AP World History

Chapter 6 Dynastic cycle: this model is patterned after the consistent rise and fall of dynasties in china Starts with a new dynasty(because old one wasn't effective) → Rising(improving the unhealthy parts) –> Golden age → Negligence, corruption, ineffective leaders → instability, social disorder→...

Chapter 6 Dynastic cycle: this model is patterned after the consistent rise and fall of dynasties in china Starts with a new dynasty(because old one wasn't effective) → Rising(improving the unhealthy parts) –> Golden age → Negligence, corruption, ineffective leaders → instability, social disorder→ losing wars, famine, losing land, general disorder→ major event such as war, a natural disaster, epidemic → period of chaos, internal fighting—> new dynasty Main themes of each chapter: Politics- Who has power? How is power acquired? Economics- How are resources managed? And how do they stay “in business” Social- Talkies about roles in society, gender, family, language, religion, technology, social order/ classes, art, and culture. Prophet Mohamed: born ca. 570 BCE Born into quraysh tribe who dominate Mecca and in that sense the Kaaba(big deal) Raised by impoverished uncle with connections in the caravan trade routes (Became a merchant because of his uncles influences Unknown if he had a formal education Most things we know about Mohammed are from his lips or from others, most isn't written. Met wealthy widow who gave him control of supervising caravans from Mecca north to Jerusalem(Got exposed to all these different cultures) Marrying the wealthy widow, in turn he no longer had to work,which gave him time to focus on monotheistic religions. Wished Arabian society would catch up to the rest of the world, in his eyes it was simply going slower. Record revelations(wisdom) during visions from Allah(God) Hadith is basically traditional islam where you live like mohamed Commited to compiling all his convo with got but died before finishing it. Based islam on the traditions of the monotheistic religions he was exposed to (judaism, zoroastrianism, christianity) and against traditional arab polytheism The quran was an update on the other monotheistic religion in which mohammed was the prophet. Began publicly preaching at about age 40. Because he was talking about changing society, economics, and politics, he was preaching that they need to do things in a different way i.e he threatened the system and the system didn’t like that, especially in mecca. He said worshiping the Kabba is against the true monotheistic religion that everyone should be following. Caused a problem with a leader of Mecca because people were listening. Mohammed and CO ran out of town The Hijra: Mohammed's flight from Mecca to Medina (Invited by the jews) Forms the umma(community) 622 A.D start of islamic calendar Welcomed, then resisted by the leader, people followed him Mohammed becomes the theocrat of the city(religious leader) Muhammad’s return to Mecca: Attacks on Mecca, 630 –Jihad Converts Mecca to Islam Destroyed pagan sites and replaces with mosques The 5 Pillars of Islam Uniqueness of god(Only one god) Prayer five times a day Observe the month of Ramadan Give alms to the poor Pilgrimage to Mecca called the Hajj Quran improves womans status in society, outlaws infanticide, brides, not husbands claim dowries At the same time male dominance is preserved for example pologamy is permitted Islamic law: The Sharia Standardization of Islamic law Based on quran Extends into all areas of life. Expansion of Islam Early military victories Assaults on: -The Byzantines to the North -The Persians to the East “Fakes muslims get killed” Syria: 636 A.D Palestine: 636 A.D Persia: captured in one battle Expansion to india Expansion to the borders of china Egypt and North Africa Spain 711-720 A.D Battle of Tours: Oct 732 -Key battle where Charles Martel stops the muslims from modern day france Siege of constantinople 717-718 A.D Leo III Greek fire Reasons of success Neighbors unprepared Nationalist sentiments in Egypt and Syria Arguments amongst Christian Factions Speed and Size of Muslim Armies Simplicity and uncomplicated nature of Islam Acceptance converts Consequences of Expansion Loss of oldest and most important lands for Christianity Aided the ascendency of the bishop of Rome Zoroastrianisim is wiped out Shifts the power in europe from east(Constantinople) to west(Rome) Early BIG Problem(Who's the boss?) Succession? Who takes over? Mohammed had no surviving male children His son in law Ali, who is also his cousin, is put in charge. People start doubting if he should be in charge, this causes a split between the people who think he is the right person in charge and the people who think he isn't. This split creates a permanent split in the islamic community. Sunnis: Considered themselves “orthodox” followers of Mohammed Considered the Shias to be “dissenters” Believe that Abu bakr is the right guy The right guys got the position Abu Bakr, then Uthman, then Ali then the Umayyad Believe that Ali was not the right guy for the job Shi’as: Think Ali was the right guy Abu Bakr Not well liked by the Muslim community Allowed invasions by Persians and Byzantines Killed anyone he disagreed with Uthman: The third Caliph Succeeded Abu Akbar Murdered Ali takes place Ali gets murdered Umayyad empire Crossed indian ocean into india Syria: center of the Islamic World Eventual displaced by the Abbasids ○ -an Arab Family claiming descent from Mohammed Nature of the Abbasid Dynasty Diverse nature of administration (i.e not exclusively Arab) Militarily competent but not bent on imperial expansion Growth through military activity of independent islamic armies Caliph Harun al-Rashid (787-809 CE) High point of Abbasid dynasty Baghdad becomes the capital Great cultural activities Tremendously advanced relative to europe Abbasid Decline Civil war between sons of Harun al-Rashid Provincial governors assert regional independents Sects are disagreeing The Abbasid caliphs become puppets of Persian nobility Formation of a Islamic Cultural Tradition Islamic values ○ Uniformity of Islamic law in dar al-Islam ○ Establishments of madrasa(Religious school) ○ Importance of the Hajj Sufi Missionaries ○ Asceticism, mysticism ○ Some tension with orthodox Islamic theologians ○ Wide popularity Cultural influences on Islam Persia ○ Administration and governance ○ Literature India ○ Mathematics, science, medicine ○ “Hindi” numbers Greece ○ Philosophy, esp. Aristotle ○ Greek medicine Cultural Importance of Islam Distribution of Islam throughout Middle east, Asia, North Africa, Europe Introduction and Reintroduction of Greek ideas to medieval Europe ○ Throughout Spain particularly ○ Spanish Jews thrived…For now Chapter 7: Abbasid Decline and the Spread of ISlamic Civilization to South and Southeast Asia Islamic Heartlands in the Middle and late Abbasid Eras By the mid 9th century, the Abbasid Dynasty had begun to lose control over their empire Shi’a revolts and assassination attempts against Abbasid officials Al-Mahdi (3rd Abbasid Caliph) financially drained the empire  Did not name a successor Harun al-Rashid (786-809) was the most famous and longest lasting Abbasid caliph. After his death, there were several civil wars over successions. Increase in mercenary armies Social unrest Power behind Abbasid throne Islamic Heartlands in the Middle and late Abbasid Eras Freedom and influence of women declined. Abbasid society was male dominated Women began to be veiled Abbasid wealth generated large demand for concubines and male slave The Buyids of Persia captured Baghdad in 945 CE. THe caliphs became powerless ○ Controlled by sultans The Suljuk Turks(mercenaries the Abbasids used) Defeated the Buyids in 1055 CE. The Selkuks were Sunni who eliminated the Shi’a Egyptians and Byzantines were defeated The Crusades: 1096 CE- West European Christian knights invaded Muslim territory ○ To capture the biblical Holy Land Establish small, rival kingdoms ○ Most were recaptured  ○ Acre- Last to fall in 1291 CE. Europeans borrowed heavily from Muslim civilizations Europeans recovered lost Greek learning Muslim people DGAF about European civilizations Age of Learning and Artistic Refinement Lightyears ahead of Europe in terms of medicine, cartography, mathematics making shit Ulama (religious scholars) became more conservative and sketched out of western/ outside influences and scientific thought. Advancements=Bad Mongols were a major threat to Islamic lands Raiding their way across continental asia Chinggis(Gengis) khan destroyed Turkish Persion kingdoms east of Baghdad His grandsome, Hulegu continued the assault 1258 Last Abbasid ruler killed when Baghdad Mongols didn't care about setting up a gov, just made people pay them for not killing them The coming of Islam to South Asia Muslims added complexity to indian civilization Hinduism= open, tolerant(and also not so tolerant due to caste system) Islam= monotheistic,(Equal in the eyes of god) Muslim traders taking up domain in port cities Many indians welcomed muslim rulers because they offered religious tolerance and lighter taxes 7th and 8th centuries= Southeast Asian sailors and ships were active in trade 8th century= Muslims gained control of Indian commerce Islamic culture spreads to Southeast Asia Conversion happens naturally, spreads due to trade First conversion happened in small Sumatran ports Coastal regions were the most receptive(had the most converts) because the muslim traders were not heading inland Sufi(Muslim version of hippie) were tolerant of Buddhist and Hindu beliefs Women in Sufi society held a stronger familial and societal position in comparison to Middle East and India Despite the failures of the abbasids, islam thrived during their rule and solidified itself as a major world religion Chapter 8: African Civilizations and the spread of Islam Types of Societies: States- Rulers in hierarchy of officials Stateless- Uncivilized, no real organization Secret- Based on culture and tradition Similarities: All came from Bantu speaking people All believe everything has a soul Linked through religion and economics Family is super important Islam in North Africa Muslim armies moved west from Egypt across Tunisia to Spain, which spreads islam in north Africa Berbers(Main tribe of NW Africa) started almoravid movement(jihad type movement) against ruling Arabs Umma(community of believers is created) Christian Nubia and Ethiopia Christianity arrived earlier than islam Copts(Christains of Egypt) kept to their faith and tolerated when Arabs conquered Ethiopia in isolation under King Lalibela Sahal(Strip of land that separates the sahara form sub saharan africa) responsible for stopping the spread of islam Mali Empire created by Malinke who broke away for a declining Ghana Full blown society Strong cultural tradition(story based)  Mansa Musa(richest dude alive) made a pilgrimage to Mecca, which spread Islam(culturealley) in africa Songhay Mali’s Successor state Mix the islam thats present with native