse. There are many different types of neurotransmitter, some of which 37  trigger the receiving neuron to send an impulse and stimulate the brain into action (excitatory neurotransmitters) and some inhibit nerve impulses in order to calm the brain and balance a person’s mood (inhibitory). Dopamine is an example of an excitatory neurotransmitter and serotonin is an example of an inhibitory neurotransmitter. Biological Approach: summary of key points for essay questions The core assumptions of the biological approach are that behaviour is affected by: genetics, the central nervous system, biochemistry, and evolution. The approach suggests that genes influence behaviour through heredity as behaviours may be inherited from one or both biological parents. The approach also suggests that levels of a specific hormone in the system can affect behaviour. This happens when endocrine glands secrete hormones into the bloodstream which alters the activity of a cell and causes an individual’s behaviour to change. Similarly, neurotransmitters are seen to be very important by biological psychologists e.g. high levels of dopamine are believed to cause schizophrenia. Lastly, the biological approach suggests that evolution influences behaviour because individuals within a species naturally differ from each other and at least some of this variation is inherited. Natural selection effects behaviour when there is a random change (mutation) in the genetic make-up of an individual which leads to a trait occurring. If this trait increases reproductive success it will be passed on to future generations and will eventually become a prevalent trait within the human race. Evaluation of the Biological Approach P A strength of the biological is that it has produced a successful treatment. E For example, the biological approach has successfully created drugs such as anti- depressants and anti-anxiety drugs. Such treatment has been found to be effective for treating a range of psychological abnormalities e.g. Soomro et al. (2009) found that SSRIs showed significantly better results than a placebo for reducing depressive symptoms. E This is a strength because it demonstrates the contribution that the biological approach has made to psychology and, as the treatment is based on the assumptions of the approach, its effectiveness suggests that the approach must have some validity and merit. P A strength of the biological approach is that it uses the scientific method when 38  investigating human behaviour and the assumptions are based on strong empirical evidence. E The approach uses experiments as its main method of investigation and also adopts techniques that are largely objective such as brain scans. The use of such sophisticated imaging has increased the precision and objectivity of research in this area. E This is strength because the assumptions of the approach are based on research that establishes cause and effect and is likely to be objective and reliable. The approach has therefore enhanced the scientific status of psychology and has led to scientific progress within the discipline. P A limitation of the biological approach is that it is partially based on experiments that use non-human animals. E Biological psychologists regularly use animals such as rats and mice within their research as they are easy to control and manipulate and such experiment can establish cause and effect. E This is a limitation because such research might not provide a valid explanation for human behaviour as culture, emotion and cognitions play a much greater role. The biological approach therefore might not provide an accurate explanation of human behaviour. LINK TO ISSUES AND DEBATES P A limitation of the biological approach is that it is over-simplistic as it takes the nature side of the nature vs nurture debate. E Biological psychologists believe that behaviour is caused solely by biological factors e.g. genes and neurochemistry and they therefore ignore the wealth of evidence that suggests that environmental factors also contribute (e.g. the effects of operant and classical conditioning). E This is a limitation as it takes a very one-sided view of human behaviour ignores any evidence to suggest that behaviour is caused by nurture. Many psychologists therefore disagree with this standpoint. P A limitation of the approach is that it takes the reductionism side of the reductionsim vs holism debate. E The approach is reductionist as it attempts to explain complex human behaviour by reducing it down to its smallest component parts such as the action of genes, neurochemicals and hormones. E This is a limitation as it does not provide a holistic explanation of behaviour and many psychologists would disagree with this standpoint (particularly humanist psychologists). P A limitation of the approach is that it supports the determinism side of the freewill vs determinism debate. E Biological psychologists claim that human behaviour is the product of external influences behaviour (biological determinism) and, as the individual cannot control their own 39  biological process, they cannot be held responsible for their own behaviour. E This is a limitation because many psychologists would disagree with this view and believe that humans have the freewill to choose how to behave e.g. humanistic psychologists. Freud and The Psychodynamic Approach Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939) - context ‘Unexpressed emotions will never die. They are buried alive and will come forth later in uglier ways.' Sigmund Freud (1904) Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist and the founding father of psychoanalysis. He qualified as a doctor of medicine in 1881 at the University of Vienna and lived and worked in Vienna, until 1938 when he left to escape the Nazis; he died in exile in the United Kingdom in 1939. In 1930 Freud was awarded the Goethe Prize in recognition of his contributions to psychology and to German literary culture. In January 1933, the Nazis took control of Germany, and Freud's books were prominent among those they burned and destroyed. Freud was quoted saying "What progress we are making. In the Middle Ages they would have burned me. Now, they are content with burning my books." The Psychodynamic Approach Psychologists and others who adopt this approach emphasise the psychodynamics of the mind - the different forces that operate in the mind, and at times, cause inner mental conflict and cause problems for the person. Freud was the founding father of the psychodynamic approach and his ‘big idea’/most important contribution to Psychology is his theory of the unconscious mind. We are not aware of what is in our unconscious but he believed it influenced much of our behaviour. 40  The basic assumptions of the psychodynamic approach are: 1. The driving force behind our behaviour is the unconscious mind. 2. Instincts or drives motivate our behaviour e.g. sexual (libido) and aggressive instincts present from birth. 3. Early childhood experiences determine our personality and adult behaviour. 