The Complete American History PDF

Red, White, and Black Roots of the United States: 1)​ The seeds of the society that became the United States were planted by three distinct peoples: a)​ Native Americans b)​ Europeans c)​ Africans 2)​ To understand what the meeting of these three cultures meant, we must look at the...

Red, White, and Black Roots of the United States: 1)​ The seeds of the society that became the United States were planted by three distinct peoples: a)​ Native Americans b)​ Europeans c)​ Africans 2)​ To understand what the meeting of these three cultures meant, we must look at the background of each. Native Americans: 1)​ First inhabitants of America. 2)​ They first came to the Americas in three waves: a)​ ~40-20,000 years ago, b)​ ~12-6,000 years ago, c)​ ~10-5,000 years ago. 3)​ They were mostly nomadic tribes following the buffalo herds (that’s probably what brought them into America). 4)​ Migrations: a)​ With new evidence based on DNA analysis, major migration began 16,000 years ago and came from the direction of Alaska. b)​ Tribes split into two branches about 14,000 years ago, spreading into Central and South America respectively. c)​ ~ 9,000 years ago another wave from the north go south, displacing the original wave. d)​ 4,200 years ago, final wave moves from contemporary USA territory into the Andes. 5)​ 3 South American Empires: a)​ 2,000-1,500 BCE, some tribe groups began developing agriculture and more settled lifestyle. b)​ They formed three separate civilizations: Aztek (Mexico), Mayan (also Mexico; collapsed before arrival of Europeans), and Incan (Andes; modern day Peru, Bolivia and Chile) Empires c)​ By 1500:​ - Population of Native Americans, living in those empires and nomadic tribes combined, ranges from 8 to over 100 million​ - Current estimates are 43-72 million, from which around 22-48 million in North America. 6)​ North American native tribes: a)​ Despite similar roots, they formed distinct cultures, languages, traditions, and lifestyles. b)​ Most of tribes settled down and embraced sedentary lifestyle, with major exceptions being the Plains Tribes and those tribes along the Northwestern coast, which retained nomadic lifestyle. c)​ Different housing architecture: tribes from Eastern Coast used to live in wooden huts, while Pueblo tribe (which lives in Arizona and New Mexico) built their homes from clay-made bricks.  d)​ Tipis that are stereotypically associated with natives were only used by nomadic tribes from the plains. A New World for Native Americans 1)​ Nowadays in historiography term “New World” is understood as a process rather than place. 2)​ European Impact on Native Americans: a)​ Europeans bring in diseases:​ - Virgin soil epidemics.​ - Diseases common and non-lethal for Europeans, prove to be deadly for natives.​ - 50-90% death rate from childhood diseases.​ - Due to epidemics by 1650, native population is reduced to only 6 million. b)​ Trade:​ - Natives accepted from Europeans those items that had a functional use for them.​ - In Natives culture exchange was considered as formal way of cementing relationship between distinct people’s vs in European culture exchange of commodities was simply done for profit.​ - Over the time tribes become dependent on Europeans.​ - Demand for animals and their furs leads to overkill of animals. c)​ Horses:​ - Horses were brought with Spanish conquistadors during Cortez’s conquest of Mexico.​ - Some of those horses run away and started to live freely into the Plains.​ - They were then found and tamed by Plains Tribes.​ - Introduction of horses changed lives of Plains Tribes; horses allowed them to fast travel longer distances and improved efficiency of hunting for buffalo. d)​ Land:​ - Plenty of land, few peoples.​ - Because there were enough of land for every one Indian tribes’ notions of ownership fundamentally differed from European.​ - Indians saw their land as common property and good, while Europeans whom represented individualist approach to property. e)​ Missionaries:​ - All Europeans justifies colonial expansion in Americas and Asia (Malaya, Indonesia, etc.) by speaking that they seek to evangelize Native Americans and Asians.​ - In North America, missionary work proved to be largely ineffective; Natives retained their believes and customs.​ - However, some groups did convert​ - Christianity (especially Catholicism) was used as a mean of assimilation of natives into new colonial society. A New World for Europeans: 1)​ Native Impact on Europeans: a)​ Primarily material one:​ - Natives provided Europeans technology and knowledge how to deal with the new world that they were unfamiliar with.​ - Europeans brought to Europe crops that Natives cultivated (e.g. corn, potatoes etc.)​ - Europeans often assimilated Natives’ place names into their own languages. b)​ Identity:​ - Colonist felt that they were chosen by God to “civilize” the natives.​ - Separation from Europe started to create a certain sense of uniqueness in the minds of colonialists who started to think of themselves not only as Europeans but as Americans. African Roots: 1)​ Introduction: a)​ Africa is very diverse land in sense of ethnicity. b)​ Africa is also diverse when it comes to languages; in only one Nigeria there are around ​ 200 distinct languages. c)​ To be precise, while speaking about African roots of Africa we shall focus on civilizations of West Africa (because that’s the place from which most of African Americans’ ancestors come from). 