traditions, religious beliefs (muslim and pagan belief and practices mix) At war with Morocco City Dwellers and Villagers Military expansion helped economy because of security and trade COmmunity consisted of scholars, craft specialists and foreign merchants Most people were farmers who dealt with bad soil, drought, insect pests, storage issues and limited tech. Polygamy is good(more sex=more babies=more workers= more food= more sex) Political and Social life Larger states ruled by family Muslim advisers and scribes help gov administration Matrilineal(mom side) with property which contradicted Sharia Muslims can’t enslave other muslims Muslims thought it was a process of conversion but to them conversion didn’t equal freedom Swahili States Coastal Trading Ports: Migration of Bantu-speaking headers, southeast Asians, and others mixed with natives, creating Swahili language and culture(mix of Bantu and Arabic) Back then exclusively on the coast Trade: Exports: Ivory Gold  Iron Slaves Exotic animals Imports: SIlk from Persia Porcelain from China Chapter 9: Byzantine Empire and Orthodox Europe Post-Roman Empire: Political and Religious Divisions Two christian civilizations develop out of the splitting of Roman Empire ○ East(Greek Orthodox)(Byzantine Empire) (Wayyyy more organized) ○ West( Roman Catholic) (Bunch of small territories, not organized) 324 CE: Emperor Constantine of Roman Empire built Byzantium/Constantinople Constantinople involved in Mediterranean and Central Asian commerce The spread of Islam strengthens Eastern Orthodox Christianity Causes Eastern Orthodox Christianity to expand northward Justinian Reigns: 527-565 Most significant Byzantine ruler 1. Military gains and expansion into North Africa and Italy 2. Brought back some old ancient roman laws 3. Gets rid of all the confusing rules 4. Makes Constantinople the hub of everything(and fancy) 5. Makes Greek the official language of the Byzantine Empire Muslim Pressure and Byzantine Defenses The rulers after Justinian primary concern was defense against Muslim invaders ○ Able to hold off Muslims in general, lost some territory in mediterranean Greek Fire Empire’s size and strength reduced Losing territory= raised taxes= angry people Byzantine Politics Leaders see themselves as ancient Roman emperors and chosen by god Complex, multilayer government which is open to all classes but aristocrats dominate Provincial governors appointed Military power was passed down based on hereditary Army doesn't always follow instructions Byzantine Culture Elaborate domed roofs Richly collared religious themed mosaics Icon paintings(exclusively religious figures) Culturally blend of Hellenism and Christianity The Great Schism (1054) The separation of the churches Roman catholicism: ○ Religion> State ○ Priests can't get any play ○ Eucharist(Body of christ) unleavened Chapter 10 A new Civilization Emerges in Western Europe The Franks 400 to 700 AD The strongest of Germanic Tribes that helped bring down ROme One of many small Germanic Kingdoms Known as the Carolingian Empire Clovis and Charles Clovis: A vicious Frankish king unified many barbarian tribes Became Christian when he prayed to a Christian god to win the battle and did Charles(The Hammer): Clovis’s son Stop the muslims at the battle of Tours The age of Charlemagne He was granted the title emperor of Rome by the pope for defeating rebellious nobles in rome Gathered huge army and conquered France, Germany, Italy, and parts of Spain Converted tons of people into Christianity The vikings Charlemagne’s Empire fractured under presser from another wave of viking settlements in europe The Vikings were assimilated into the lands they settled Feudalism Hierarchy of title King(usually busy at war or in castle) Baron Lords and Bishops(about 300) Vassal→ Knights(about 5000) Lesser Lords→ Villagers( about 1,500,000) Religion in Dark age europe Parish Priests: Might be the only contact with the church a peasant had. The Priest would Administer the sacraments, preach the Gospels, and Guided people on issues regarding morality The Village Church: The social center of the middle ages Prosperous community= elaborate stone churches Members of the local church were required to pay tithes Monks and Nuns: The Benedictine Rule was a set of rules set up to govern the lives of monks in monasteries Obedience to the abbot or abbess Live in Poverty No sex Reform Movements: In 1073 Pope Gregory VII outlawed marriage of priests( Did it to consolidate power) Jews in Europe: Jewish communities were taxed heavily in Europe In the 10th century many Christians began to persecute Jews They were blamed for wars, bad economics, famine, and the plague The result was the killing of Jews As well as massive Jewish migration out of Western Europe into Eastern Europe New Technology New in Western Europe New tech not on par with the rest of the modern world Expanding Production: The field system started(Restored fertility in the land) Trade Revives Merchant companies formed Silk road expanded from COnstantinople Trade fairs would occur each year in the same place Commercial Revolution: Trade fairs led to a need for more capital in the form of money which lead to banks Bill of Exchange was adopted ○ A person would go to the bank and deposit his money ○ He could then go to a bank in another city and withdraw money ○ Town and City Life Towns were poorly organized Towns had no garbage pickup, they would just leave their waste into the streets No real logistics Role of Guilds A guild is an association of merchants, craftsman, or artists (Like a union) The guild dominated town life Trades were exclusive to Guild members Monopolized work The Magna Carta King John got into trouble with his nobles over taxes They forced John to sign a legal document called Magna Carta Magna Carta first gave the Nobles rights in court. Second it made it clear that the king must obey the law Development of Parliament Started as the great council of nobles Parliament approve money for wars Edward I expanded Parliament to include the “common people” The Estates General Philip rallied French support y setting up the Estates General in 1302 The Estates General never gained the power of the purse, so they never got as strong as the English Parliament When the king feels he needs to run things by his nobility for support or additional information.(Not permanent) A Global Epidemic(The plague) The bubonic plague spread by flea bites The fleeces would bite the infected rat then bite a person 80/90% of the population of regions in europe died The effects were less in the rest of the world Economic EffectsL European trade collapsed Survivors demanded higher wage Farm land was converted to sheep grading because it took less labor The bad economy mixed with the plague sparked revolts round Europe The Americas on the Eve of Invasions Mesoamerica: Before the Aztecs Pre-Columbian(Before europeans came) Teotihuacan-Classical Era The Maya Toltec Empire- Post-Classical Era Collapsed 1150 due to nomad invaders The Aztec Rise to Power People/Power moved to shores of lakes in Mexico valley Aztecs move to Lake Texcoco ca.1325 Tenochtitlan(island city state) est. 1325 1434- Aztecs dominate central valley and begin to conquer other city-states Establish a tribute empire(you give me food and resources and I don't mess with you) Independent kingdoms opposed Aztecs Aztec Society Subject peoples forced to pay tribute Stratified society under supreme ruler Clans (Calpulli) dictated social status Social gaps widen (nobility vs. commoners) Organized for war and motivated by religious zeal Aztec Religion Cynical WorldView → impending destruction Animism- connection between spiritual and natural world Pay tribute to gods through festivals, ceremonies, feasting, dancing, warfare, and sacrifice Cult of Sacrifice → Huitzilopochtli Increase in Human Sacrifice → captives became sacrificial victims Aztec Economy Agricultural community Chinampas: Man-made floating islands that yielded large amounts of crops Vibrant daily markets highly regulated by state Tribute system also supported economy Aztec Gender and Technology Women’s primary domain: Household, cooking, weaving Arranged marriage Technological restraints The Inca Empire (Tawantinsuyu) Chimor Kingdom (900-1465) Quechua-speaking clans (ayllus) around Cuzco Expansions under Pachacuti (ruler, or Sapa Inca) Controlled 3000 miles of empire; between 9-13 million people Techniques of Inca Imperial Rule Highly centralized bureaucracy Tribute empire based on labor and integration → Mita Military: system of roads, way station (tambos), storehouses “Split Inheritance” necessitates Inca Society Ayllus basic units of society (societal classes) Women had property rights; still subordinate Emphasis on reciprocity and hierarchy Privileged nobility; basis of bureaucracy No merchant class → limited trade Inca Culture Polytheistic, animisitc→ Virococha (creator/sun god) is highest Huacas→ holy shrines (found in mountains, stones, rivers, caves, tombs, temples) Many cultural achievements: ○ Pottery and cloth ○ Metallurgy (copper, bronze) ○ Quipu- knotted strings for accounting ○ Complex irrigation Chapter 12: Reunification and Renaissance in Chinese Civilization: The Era of the Tang and Song Dynasties Overview: With the fall of the Han Dynasty in 220 CE, CHina alternates between periods of political unity and fragmentation - Not as traumatic as the fall of ROme for Western Europe Between 589 and 906 CE, China enjoyed a political revival under the Sui and Tang Dynasties China will also be rocked by the advances of the Mongol armies in the 1200’s The Sui Dynasty The first strong dynasty to emerge after the fall of the Han dynasty was the Sui Dynasty (589-618 CE). Reunified China Expanded China’s borders as a result of military conquest Tang Dynasty Under the Tang (618-906 CE), China became larger than ever before. - Rulers extended China’s influence to parts of Central Asia, Mongolia, Manchuria, TIbet, and to the south, the pacific - Like the Han Dynasty, The Tang forced many of its neighbors into a Tributary System, whereas Korea, Vietnam, Japan and others had to make regular payments to avoid punishment Tang economy was very strong due to advanced infrastructure (roads, waterways, canals) - Grand Canal: Begun in the SUi Dynasty to link the Yellow and Yanzi Rivers Increased trade stimulated the Tang economy - Silk industry made China exceptionally wealthy Means of Trade/ Exchange Indian Ocean Trade Network: China’s control of the southern coast allowed participation in the indian Ocean Trade Network China also traded along the 5000 mile Silk Road with the Middle East Culture in Tang China Tang rulers were cultural patrons - Emperor Xuanzong sponsored the creation of the Han Lin Academy of Letters, a key institution of learning The Tang exerted a strong artistic and religious influence over Korea and Japan. Tang monarchs expanded and reworked the imperial bureaucracy - Received Scholar- gentry elite reworked Confucian ideology Tang