4. Psychoanalysis should be used to make the unconscious conscious. The Role Of The Unconscious Freud (1933) assumed that a large part of our mental life operates at an unconscious level. By this, he meant that we have thoughts and ideas that we are not directly aware of. The psychodynamic definition of the unconscious mind can be usefully Id explained using the iceberg analogy. The tip of the iceberg above the surface of the water is the conscious mind which we are directly aware of however, below the surface is the unconscious mind. There is no clear way of being aware of what lies beneath the water (the unconscious mind), but it almost certainly has a greater in influence than the conscious mind. The The part of our mind we can access. conscious mind The The part of the mind that is not accessible to the individual. It holds thoughts that unconscious will not easily surface and perhaps may never do so. The drives that motivate our mind behaviour are stored here and are therefore inaccessible. Traumatic or very unpleasant memories are also believed to remain here and drive our behaviour. One of the most controversial aspects of Freud’s theory was his belief in the unconscious mind. The unconscious stores desires, wishes, memories etc. that the conscious has repressed because they are traumatic or unacceptable. These “repressed” thoughts still motivate our behaviour and account for why at times our behaviour is less than rational. It also means that we cannot always understand the real causes of our behaviour. SIMPLY PUT: the unconscious is the driving/motivating force behind our behaviour/personality the unconscious protects the conscious self from anxiety/fear/trauma/conflict. The Structure Of Personality (Id, Ego, Superego) Freud's main and most important assumption was that the primary driving force in a person's mental life is the sexual instinct. This operates at an unconscious level in a part of the personality Freud called the id. The sexual instinct operates according to the pleasure principle, and it is the task of another part of the personality (the ego) to satisfy the demands of the id. At the same time, a third part of the personality, the superego, represents the person's conscience and ideal self. This is the moral part of the personality and is created through the process of identification with our same-sex parent during the phallic stage. Neither the id nor the superego should become dominant in a personality otherwise this could lead to abnormal behaviour and problems in the mental health of the individual - it is the role of the ego to try- to ensure this does not happen. 41  ID EGO SUPER-EGO The id and the superego represent opposing forces, and it is the task of the ego to try to reduce the conflict.  We are born with the id. It contains our primitive urges: sexual and aggressive. It demands instant gratification of its desires.  The superego develops during the Phallic Stage. It is our moral guardian and demands we obey all the rules we have ever learnt.  The ego develops during the Anal Stage. It acts as a balance between the two forces in the unconscious. A weak ego is unable to provide a proper balance.  The three elements of the personality (and the conflict between them) are shaped through experience and will affect how someone behaves. Name Age Features The childlike, selfish and hedonistic part of your Id Birth to about 18 personality (sometimes referred to as the ‘pleasure months principle’) Able to delay the id's drive for pleasure. It also keeps the Ego 18 months to 3 balance of influence between the id and the superego years (often referred to as the ‘reality principle’) Acts as an individual's conscience. It is the opposite of Supere 3 to 6 years the id as it feels guilt and holds someone back from go behaving a certain way if it is thought to be wrong (also known as the ‘morality principle'). Anxiety, extreme nervousness, is the product of unconscious conflict between the id and superego and to remain healthy it needs to be expressed in some way. It can be expressed in:- Dreams; Neurotic symptoms (e.g. phobias: seen in the case study of Little Hans) and ; Defence mechanisms (see below). In each case the unconscious conflict is disguised or distorted to make it acceptable to the ego. It is expressed symbolically. Defence Mechanisms Including Repression, Denial And Displacement Defence mechanisms are everyday methods that we use unconsciously to reduce anxiety. The Ego uses defence mechanisms to manage the demands of the Id and the Superego to reduce unconscious conflict.  Unconscious conflict between the Id and the Superego leads to anxiety.  This can be managed by the short - term use of defence mechanisms. If we experience anxiety as a result of unconscious conflict, the Ego will try to use a defence mechanism to defend itself from anxiety. These mechanisms often use a 42  symbolic and therefore more acceptable form of expression of an unconscious urge or desire.  A good example is displacement that explains the cause of phobias. This explanation is based on the case study of ‘Little Hans’. Defence Outline Effect on behaviour Mechanism Repression is a type of forgetting where a There is no recall of the event or Repression painful or disturbing memory is pushed into situation but the repressed memory still the unconscious mind where it is not affects behaviour without the person accessible to the conscious mind. The being consciously aware of it. memory still exists but at an unconscious level so the person is unaware of the anxiety that it causes. Refusal to accept the reality of an unpleasant Someone may believe that a negative Denial situation situation is positive and it therefore should not cause anxiety (this is not positive thinking, merely a resistance to accept reality). When the focus of a strong emotion is Someone may exhibit very strong Displacement expressed onto a neutral person or object - a emotion but focus it onto an uninvolved substitute object for the emotion is used (this person or object. is basis for phobias according to Freud). Displacement: The Psychodynamic Explanation Of Phobias Unconscious conflict is displaced onto an object. This object is a symbol that is in some way linked to the unconscious urge or desire. For example, in OPHIDIOPHOBIA the snake is a phallic symbol, representing sexual behaviour. In the case of Little Hans his phobia of horses was linked to his Oedipal Complex and his fear of his father was displaced onto horses. Strengths P One strength of defence mechanisms as a way of explaining human behaviour is that they have some explanatory power. E This is because some people can use them to understand their experiences since many people can appreciate the idea of denial, repression and displacement E This is a strength because it enables people to understand their own behaviour. L Therefore defence mechanisms are a valuable contribution to explaining human behaviour. Limitations 43 P A limitation of defence mechanisms is that the Psychodynamic theory of them lacks testability/falsifiability. E Defence mechanisms are unconscious processes that cannot be studied directly and can only be inferred from behaviour or from reported thoughts or experiences which are open to interpretation and bias. E This is a limitation because this means that hypotheses to study them cannot be tested so scientific evidence for them cannot be gained. L Therefore there can be no scientific evidence that defence m