Examination System Tang emperor patronized academies to train state officials and educate them in Confucian classics - Examination system was greatly expanded. - Patterns of advancement were regularized While most bureaucrats won their positions through success in the CivilService Examination system, birth and family connections still played a role in securing office. State and Religion Buddhisim thrived in the time before the Sui and Tang dynasties - Many pre-Tang rulers from nomadic origins were devout Buddhists - Chan variant of Buddhism (Zen) stressed mediation and appreciation of natural beauty. Zen had great appeal to the Chinese educated class Tang support of COnfucianism threatened to undercut Buddhist success…however, Tang Emperors and Empresses supported the Buddhist establishment (Empress Wu r. 690-705 CE). Support of Buddhists aroused the envy of Confucian and Daoist rivals - Confucian leaders stress the economic impact of not taxing buddhist monasteries, and losing out on labor because they couldn't conscript peasants who worked on monastic estates - Under Wuzong (r. 841-847) China openly persecuted Budhdists  Never again would Buddhism gain the strength it had in the early-Tang era… however, it would survive in China. - Confucianism becomes the dominant ideology of Chinese civilization from the 9th to early 20th century. Tang Decline During the 800’s a series of peasants rebellions and military disasters weakened the Tang. In 906, the Tang Dynasty collapsed and several centuries of disunity will follow China after the Tang Following the Tang breakdown, China fragmented into separate states until the late 1200s. The largest and longest lasting was the Song Empire. - Song empire will last until 1279 Until 1121, the primary threat to the song was the Liao empire to the north. The Song paid tribute to the Lao vial silk and cash, but then destroyed them with the help of Jurchen tribes(Jin empire) from the North (even further north) However, the Jurchen then claimed their own Empire, the Jin, and turned on the Song. The song gave up territory and retreated to the South. The smaller Song state, the Southern Song Dynasty, will survive until the Mongols Conquests of the 1270’s Song Characteristics Culturally and economically impressive - Steady population growth - Worlds largest urbanized society - Largest cities on earth at the time (population over 1 million) - Trade contacts lessened, but still active. - More involvement with the Pacific coast and Southeast Asia - The Port of Canton (Guangzhou) became the world’s busiest and most cosmopolitan trading centers. - Large trading vessels, known as junks, cruised the eastern seas and Indian Ocean carrying goods for trade Song Culture and Religion With the exception of the Abbasid Caliphate, Song China was the most scientifically and technically advanced societies in the world. - Excellent mathematics and astronomers - Accurate clocks, compasses (used at sea in 1090) - Su-Song’s celestial clock was built in 1088 CE - 80 feet tall - Time of day, day of months positions of the sun, moon, planets, and major stars. - First device in the world to use a chain-driven mechanism powered by flowing water Chinese Inventions of the Song Era Gunpowder Paper Currency (flying money) Made use of Block Printing (adopted from the Koreans Religion Great revival of Confucius’ teachings, known as Neo-Confucianism. - Reinforced Chinese culture's tendency toward hierarchy and obedience. - Put a premium on education and cultured behavior - Civil Service Examination system was propped up Women in Chinese Society Neo-Confucianism was used to justify the greater subordination of women - Earlier, a husband’s family had to produce a dowry for a new bride, but during this time period, it reversed…Marriages were arranged for the groom’s benefit. Chinese control over women was most obvious in foot- binding. - Kept women’s feet tiny and dainty, but crippled them. - Established in the 1200’s, and continued into the 1900’s Women of lower classes were freer than those in the upper classes, but still occupied a secondary status to that of men Women of all classes had property inheritance rights, and retained control of their dowry after death or divorce of husbands. Japan: The Imperial Age Taika, Nara, and Heian (7th to 9th centuries) influenced by china Crisis at Nara and the Shift to Heian( Kyto) Taika reforms: Copy Chinese style of rule Bureaucracy Opposed by aristocracy, Buddhist monks Capital to Heian (aka Kyoto): Abandons Taika reforms Aristocracy restored to power Ultra Civilized: Court Life in the Heian Era Court culture: Codes of behavior Aesthetic enjoyment Poetry Women and men take part ○ Lady Murasaki, Tale of Genji The Decline of Imperial Power Fujiwara family: Dominate government of Imperial Japan Cooperate with Buddhists Elite cult The RIse of the Provincial Warrior Elite Regional lords (bushi): Fortress bases Semi-independent Samurai Warrior class emerges: Martial arts esteemed Special code: ○ Family honor ○ Death rather than defeat ○ Seppuku or hari-kiri Peasants lose status, freedom The Era of Warrior Dominance By the 11th and 12th centuries: Family rivalries dominate Taira, Minamoto The Declining Influence of China 1185, Minamoto victorious Bakufu, military government Kamakura, capital The Breakdown of Bakufu Dominance and Age of the Warlords Yaritomo: Minomoto leader Assassinated relatives Death brings succession struggle Hojo family: Minamoto, emperor figureheads ○ Minamoto, emperor figureheads Ashikaga Takuaji: Minamoto 14th century, overthrows Kamakura rule Ashikaga Shogunate established Emperor driving from Kyoto Struggle weakens all authority 1467-1477, civil war among Ashikaga factions 300 states Ruled by warlords (daimyo) Korea: Between China and Japan Separate but greatly influenced Ancestors from Siberia, Manchuria By 4th century B.C.E, they had farming and metalworking Tang Alliances and the Conquest of Korea 109 B.C.E, Cooson kingdom conquered by Han Silla, Paekche Koguryo people Resist Chinese dominance Sinification(becoming more chinese) increases after fall of Han Buddhism an important vehicle Sinification: The Tributary Link Silla, Koryo dynasties (668-1392) Peak of Chinese influence But political independence Civilization for the Few Aristocracy most influenced by Chinese culture All others serve them Koryo Collapse, Dynastic Renewal Revolts Revolts: Caused by labor, tax burdens Weaken SIlla, Koryo governments 1231, Mongol invasion  Followed by turmoil 1392, Yi dynasty founded Lasts until 1910 Between China and Southeast Asia: The Making of Vietnam Chinese push south To Red River valley Viets: Retains uniqueness due to isolation from geography Qin: Raid into Vietnam, 220s B.C.E Commerce increased Viets conquer Red River lords Merge with Mon-Khmer, Tai Culture distinct from China Women generally have higher status Conquest and Sinification Han: Expand, Vietnam becomes a tributary from 111 B.C.E., direct control Chinese culture systematically introduced Boots of Resistance: Resistance from aristocracy, peasants Women participate 39 C.E., Revolt of Trung sisters Winning Independence and Continuing Chinese Influences Distance from China helps resistance Independence by 939 Lasts until 19th century Chapter 14- The mongols The last Great Nomadic CHallenges: From Genghis Khan to Timur Mongols challenge our notions of “barbarians” and ‘civilized” societies Capable of save violence, their rule also creates a new level of cross-cultural exchange Pax Mongolia–Era of Mongol Peace leads to revitalized trade, commerce and urban life along SIlk road The Mongol Empire of Chinggis Khan Mongols resembled other nomadic groups Organized into tribes and clans Strong tribal leadership=bravery above all else The Early Career of Chinggis Khan Born Temujin, he became leader after his father’s assassination Conquers foes, which leads to alliances and the election at a kuriltai(tribal meeting) of Temujin to the role of khagan (Cheif) Building the Mongol War Machine Natural warriors trained from youth Lifestyle stressed mobility, bravery, skill, and love combat Used cavalry in combination with scouts, a messenger force and mapmaking unit Experimented with new weapons Conquest: Mongol Empire Under Chinggis Khan From NW China to North China (Jin) to W Asia (Kara Khitai) and on to the Middle East. Adapted to obstacles (cities) Resistance=Punishment Karakorum=Mongol Capital Mongols proved to be astute and tolerant rulers Administration built on Muslim and Chinese bureaucracy Creates an era of peace (Pax Mongolia) which stimulates trade, cultural exchange and artistic creativity. Chinggis dies trying to conquer all of China–land divided amongst sons (son Ogedai named khan The Mongol Drive to the West Splits into four khanates: Golden Horde empire–Russia Ilkhan Empire–Persia Djagatai (Chaghatai) Empire- Central Asia Empire of Kublai Khan (Yuan Dynasty)-- China and parts of South/SE Asia Russia in Bondage Mongols carry out only successful winter inv asion in Russian history(“no eye remained to weep for the dead”) Kiev destroyed and all Russian princes move East Peasants suffer; cities gain Orthodox Church remains powerful and wealthy; enables princes of Moscow to defeat Golden Horde in 1380 Mongol Assault on Islamic Heartland Ilkhan Khanate (led by Hulegu) ends Abbasid dynasty in 1258 and destroyed Baghdad Mamluks of Egypt defeat the Mongols in 1260 The Mongols in China (Yuan Dynasty) Led by Kublai Khan Passed laws to separate Chinese and Mongols Kublai Khan fascinated by Chinese culture New social hierarchy–Mongols, Asian nomads and Muslim allies, ethnic Chinese and other minority people Gender Roles/ Foreign Influence Gender roles Mongol women refused to adopt Chinese ways Mongol women had more freedom Foreign Influence Yuan court attracted many scholars and artists Kublai Khan welcomed thinkers, artists, travelers and emissaries The Fall of the House of Yuan Warning signs—failed invasion of Japan, rebellion of Song loyalists, defeats in vietnam and Java, death of Kublai Khan Muslim/Chinese bureaucratic corruption grows Plotting grows (White Lotus Society) 1368–Yuan Dynasty will give way to the Ming dynasty under Ju Yuanzhang The Brief Ride of Timur-i Lang A complex figure– a ruthless conqueror who spared the lives of artisans and learned men to further his own kingdom Global Connections Mongols symbolize the return of nomadic invasions in the post classical period Destruction is countered by their contributions to new techniques/weapons of war Facilitate trade and cross cultural contact to a level that hadn’t been seen before Mant convinced their expansion shaped Eurasian history by unintentionally spreading the Black Plague Chapter 15: The Changing Balance of World Power Overview Profound changes move history from end of Post-Classical period to Early Modern Period where Europe will eventually dominate Italy, Spain, Portugal takes lead but do not immediately displace Arabs or Chinese as international leaders Mongols decline, first in China, then elsewhere turned trading attention to sea trade as ASain trade routes were disrupted (goods, technology, idea Changes in the Middle East 1200 CE: Dominated by Byzantine Empire and Abbasid Caliphate 1258: Abbasids fall to Mongols ○ As Caliphate declined, landlords seized more land from peasants, and peasants became serfs on large estates. ○ Muslim landlords were not interested in technological advancements so agriculture suffers 1453: Constantinople taken by Ottoman Turks and Byzantine Empire collapses ○ Ottoman Turks emerge as powerful empire New religious emphasis through rising Sufis Sea Trade in China 1368-1644: Ming Empire ○ Rebellions pushed Mongols north and out ○ Reestablished tributes (Korea, Vietnam, Tibet) 1405-1433: Burst of unusual empire-sponsored trading expeditions led by Admiral Zheng He ○ Muslim eunuch from W China; expeditions along the coastline; excellent maps, improved compass; Visited Africa, Middle East ○ 2700 coastal ships, 400 armed naval ships, 400+ long-distance ships, 9 treasure ships ○ Compasses, maps, armed sailors  ○ Sailed from China to the Middle East and eastern coast of Africa (maybe even Atlantic?) Chinese Xenophobia China canceled all expeditions in 1433 CE; why? ○ Scholars opposed trading policies and fought with Zheng He ○ Costs seemed too much ○ New emperor wanted to differentiate his era from his predecessor’s ○ Xenophobia: Shift to traditional rather than foreign involvement ○ No need to actively obtain foreign goods Continue to be active in E and SE Asian trade China loses its chance to be a world trading power; they pave the way for the Wet to be more powerful The Rise of the West: Era of Chance Medieval institutions decline (knights; power of Church) Strengthening of feudalism Larger monarchies and regional governments Hundred Years’ War = New military and technological advancements Acceptance of capitalism and interest in trade Silk roads provided increasing access to Asian knowledge and technology ○ West had become used to Asian luxury goods] but only had raw resources that didn’t equal the value of Asian goods; made up for this in gold ○ By 1400, a gold famine threatened to collapse European economy Italian Renaissance 1400: Renaissance (rebirth and revival of styles from classical Greece and Rome) Why Italy ○ Medieval forms and feudalism had never permanently taken hold ○ Had more contact with Greek/Roman tradition than the rest of Europe ○ Leaders in banking/trading ○ Began in Florence Secularism in the Renaissance Religious art remained dominant, but used realistic portrayal of people and nature Non-religious subjects emerge Humanism: interest in individuality and human capability Petrarch; Giotto Architecture: Gothicism to classicism Little impact outside of Italy at first; later, Northern Renaissance Spurs innovation, exploration, conquest, confidence High culture; not popular culture Iberian Spirit Iberian Peninsula: Contested territory between Christians and Muslims ○ Christian military leaders had been pushing back against Muslims for centuries After 1400, regional monarchies of Castile and Aragon were established; united in 1469 with marriage of Ferdinand (A) and Isabella ( C ) Rigorous military agenda ○ Government had responsibility to promote Christianity by converting or expelling Arabs and Jew ○ Expanded Christian territory Early Western Expansion Technological barriers had prevented long-distance European exploration ○ 15th century: Begin to use Chinese/Arab technology (compass,astrolabe,better maps) 1291 CE: Vivaldis sailed through Strait of Gibraltar seeking Western route to Indies and disappeared 1498: Portuguese Vasco De Gama reached India Henry the Navigator sponsored Portuguese voyages ○ Goals: scientific curiosity; spread Christianity; financial interests ○ Set up colonies designed to produce cash crops (sugar, tobacco, cotton Azores Islands, Madeira Islands, and Canary Islands Interest in slave labor from NW Africa Outside the World Network(Pacific/Polynesia) Not affected by new international exchanges Internal problems occur; resistance to Europeans will be challenging Americas: disunity among Aztecs and conquered peoples led to resentment Polynesia: expansion well beyond initial base, and migration to Hawaii and New Zealand  ○ Hawaii: caste system; warlike; no written language; agriculturalists ○ Maori in New Zealand: elaborate art; tribal leaders and priests held great power; extremely isolated Chapter 16: The World Economy The West's First Outreach: Maritime Power Increasing contact from 12th century From Crusades, Reconquista Familiarity with imports- Middle East was the middle man Changes: Mongols fall Ottomans intervene European efforts to expand - circumvent the Middle East New Technology: A key to Power Deep- draught ships Better on ocean voyages Armaments better Compasses, mapmaking help navigation Portugal and Spain Lead the Pack Prince Henry the Navigator: Expeditions along the African coast 1488: pass the Cape of Good Hope 1498: Vasco da Gama reaches India ○ 3000% profit 1514: Portuguese to Indonesia, China Columbus: To Americas, 1492 Ferdinand Magellan: 1519: begins the circumnavigation of the world Northern European Expeditions: England, Holland, France take the initiative 1497: British sail to North America ○ 1600s: begin colonization 1534: French cross the Atlantic ○ Settle Canada 1588: British defeat Spanish Armada Dutch: North American territory Indonesia Charter companies: Little government supervision The Columbian Exchange of Disease and Food Native Americans, Polynesians lack immunity to disease Slaves imported to Americas from W.Africa New World Plants: Corn, sweet potato, potato Old World animals: Horse, cattle West’s Commercial Outreach Continuity - stays the same Asian shipping in Chinese, Japanese water Muslim traders along east African coast Turks in eastern Mediterranean Europeans - limited take over Remain on coast in Africa, Asia Toward a World Economy Imbalances in World Trade Spain and Portugal lack financial systems to grow England, France, Holland  More lasting economic presence (through corporations) Mercantilism - point of everything for Europe Exports: Home productions protected Dependent areas supply raw materials A System of International Inequality Permanent state of dependence But peasants mostly unaffected Forced labor becomes widespread to meet demand How Much World in the World Economy Not all areas affected East Asia self-sufficient China uninterested in world economy Keep Europeans out Japan More open initially Closes doors, 17th to 19th centuries The Expansionist Trend Mughal Empire in India in decline British and French movie in Eastern Europe Exports grain to the West Torn culturally between East and West The Americas: Loosely Controlled Colonies Spain: West Indies (Caribbean islands) 1509, Panama Aztec, Incas conquered  ○ Loosely supervised conquistador Search for gold ○ Take tribute OR eradicate natives Administration develops ○ Along with missionary activity North America ○ From 17th century on- search Northwest Passage (which doesn't actually exist) ○ French: Canada, Mississippi River ○ Dutch, English, Atlantic seaboard ○ West Indies (Caribbean islands), colonized by Spain, France, Dutch, English British and French North America: Backwater Colonies Different pattern from Latin America Religious refugees Land grants-encourages settlement Canada French established Quebec Catholic church influential 1763: French relinquish Canada, Mississippi (7 Years War) Little merging of natives and immigrants-very different from Latin America Enlightenment ideas popular - power of the citizens Africa and Asia: Coastal Trading Stations Angola Portuguese slaving expeditions South Africa 1652: Dutch found Cape Town ○ Way station for supply and rest Settlers move into interior ○ Conflicts with natives or farm land Asia ○ Spain takes the Philippines Conversion to Christianity Indonesia ○ Dutch East India Company ○ Also Taiwan briefly  French and British fight for control of India ○ 1744: war begins ○ British win out Colonial expansion Impact on western Europe Hostilities between countries magnified Seven Years War ○ First global war-France v. England in N.A, Africa, Asia The Impact of a New World Order Slave trade affects Africa- African kingdoms suffer Latin America ○ Affected by slavery-new,hybrid cultures emerge. Native, African, European Chapter 17: The transformation of the West 1450-1750 The Italian Renaissance 14th/15th Century artistic movement which challenge medieval intellectual values and styles Writers such as Petrearch and Boccaccio stress secular subjects such as love and pride Painting: ○ Realism, classical, and human centered themes Religion is on the decline-sort of Machiavelli: the science of politics Humanism: focus on humankind as the center of intellectual and artistic life with an emphasis on Greek and Roman themes The Northern Renaissance After invasions from France and Spain, the Renaissance moves North Centered in Franc, England, Flanders ○ A more religious renaissance than the Italian Blended secular interests with Christianity England: Shakespeare Spain: Cervantes France: Francis I becomes patron of arts King were confined by old feudal order (Kings–lords–peasants) The Protestant Reformation 1517: Martin Luther posts his ‘95 Theses’ in Wittenberg, Germany Protestantism pushed for state control of the church, rather than papal authority Protestantism was attractive to ordinary people as well- abused by Catholic Church Henry VIII sets up the Anglican Church (Church of England) Calvinism: The idea of Predestination, eventually makes its way to the New World Catholic Reformation is launched to counter Luther’s attacks The Religious Wars France: Edict of Nantes in 1598 grants religious toleration to Protestants Thirty Years’ War: 1618, German Protestants against Catholic Holy Roman Emperor ○ 1648: Treaty of Westphalia grants territorial tolerance English Civil War Parliament claims right of control over Absolute monarchy Charles I is beheaded Oliver Cromwell becomes “Lord Protector” (not King) Commercial Revolution Colonial Markets stimulate manufacturing Proletariat: Growing class of working people without access to wealth producing property ○ Manufacturers and Laborers  Throughout the 1600’s popular protests were waged to help gain political rights for peasants The Scientific Revolution Copernicus figures out that the earth revolves around the sun Galileo publishes Copernicus’ works, and adds laws of gravity etc. Harvey demonstrates movement of blood in animals (Heart) Descartes: skeptical review of all received wisdom (traditional teachings Absolutism and Parliamentary Monarchies The Feudal Monarchy becomes undone in the late 17th Century French kings slowly built up power throughout the 17th Century, crushing noble power… France and Louis XIV Louis XIV ○ Absolute Monarch ○ “I am the State” ○ Patron of the Arts ○ Palace at Versailles ○ Taxes were set high and colonies were sought for raw materials and markets Other Absolute Monarchies Spain: Philip II Prussia (Eastern Germany) ○ Strong army and bureaucracy ○ State sponsored school system ○ Austria-Hungary: Habsburg Rulers Britain and the Netherlands Emphasized role of central state, but encouraged parliamentary regimes where king shares power with representatives 1688: Glorious Revolution finally put Parliament in the driver’s seat! Growing Political Ideologies John Locke (and others) ○ Power to rule comes from the people (not from a divine right) ○ Kings should be restrained to that which operates only towards the public interests ○ Rights to freedom, property ○ Revolution could be justified to oppose unjust rule Absolute Monarchies and Parliamentary Monarchies Nation-States rule people who share a common culture, and language (unlike former Empires) Nation-States begin to function their governments for the good of all the public- not just wealthy, land owning elites The Rise of Russia 1460-1480: Mongols (Tatars) were driven out of Russia Followed by Russian expansion (much of the land Asian) 1450-1750: Russia's great land empire formed ○ Limited commercial exchange 17th century- gained leading role in Eastern Europe Regional Kingdoms remained in Eastern Europe (differed from Russia) ○ 17th century -Poland and Lithuania rival Russa Culture of Russia influenced by byzantine empire ○ Orthodox Christianity ○ Vibrant cultural traditions ○ Rich art Two centuries of Mongol rule had reduced Russia's cities and trade and lowered its cultural and educational levels ○ Blocked Russia from Renaissance ○ Peasants reduced to serfdom Controversy of western influence developed ○ Embrace it or reject it? Russia's Expansionist Politics under the Tsar First… Russia needed to defeat Mongols ○ 14th century- Duchy of Moscow was center for liberation effort  ○ Local princes established more autonomy ○ Effectiveness of Mongol control began to diminish Moscow princes had gained political experience through the collection of taxes fro the Mongols ○ Moved towards regional independent 1462-1505 Ivan III (Ivan the Great) ○ Styled himself “Tsar” (“Autocrat of all Russians Organized a strong army ○ Government had a military emphasis Head of the Orthodox Church 1480- Declared Russian independence from Mongol rule ○ Moscow freed from all payments to mongols Russia gained a vast territory running from the borders of the Polish-Lithuania Kingdom to Ural Mountains 1533-1584: Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible) Continued policy of Russian expansion Greater emphasis on controlling the tsarists autocracy Confiscated large estates, redistributed to supporters Used Terror to subdue civilian population ○ Earned nickname by killing many Russian nobles (boyars) ○ Increased power of tsar, decrease power of boyars Expansion also offered tsars: ○ A way to reward loyal nobles and bureaucrats by giving them estates in new territories ○ Provided new agricultural areas ○ Sources of Labor Russia used slaves for certain kinds of production work into the 18th century Expansion added diversity of people (multicultural empire) Ivan IV died without a heir, led to The Time of Troubles New power claims by boyards Fifteen years of turmoil Numerous tsars, imposters, and peasant revolts 1610- Invasions from Sweden and Poland Repelled 1613 - assembly of boyars chose a member of the Romanov family as tsar Romanov dynasty was to rule Russia until great revolution of 1917 ○ Autocratic monarchy Micheal Romanov ○ First tsar of romanov family ○ Re-established internal order ○ Drove out foreign invaders ○ Resume expansionist policy of predecessors Alexis Romanov  ○ Michael’s successor Russia's First Westernization (1690-1790) End of 17th century - Russia had become one of the great land empires ○ Unusually agricultural Peter I (son on Alexis; aka Peter the Great) ruled from 1689 to 1725 ○ Extended his predecessors’ policies ○ Built up tsarist control ○ Expanded Russian territory ○ Added a more definite interstate in changing selected aspects of Russian economy and culture by imitating Western forms What Westernization Meant: Peter concentrated on: ○ Westernization from top down which hurt Russian traditions ○ Improvements in political organization ○ Selected economic development ○ Cultural change ○ Provided culture and education for nobles (boyars) ○ First Russian Navy ○ Provincial governors were appointed from St.Petersburg ○ Systemized law codes ○ Revised tax systems ○ Taxes on ordinary Russian peasants increased steadily Peter was eager to make Russia culturally respectable in Western eyes ○ Required nobles to wear Western clothes and shave off beards Many of Western-oriented changes impacted only the upper class Provided more education in mathematics Founded scientific institutes and academics along Western lines Western fads and fashions came into new capital ○ Ballet(France) ○ Christmas tree(Germany 1762-1795: Catherine the Great ○ Resumed Peter the Great’s interests in many respects ○ Defended the powers of the central monarch ○ Made a deal with nobles- back me up, keep serfs Put down vigorous peasant uprising ○ Selective Westernizer  Combined genuine Enlightenment interests with her need to consolidate power as a truly Russian ruler ○ Introduced western literature; promoted Russian literature ○ Great friend of Voltaire ○ Promoted immunizations against smallpox. Catherine pursued Russian expansions ○ Resumed campaigns against Ottoman Empire Won territories in Central Asia Claimed territory of Alaska in Russia’s name Russia was able to win agreements with Austria and Prussia for partition of Poland ○ Eliminated Poland as an independent state, and Russia held the lion's share of the spoils Russia ultimate role in putting down the French armies of Napoleon after 1812 By the time of Catherine's death in 1796, Russia had passed through three centuries of extraordinary development ○ Won independence ○ Constructed a strong central state ○ Brough new elements into Russia’s culture and economy Much of this borrowed from the West Pugachev 1770’s - Pugachev uprising ○ Pugachev - Cossack chieftain who claimed to be the legitimate tsar ○ Promised an end to serfdom, taxation, military conscription, and abolition of landed aristocracy ○ Killed thousands of nobles, officials, and priests ○ He was brought to Moscow in a case and cut into quarters in a public square Chapter 19: Early Latin America Reconquista to Conquest 1492: Spanish Inquisition (Reconquista) ○ Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile carried out a program of religious unification in Spain ○ Last Muslim kingdom (Granada) fell to Catholic Spain Isabella and Ferdinand used Columbus voyages Westward to expand Christianity Conquistadors:  ○ 1/5th of all treasures went to the crown ○ Conquistadors shared remaining wealth ○ Few were professional soldiers ○ Saw themselves as nobility over indigenous people ○ Horses, firearms, and steel weapons gave them an advantage Hernan Cortes and Mexico Arrived in Mexico in 1519 ○ Led 600 men to Mexico with Spanish weaponry ○ Reached Tenochtitlan and captured/killed Moctezuma II Legend of Quetzalcoatl ○ Spread smallpox 1521: Tenochtitlan burned to the ground; Mexico City constructed ○ Most of central Mexico became New Spain Spanish Conquest in South America 1509: Vasco de Balboa established a colony in Panama in search of gold 1535: Francisco Pizarro conquered the Incan Empire with 200 men ○ Inca had suffered from civil war, and smallpox…before any European ever arrived ○ Spanish replaced capital Cuzco with Lima 1540: Francisco de Coronado searched for seven cities of gold By 1570: 192 Spanish cities throughout the Americas ○ European migration to the New World is one of the longest continuous migrations in history Destruction of Amerindian Societies Debates about mortality of conquest: ○ Are natives fully human? Should they be controlled? What if they refused to convert to Christianity ○ Father Bortolome de las Casas suggests slaves instead. Indigenous population suffered severe declines in population ○ Slavery, mistreatment, conquest, disease (smallpox, measles) Central Mexico went from 25 million people 1519 to million people in 1580 Model of Colonization 1. Establish colonies (declare land part of European mother country) 2. Form encomiendas(fancy plantation) to organize labour and land 3. Form cities within colonies 4. Gradually remove conquistadors from positions of governmental power and replace them with professional bureaucrats Mutliracial Societies New groups emerged in colonized lands. Few European women living in the New world= mixed marriages and sexual exploitation were common ○ Europeans- conquerors and migrants ○ Indians- conquered, indigenous peoples ○ Africans- Slaves A social hierarchy developed, named Sociedad de Castas ○ Peninsulares: Colonists born in Europe ○ Creoles: Colonists born in Americas of European parents ○ Mestizos: European + Indigenous ○ Mulattos: European + African ○ Indians ○ Zambos Indigenous + Africans ○ Negroes: free Africans ○ African slaves State and Church in New Spain “Viceroys” (authority in colony on behalf of the King) ○ One in Mexico City and one in Lima ○ Divided into ten judicial divisions with courts ○ Created laws, applied laws, collected taxes, assigned work Council of the Indies: bureaucracy ○ Issued law; advised him on New World matters; oversaw colonies Missionary work ○ Frnciscans, Dominicans, Jesuits ○ Established churches, missions to spread Catholic faith Agricultural and Mining Agriculture and mining were the basis of the Spanish colonial economy. ○ 80% of the indigenous population lived and worked the land Agriculture: ○ Powered by encomienda and mita (forced labor) systems ○ Sugar became a major crop in Brazil Mining: ○ Gold found in Brazil, Caribbean, Columbia, Chile ○ Silver discoveries made in Mexico and Peru between 1545-1565 ○ Bullion (solid bars): made from melting silver, gold Silver Mining in New Spain Potosi (Peru) was largest mine ○ 80% of Peruvian silver ○ Required native forced labor Spanish ships carried silver bullion to Spain ○ Causes inflation in Spanish economy ○ Pirates: a constant threat Less than ½ silver mined stayed in Spain ○ Most was kept in New World Most of what went to Spain finance financed wars, paid of debt, and was spent on luxury goods Spanish Weakness Spain was weak: foreign wars, increasing debt, internal revolts. ○ Threatened by France, England, and Holland ○ French took control of Hispaniola; English took Jamaica Failure of Spanish mercantile and political systems ○ Colonies (via haciendas) became self-sufficient War of Spanish Succession Charles II died without an heir ○ Hapsburg line had inbred so much that their main royal blood could no longer reproduce ○ French grand-nephew Philip of Anjou (Bourbon) named as heir in will England fearful that Spain and France will be united under one Bourbon monarch  War of Spanish Succeq (1701-1713) Result: Treaty of Utrecht (1713) ○ Ultimately weakens Spain’s commercial monopoly in their own colonies ○ Philip of Anjou is Spanish King ○ French merchants could operate in Seville (Spanish capital) ○ English merchants can trade slaves in Spanish colonies Bourbon Reforms New Spanish Bourbon monarchs launched Bourbon Reforms to strengthen the economy and make colonial governments more efficient ○ Desire for revitalized Spain: strong centralized government and economy New viceroyalties created to better provide administration and defense to populations of regions ○ New Granada (1739) ○ Rio de la Plata (1778) Commerce was expanded (tobacco, coffee, beef) Brazil: The First Plantation Colony 1500: Pedro Cabral found Brazil on his way to India 1532: Portugal officially settles Brazil ○ Sugar plantations using native labour set up on Brazilian coast ○ Sugar plantations required tremendous amounts of labor Slaves arrive from Africa to support plantations By 1700, Brazil had 150,000 slaves; half of Brazil’s total population 7,000 slaves imported a year 1549: Jesuit missionaries arrived 1695: Gold found in Minas Gerais Gold Mining in Brazil Dutch, French, and English colonies grow sugar; threaten Brazilian monopoly → gold is discovered 1695: Gold found in Brazilian town Minas Gerais ○ Gold rush, began, later diamonds ○ Stimulated economy and opened interior for settlement ○ Need for slaves → by 1775 ½ of Brazilian pop were gold mining slaves 1735-1760: Brazilians mined 3 tons of gold a year ○ Brazil was the greatest source of gold in the West  Rio de Janeiro emerged as an important port because it was closest to gold mines. ○ Received African slaves for mines. ○ 1763: Capital of Brazilian colony Pombaline Reforms Marquis of Pombal (1755-1776): prime minister of Portugal ○ Bolster Portuguese economy by instituting economic reforms Wanted to break flow of Portuguese gold to England; redirect it with Portuguese economy Eliminate tax evasion Introduce new crops ○ Stopped slavery in Portugal, ensure steady stream of slaves to Brazil only Police were not fully effective ○ Pro: Reduces Portugal’s trade imbalance with England ○ Con: Brazil still suffers because worldwide demand for its products is low as a result of new competition Chapter 20: Africa and the African in the Age of the Atlantic Slave trade The Portuguese established factories (forts and trading posts with resident merchants) ○ Most with the consent of local rulers El Mina (1482)- the most important factory located in west Africa Trade was the basis of Portuguese relations with African peoples. ○ Impressed by power and magnificence of Africans Missionary efforts to convert rulers in Africa ○ Nzinga Mvemba ruler of Kongo (1507-1543) made the region Christian with Portuguese support Portuguese Exploration Luanda- permanent Portuguese settlement, which would later be colony of Angola Portuguese established outposts on Mozambique Island, Kilwa, Sofala and Mombasa In the 17th century, the Dutch, English, and French competed with the Portuguese for trading stations The slave trade was a major interest to the Portuguese  ○ First slaves brought to Portugal from Africa in 1441 ○ Gain importance with sugar plantations on cash crop islands Trend Toward Expansion The Portuguese originally raided for slaves along the coast but realized that trade was an easier way to get more slaves. Slave trade was important when plantations (sugar) demanded constant labor ○ Brazil imported 4 million ○ Caribbean imported 2.2 million By 1600, the slave trade predominated over all other kinds of commerce on the African coast. Red Sea and east African slave routes continued during this period The Atlantic Slave Trade 1450-1850: 12 million Africans shipped across the Atlantic Mortality rate on slave ships was 10-20% The 17th century was the busiest for slave trade. Mortality was hgh and fertility was low, so the only way to keep large numbers of slaves was to import more and more Profitability of Trade Royal African Company ○ English want their own source of slaves fro growing plantation: in Caribbean colonies ○ Established trade forts in African to obtain slaves ○ Fewer than 10% of employees survived; tropical diseases Variety of currencies involved in slave trade Triangular tradeL made emerging capitalism central to Atlantic world Profitability of slave trade African Societies and the Slave Trade In Africa, slaves were already used as servants, concubines, soldiers, administrators, and field workers to Middle East and Northern Africa ○ Europeans used this to justify their enslavement of Africans  Slaves used for gold mining, salt production, and caravan work. Europeans essentially tapped into existing routes and supplies of slaves African rulers generally did not enslave their own people, but enslaved neighboring peoples Slaving and African Politics Gun and slave cycle ○ Increased firepower allowed states to expand over neighbors, producing more slaves, which they traded for guns ○ Result: Unending warefare and disruption of societies through slave trade Asante and Dahomey Impact of Slave Trade Two Case Studies: Two major empires rose to prominence in the period of slave trade Asante: Dominant state of Gold Coast ○ COmprised of 20 small states based on clans ○ Osei Tutu- supreme civil and religious leader, joined many of the clans ○ Controlled many gold-producing zones (⅓ trade) ; constant simply of slaves (⅔ of Asante’s trade) ○ Dominant state of Goad Coast until 1820’s Dahomey ○ Access to firearms in 1720; creates autocratic and brutal political regime based on slave trade ○ Over 1.8 million slaves exported East Africa On east coast, Swahili trading cities continued commerce in Indian Ocean adjusting to military presence of Portuguese and Ottoman Turks Trade brought ivory, gold, slaves for harems and households of Arabia Interior of Eastern Africa is less well-known ○ Bantu pastoralists Islamization ○ Process continues across Western Sudan ○ Some states continue with Muslim royal families and aristocrats and animist peasants ○ Others see conversions across all levels of society White Settlers and Africans in Southern Africa 16th Century- Bantu-Speaking peoples occupied eastern regions of southern Africa ○ Agriculture, herding, work with iron and copper 1652- Cape of Good hope established as a Dutch colony for ships sailing to Asia ○ Depended on slave labor brought from Asia, Indonesia but then used Arican labor ○ Competition and Warfare with indigenous Africans By 1800: 17,000 settlers, 26,000 slaves Mfecane and Zulu Rise to Power 1795- Great Britain seized Cape Colony ○ 1815- Under formal British control Nguni people: occupied lands in southern and eastern Africa Shaka Zulu: Nguni lead and military tactician who began African unification process in 1818 ○ New military and political organization (organized by lineage and age) ○ Absorbed and destroyed neighbors Mfecane- “war of crushing and wandering” whole southern continent thrown into turmoil Zulu Wars of 1870’s: Zulu power crushed by Great Britain American Slave Societies Comprised of African- born saltwater slaves (black) and Creole slaves ( American-born descendants, some of whom were mulattos as a result of sexual exploitation of slave women and other racial mixings) Hierarchy of slaves by slaveholders (Creoles and mulattos given more opportunities to acquire skilled jobs, such as house-hold servants) The People and Gods in Exile Family formation was difficult for slaves ○ Families may be separated at any time ○ Male to female ratio sometimes 3:1 Religion- continuity and adaptation ○ Conversion to Catholicism by Spaniards and Portuguese ○ African religion did not die out and continued despite attempts by slave owners to suppress them  ○ Often Christianity and African religions were fused Resistance and rebellion ○ Palmares: runaway slave kingdom in 17th c. Brazil that resisted Portuguese and Dutch attempts to destroy for 100 years ○ Suriname: large number of slaves ran off in this plantation colony in 18th c. and waged war against captors The End of Slave Trade and the Abolition of Slavery End of Atlantic slave trade and abolition of slavery around 19th century ○ Economic, political and religious changes are occuring in Europe and the colonies Opponents of slavery and brutality of trade appeared into the mid-18th century ○ Appearing in relation to Enlightenment thinkers ○ Now seen as backward and Immoral, symbol of inhumanity and cruelty 1807- British slave trade was abolished with the help of abolitionists like John Wesley and William Wilberforce 1888- Brazilian slave trade was abolished. Chapter 21: The Muslim Empires The Ottoman Empire Ottomans gain ground in Asia Minor (Turkey) throughout the 1350’s 1453: Ottoman capture of Constantinople under the Ottoman sultan Mehmed II Ottomans ere a major world power in the Arab World, the Balkans, and around the Black and Red Seas Turkic Cavalry quickly turns into a warrior aristocracy Janissaries: infantry divisions which dominated the imperial armies ○ Usually conscripted as adolescents ○ Controlled the artillery and firearms ○ Gained tremendous power as time went on Sultans were absolute monarchs Ottoman conquest usually created new tax to pay for further conquests The ‘grand vizier (wazir)” was the true head of state. Political succession was vague and often contested however ○ Sons often battled after the death of their father Was the Ottoman Empire plagued to decline? The empire lasted into the 20th century and lasted for over 600 years.  However, later sultans were less prepared to rule ○ Increasing power to viziers, and Janissary corps. ○ Ottoman defeat at the battle of Lepanto against the combined Spanish and Venitien fleet in 1571 ○ Ottomans were unable to push the Portuguese from the Indian Ocean in 1500s Ottoman tax collectors lose critical revenue The Safavids Ottomans: Sunny Safavids Shi’a This rivalry has gone on since the 7th century, and continues today Sail al-Din (Saladin): ○ With the Mongol collapse of the 14th Century, he began a militant campaign to purify and reform Islam and spread teachings amongst Turkic tribes Variants in Islam led the Safavids to battle with Ottomans in 1514 The Safavids were NOT as militarily technologically advanced as the Ottomans. The Safavids were badly defeated at the battle of Chaldiran Isma’il was largely ineffective after this defeat. ○ Ottomans could not take Tabriz (capital) because of distance from supply lines ○ Shi'ism would be confined to this area (modern day IRan/southern Iraq Abbas I (r. 1587-1629), aka Abbas the Great ○ Empire reaches the height of its strength and prosperity ○ Used “slave” regiments that mirrored the Janissaries ○ Built army to 40,000 ○ Moved capital to Isfahan ○ Founded several colleges ○ Supported the arts, architecture, ect. After Abbas the GReat (I), the decline of the empire was rapid. Weak shahs were supported by the “slave” regiment were often the culprit ○ (Although Abbas II from 1642-1666 was rather effective) By 1722 Isfahan was besieged by Afghani tribes empires and nomadic raiders for years The Mughals Babur founded the Mughal Dynasty through military conquest by 1526 ○ Used Ottoman military tactics  ○ Was less motivated by religion than other Muslim Dynasties ○ Established a dynasty that will expand and last for over 300 years. Babur dies at the age of 48 in 1530, and his son Humayan takes over. ○ Disputes over succession ○ Exiled into Safavid land ○ Returns to restore Mughal rule in 1556 and is successful ○ Dies as a result of a library incident Akbrar (one of Humayan’s son) takes over at age 13 ○ Put in danger by enemies ○ One of the greatest leaders in history ○ Ruled at the same time as Elizabeth I, Philip of Spain, SUleyman the Magnificent, and Abbas I ○ Had a vision uniting India under his rule ○ Patronized the arts ○ Pursued policies of reconciliation and cooperation with Hindu princes and Hindu majority Encouraged intermarriage Abolished the Hindu head-tax Promoted Hindues to the highest ranks Ended a long-standing ban on the building of Hindu temples Religious TOlerance was but a means to end sectarian division on the subcontinent ○ New faith: Din-i-ilahi which blended Hindu and Muslim elements Mughal rule reaches its apex under the rule of Akbar’s sons…Jahangir (r.1605-1627) and Shah Kahan (1627-1658 ○ Delhi, Agra, and Lahore are cultural centers ○ Mughal army was HUGE (with elephants!) ○ Poverty amongst lower classes was rampant ○ Lack of discipline and training in Mughal armies ○ Lagged behind the west in inventions and the sciences India was a trading post for the world, particularly exporting cotton, and other goods imported from Asia Jahangir and Shah Jahan are both known to be Patrons of the Arts… ○ Building of the Taj Mahal ○ Blends Persian and Hindu tradition ○ Blends ISlamic geometry with Hindu ornamentation Aurangzeb: Shah Jahan’s son Two goals: ○ 1-Extend Mughal control throughout the subcontinent ○ 2-Purify Islam and rid the subcontinent of Hinduism Religious policies weakened the internal alliances and disrupted the social piece from Akbar.  ○ Revival of sectarian violence (not conversion as Aurangzeb had hoped for) ○ Forbade the building of new temples (Hindu), reinstated the head tax of Hindus. ○ Development of Sikhism as an anti-Muslim force on the subcontinent Mughal Empire was under attack from all areas’ and ultimately was too weak to do anything about it Decline of the Mughals leads to growing military and economic intervention by the Europeans (like the British). Chapter 22: Asian Transitions in the Age of Global Change European Discoveries European discoveries Products not wanted in East Muslim Traders: Indian Ocean, southern Asia Missionary activity blocked by Islam Asian political divisions advantageous The Asian Trading Network, c.1500 Arab zone Glass, carpet, tapestries Indian zone Cotton textiles Chinese zone Japan, southeast Asia, east Africa Raw materials Ivory, spices Trading Empire: The Portuguese REsponse to the Encounter at Calicut Portuguese use military force Diu, 1509  ○ Defeats Egyptian-Indian Fleet Forts for Deense ○ Ormus, 1507 ○ Goa, 1510 ○ Malacca Goal: monopolize spice trade, control all shipping 17th century English and Dutch challenge Portuguese control Dutch 1620, take Malacca Fort built on Batavia, 1620 Concentrate on certain spices Generally use for less Use traditional system English India Going Ashore: European Tribute Systems in Asia Europeans restricted to coastlines Permission needed to trade inland Sporadic conflict Portuguese, Dutch use force in Sri Lanka ○ Cinnamon Spanish Philippines Spreading the Faith: The missionary Enterprise in South and Southeast Asia Robert De Nobili Italian Jesuit 1660s, conversion of upper-caste Indians Ming China: A Global Mission Refused Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) Founded by Zhu Yuanzhang Helps expel Mongols Takes name Hongwu, 1368 Mongols forced north of Great wall An Age of Growth: Agriculture, Population, Commerce, and the Arts American food crops Marginal lands farmed Corn Sweet potato’s Peanuts Chinese manufactured goods in demand Merchants profit Patronage of fine arts Innovations in literature Woodblock printing An Age of Expansion: The Zenghe Expeditions Emperor Yulglo 1405-1423, expeditions Indian Ocean African coast Persia Admiral Zenghe Isolationist policy (1390, overseas trade limited) Ming Decline and the CHinese Predicament Weak leaders Public works Failures leading to starvation, rebellion Landlords exploitative 1644, dynasty overthrown Dealing with the European Challenge Traders, missionaries to Japan since 1543 Firearms, clock, presses for Japanese silver, copper, finished goods Nobunga protects Jesuits to counter Buddhists power Hideyoshi less tolerant Buddhists now weak Japan’s Self-Imposed Isolation Foreign influence restricted from 1580s Christianity ○ Persecutions by 1590s ○ Banned, 1614 Ieyasu ○ Increased isolation ○ 1616, merchants restricted ○ By 1630, Japanese ships forbidden to dial overseas Chapter 23 Emerging Power of the United States: Continued After the imposition of the Monroe Doctrine American energies were poured into the creation of the new political system, internal commercial growth and early industrialization, and westward expansion The U.S. acquired the Louisiana Purchase, the acquisition of Texas and the rush to California in order to expand West of the Mississippi American Civil War The crucial event in the 19th Century was the Civil War- economic, political, social issue (slavery !) The Civil War accelerated American industrialization, especially in the Northern states European Settlements in Canada, Australia, and New Zealand These new countries were far more dependent on the Europeans, particularly the British, economy more than was the United States Diplomatic Tensions and World War 1 The unification of Germany and its rapid industrial growth profoundly altered the power balance within Europe Imperialist expansion had fed the sense of rivalry between key nation-states The New Alliance Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy formed the Triple Alliance Britain, France, Russia formed the Triple Entente Balkan Nationalism threatened Austria and Russia suffered a Revolution in 1905 Diplomacy and Society Around 1914 German officials, fearful of the power of socialists, wondered whether was would aid national unity Leaders also depended on military buildups for economic reasons Tension in Europe…Countries sought a reason to “flex muscle” and prove superiority over one another Chapter 24: Industrialization and Imperialism: The Making of the European Global Order Western Imperialism and the Scramble for Colonies Imperialism: The policy of strengthening a country’s power into an empire through the military and diplomatic domination of other areas of the world into colonies 19th c. Western Imperialism is a result of the Industrial Revolution: European nations used increased military superiority Scramble for Colonies: Rivalries between European countries occur in non-Western territories. Early 1800’s: Britain was dominant Late: 1800’s: Belgium, France, Germany and United States followed with colonial empires Colonial Types 1) Tropical dependency colonies: few Eruopeans ruled many indigenous peoples 2) Settlement colonies: White Dominion 3) Contested Settler Colonies: Large european populations live with even more numerous native populations Rise of British East India Company in India British East India Company became seriously interested in India as a colony during the decline of the Mughal Empire When the Mughals collapsed, India was beset by regional princes’ disputes.  ○ The British emerged as facilitators in these disputes, thereby gaining influence. British also gained control of territory in India as part of their victories in Seven Years’ War against France The British relied on Sepoys (Indian soldiers trained in British military style) to control nd crush any potential uprisings ○ Sepoys receive higher pay in the British army British officials of East India Company went to war with Indian princes ○ Battle of Plassey (1757) gave the British (led by Robert Clive control of Bengal ○ No Indian national identity (Islan/Hindu), so no ruler could appeal to the need for unity to drive out foreigners. Sepoy Rebellion (1857): revolt by Indian soldiers in the British army ○ Revolt ended in 1858 as a British victory Creates British Raj- strict control over India by the UK The British Raj The British Rak (the British political establishment in India) remained in contact with Britain through telegraph lines. Madras, Bombay and Calcutta became administrative centers Indian became a major outlet for British overseas investments and manufactured goods. The British put themselves at the top of the social hierarchy instead of changing the social system. English has become the language of business/govt. ○ Mixed marriages are common. Scramble for Africa Europeans clash over African colonies as Africa offered raw materials and untapped markets The Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 (organized by otto von Bismarck) divided Africa into colonies controlled by Belgium, France, Germany, Great Britain Italy, portugal, and Spain. ○ Liberia and Ethiopia not colonized; South Africa already British ○ No African representatives are present. ○ Divisions made without concern for ethnic or cultural groups → traditional African communities disrupted Colonial Wars and Unequal Combat Industrial changes justified colonial possessions and made them easier to acquire  New weapons (machine guns, repeating rifle) made the Europeans impossible to stop in Africa and Pacific Islands. Spears vs.Guns ○ Natives will try traditional tactics and sometimes diplomacy. ○ Only guerrilla tactics proved to stall- but not prevent- European advances. ○ 1879: Battle of Isandlwana in South Africa (Zulu victory) Partition of Southeast Asia and the Pacific to 1914 The Maori of New Zealand Two periods of disruption: ○ In 1769 Captain James Cook lands, then in the 1790’s, European timber merchants and whalers established settlements on the coast. Alcoholism and prostitution spread. Maori traded food for weapons: society becomes more violent Loss of population due to European disease Maori adust to Europeans: follow Europan farming, convert to Christianity ○ 1850s: British farmers and herders arrived. British occupy the most fertile land by force and drove Maori into the interior. Maori are again displaced but endured Economic Imperialism and Hawaii Economic imperialism: exertion of economic influence rather than political control over a region 1777-1779: English Captain James Cook voyaged to Hawaii Protestant missionaries brought Christianity in 1819. STDs and tuberculosis devastated the island population, as a result of European presence. American companies export pineapple and sugar using a plantation system Hawaiian monarchs declined after 1872 and Hawaii was annexed by the United States ○ US congress took the islands in 1898. The consolidation of Latin America 1830-1920 American Revolution  Model French Revolution Ideology Too radical Toussaint L’Overture 1791 slave revolt REpublic of Haiti, 1804 French invasion of Spain Spanish-American Independence Struggles Mexico Miguel de Hidalgo 1810 REbellion, alliance with Indians and mestizos Augustin de Iturbide Ended the Mexican War of Independence 1824, collapse of new state Simon Bolivar Creole, Visionary, REvolutionary and Liberator Independence movement, 1810 1819-1822, victories Grand Columbia Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador 1830, split Jose de San Martin Liberator of SPanish South America Buenos Aires, Peru, Chile, Argentina Brazilian Independence 1807, French invasion of Portugal Royal family elite, to Brazil Rio de Janeiro, capital King Joao VI of Portugal In Brazil until 1820 Prince Pedro left in Brazil as “regent”, stand in for the king 1822, Pedro declared Brazil independent Pedro I Enlightenment ideals Role of the Catholic church? Equality Slavery Indians, mestizos Enfranchisement- Voting rights Latin American Economies and World Markets, 1820-1870 Britain, U.S supported independence In exchange for economic power Dependency on foreign consumers Mid-Century Stagnation 1820-1850 European market creates demand Church, conservatives slow change Landowners, peasants ally in opposition The Monroe Doctrine is a policy of the United States introduced on December 2, 1823. It stated that further efforts by European nations to colonize land or interfere with states in North or SOuth America would be viewed as acts of aggression requiring U.S. intervention Mexico: Instability and Foreign Intervention 1824, Mexican Constitution Conservative centralists v. liberal federalists Reforms attempted, 1830s Opposed by Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, Caudillo War with U.S Benito Jaurez Zapotec Indian Liberal revolt, 1854 New constitution, 1857 Privileges of army and church diminished Lands sold to individuals French in to assist conservatives Maximilian von Habsburg 1867, French withdraw Maximilian executed Jaurez in office to 1872 Argentina: The Port and the Nation United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata, 1816 Liberals v. federalists Jaun Manuel de Rosas, 1831 ○ Federalists  ○ Overthrown, 1852 Reunification, 1862-1890 ○ Domingo F. Sarmiento The Brazilian Empire Pedro I 1824, liberal constitution Abdicates, 1831 Pedro II 1831-1840 Economic prosperity Coffee export Slavery intensified Infrastructure improved Abolition Achieved, 1888 Republican Party Formed, 1871 Coup, 1889 ○ Republic founded Mexico and Argentina: Examples of Economic Transformation Porfirio Diaz- Mexico 1876 president Foreign capital used for infrastructure Revolt suppressed 1910-1920, Civil War ○ Electoral reform Argentina Meat exports Immigration ○ Distinct culture 1890s ○ Socialist party forms ○ Strikes from 1910 Radical party Middle class 1916, in power Spanish-American War, 1898 Cuba American investment Puerto Rico annexed Colombia U.S. backs revolution Chapter 26: Civilizations in Crisis: THe Ottomans, Islamic Heartlands, and Qing China Ottoman Crisis Unclear rules of succession, and rule of weak and corrupt rulers within a weak political and social order weakened the Ottomans. Artisan workers saw declining demand for Turkish goods because of the influx of cheaper Western manufactured goods. Internal fighting led to loss of territory. ○ Late 1700s; Russia expanded into Caucasus and Crimea. ○ Greek Revolution of 1820 ○ Serbian Independence in 1867 ○ Balkan Wars in 1912-1913 The ottomans survived because of divisions between European nations ○ The British supported the Ottomans to prevent the Russians from controlling Istanbul Attempts at Ottoman Reform Sultan Mahmud II overthrew Janissaries with a secret army and European help (1826); utilizes Western models for Tanzimat Reforms ○ Tanzimat Reforms (1839-1876): introduced Western influences, a parliament, and a constitution to the empire while facilitating trade. Ottomanism was a popular trend in the 1870s and 1880’s in which loyalty to the sultan was replaced by with loyalty to the Ottoman state  ○ This was key as the empire was so diverse and people did not always feel a connection to the particular sultan Western Influence and Coups 1878-1908: Sultan Abdul Hamid nullified the constitution and restricted civil liberties Young Turk Revolution of 1908: Young Turks (nationalist reform party) overthrew Hamid ○ Sultan was retained as political figurehead and authority on religion only ○ COllapse in 1923 after Ottoman involvement in WW1 Napoleon’s Invasion in Egypt Napoleon invaded Egypt in 1798, hoping to eventually destroy British India ○ Demonstrated the Muslim vulnerability to European power 1798: Napoleon defeated the Mamluks in the Battle of the Pyramids ○ European’s superior artillery vs. Mamluks spears, muskets, and cavalry 1799: Battle of the Nile (British led by Horatio Nelson); Napoleon retreated and left Egypt under care of generals. 1801: The British cut off French supply lines; French were forced to end conquest Egypt European Intervention in Egypt Ali’s emphasis on cotton production in Egypt made it a single export country ○ Ali allied with powerful rural landlord to control the peasants, who became increasingly impoverished by state’s demands ○ 1869: Suez Canal completed which connected Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea ○ Egypt now a strategic political location with east commercial and military links to Europe and colonies in Asia and Africa Qing China (1644-1912) Manchu nomads, living north of Great Wall, overtook the weakened Ming Dynasty ○ Leader, Nurhaci, unified many of the Manchu tribes 1644: Manchus seized the capital of Beijing and took the dynastic name “Qing.” Qing were not a part of the Han Chinese ethnicity that other dynasty was a part of ○ Relationship between Manchus and and were complex ○ Sometimes, Manchus mandated han men must shave heads as an act of humiliation  Qing maintained much of the political/ social systems of the Ming (traditional Chinese patriarchy, civil service exam, emphasis on agriculture) Some changes: 1) ban on foreign travel and trade lifted; 2) commercialization and urbanization expanded Corruption and Social Disintegration By 18th c., bureaucracy had become corrupt. ○ Bribery, favoritism, and cheating on civil service exams was rampant. Qing rulers aimed to alleviate rural distress by lowering taxes and labor demands, but the gap between landowning and peasant classes grew. Public works projects were not completed or in disrepair ○ 1860s: Yellow River flooded the Shandong peninsula and thousands of peasants died of famine and disease Food shortages and landlord demands prompted mass migrations westward. The Opium War (1839-1842; 1856-1860) The British were frustrated by having to pay large amounts of silver for Chinese goods. To solve this, the British traded Indian opium to the Chinese ○ Addiction; loss of Chinese silver Qing emperor issued edicts: 1) forbid European opium trade; 2) opium is to be confiscated and destroyed. 1839: First Opium War between Chinese and British; Chinese were defeated ○ Treaty on Nanking (1842): Hong Kong is a British colony dedicated to European trade; extraterritorial rights. Spheres of Influence: European forcing the Chinese to open trade and diplomatic exchanges, and extend right of extraterritoriality Taiping Rebellion (1850-1865) Led by Hong Xiuquan who established the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom with capital in Nanjing ○ Increased influence of European powers and defeat in the Opium War caused widespread dissatisfaction in the Qing. The Taiping proposed alternatives to the Qing dynasty. ○ Attack of traditional Chinese culture/ elite ○ Social reform; land distribution; Christianity  The Qing defeated the Taiping ○ An estimated 20 million people died. Self-Strengthening Movement: Qing officials and elite encouraged Western investments and modernization of army Boxer Rebellion (1898-1901) First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895): Qing China vs. Meiji Japan over control of Korea; Qing lose Korea Empress Cixi crushed calls for reform 1898-1901: The Boxer Rebellion ○ Peasants created society called “Righteous and Harmonious Fists” ○ Initially try to destroy Qing and rid China of foreign influences ○ Once backed by Cixi, work solely to remove foreign power ○ Put down by Eight-Nation Alliance ○ Led to greater European control of Chinese affairs Fall of Qing Empire (1912) After the defeat of Taipings, underground secret societies continued uprisings against the dynasty. ○ OFten, resistance was led by young men who had received Western education. 1905: Civil service exams end. 1911-1912: Republican Revolution toppled the Qing dynasty ○ Puyi, last emperor of China, was deposed Asia Migrations and The Global Economies Many Asians traveled to other locations looking for work of all sorts ○ Japanese agricultural workers traveled across the Pacific (especially Hawaii) to work on plantations ○ Indentured servitude was common in China and India ○ Chinese laborers traveled to the US, southeast Asia, Caribbean, and southeast Asia ○ Indians traveled to east and southern Africa, the Caribbean, and southeast Asia Chapter 27: Russia and Japan: Industrialization Outside the West Defying the Odds Stores of Russia and Japan do not fit the patterns of Western imperialism Common Characteristics ○ Imitation, understood the benefits of borrowing, political effectiveness Result? Clashing global spheres ○ (Russo-Japanese) Russia Before Reform Increasingly co conservative to prevent Western revolutionary ideas ○ Alexander I @ Congress of Vienna ○ Nicholas I represses opponents, controls schools and newspapers Western fascination remained among scholars and artists ○ Decemberist uprising Territorial expansion continues, particularly toward Ottomans Economic and Social Problems Conservatism results in stagnant economy and growing gap w/ West ○ Profoundly agricultural and serf-based Inferiority made clear by Crimean War ○ Russia defeated by British and French industrial arms Reforms become essential to allow for economic growth in order to maintain military strength Reform Era and Industrialization Reform addressed needs but led to expanded grievances Serfs emancipated in 1861 ○ Land given to serfs, population and urban labor force grows ○ Tsar and aristocracy maintained w/ no new political rights, traditional farming and ties to land continued w/ redemption payments  Zemstvoes allows middle class to gain position in local government, military begins to modernize, literacy increases although unevenly, women gain access to education and jobs Limited construction of modern factories ○ Extended railroad network (trans-Siberian Railroad) ○ Coal, steal, oil, textile industries expand Development largely result of foreign investment, protect tariffs, and size ○ Factories less technologically advanced Road to Revolution Nationalism is a key problem but not yet a main source of concern Attacks by intelligentsia and anarchist strengthen the resolve of the tsar to increase his control ○ Reactionary authoritarianism (EX-p