2)​ African Society: a)​ Extended kinship network was foundation of society. b)​ Traced ancestry back to common individual. c)​ Often matrilineal (inheritance from mother’s family, in contrary to European patrilineal [inheritance from father’s side]) d)​ Seniority = Oldest male was the head and patriarch of family. e)​ Polygamy was practised. f)​ Lineage and occupation were based on social status. g)​ Africans practised slavery, but it was not perpetual nor hereditary nor racial like the European one. 3)​ Economy: a)​ Geography determined dominant mode of economic life. b)​ Various resources (like gold in Mali) c)​ But still, regardless of region farming was a key piece of economy. d)​ Alongside agriculture artisans and commence were present. 4)​ Religion: a)​ Ancestora’ worship b)​ Nature alive with spirits c)​ Africans believed in magic, and that its rituals are an effective way to achieve particular ends. d)​ Some examples of human sacrifices. e)​ Muslim influence among elite (due to some similarities to African believes e.g. polygamy) f)​ Christianity:​ - There were no Christian missionaries till 16th century​  - Not much headway till the 19th century, when Europeans developed medicines against malaria, which allowed them to explore deeper regions of Africa. g)​ The arts:​ - Crafts were important part of cultural life.​ - The most vital form was music, especially singing.​ - Thus manufacturing of instruments developed.​ - Literature (Oral, not written; passed on from generation to generation; survived against planters’ wishes among slaves in America; many of African Americans oral stories were later on collected by Joel Chandler Harris, who complied them into Uncle Remus stories). 7)​ The Slave Trade 1)​ Began in 1441 when Portuguese merchant brought 10 Africans to Lisboa, at first Africans were supposed to be sold for goods in Asia. 2)​ Demand for labour on the New World’s plantations opens the doors for mass import of slaves from Africa. 3)​ 1525 – first slave ship arrives in the Americas. 4)​ 1866 - last slave ship arrives in the Americas. 5)​ Around 12.5 million slaves arrived in the New World. 6)​ Pattern of trade: a)​ King grants monopoly for company (King gets his share from profits). b)​ Company establishes trading posts on African coast. c)​ Ships arrived with European goods for exchange. d)​ Europeans traded with Africans for Africans. e)​ Males cost 4 times that of females. 7)​ The middle passage (from Africa to the Americas): a)​ Second leg of ship’s journey b)​ Ships crammed full, 250-300 people c)​ Death rate 1 to 8, meaning 30-40 people died d)​ Slaves die due to diseases, suicides, loss of will to live or being killed by crew e)​ Slaves were not passive, slave revolt as greatest threat f)​ “Slave revolt insurance” 8)​ At the beginning around 2/3 of slaves are transported to Brazil and Caribbean; this changes with introduction of cotton in the South 9)​ Starvation on board due to lack of food was common 10)​Arrival in Americas: a)​ After arrival in the Americas slaves were put on auction (in e.g. Charleston and Port-au-Prince) b)​ Slaves work on plantations in New World produce coffee, sugar, and cotton. 11)​ Consequences of slavery: a)​ Slave trade have consequences not just for colonial economies, but also for Africa. b)​ King Nzinga’s letter to Portuguese King (being Catholic himself Nzinga questioned slave trade, for which he was deposed by Portuguese). Europe in 16th century: 1)​ Europe undergoes a cultural revival during Renaissance era 2)​ Columbus’ journeys as turning point for Europe 3)​ Renaissance leads to revival of a)​ Trade b)​ Learning c)​ Strong leadership d)​ Religion 4)​ Revival of Trade: a)​ Part of general expansion of economy, based on agricultural change and population growth. b)​ Desire for luxurious goods from the East was present in Europe since era of the Crusades, when Europeans encountered those goods for the first time.  c)​ West European access controlled by Italian (mainly Venetians) and Muslim (Ottoman) merchants; Western European kingdoms seek to break their monopoly on trade with Far East. d)​ This desire leads to expeditions that seek to find a new, independent from Ottomans, trade sea paths to import luxurious goods from India and other distant countries. 5)​ Revival of Learning: 1)​ The Renaissance 2)​ People start reading classical texts on astrology, astronomy and mathematics 3)​ Ptolemy of Alexandria – his idea of round earth, which returns during Renaissance, after the years of absence, serves as inspiration for Columbus’s idea for journey to India across the Atlantic. 4)​ Invention of astrolabe. 5)​ Improvement in shipbuilding (ships become faster, can survive at ocean, and load more cargo). 6)​ Revival of Strong Monarchies: 1)​ Monarchs invest in exploration in order to gain benefits from new territories, including resources 2)​ Due to more stable situation in Europe (in comparison to Medieval era) monarchs can actually afford to send explorers 7)​ Revival of Religion: a)​ Reformation b)​ Religions become a part of national identity c)​ Religion stimulates rivalry between European powers both in Europe and colonies Summary: 1) Revival of Trade: motivation for expansion 2) Revival of Learning: provides technology for expansion 3) Revival of Strong Monarchies: provides funds for expansion 4) Revival of Religion: the dark side of expansion - sense of cultural superiority Portugal: 1)​ Small country, unexpected leader in colonial expansion 2)​ Strong merchant class 3)​ Strong leader in form of Prince Henry the Navigator, he provides money for colonial expeditions 4)​ Thus Portugal becomes the Silicon Valley for 15th century expansion 5)​ Portuguese discover Azores and Canaries (foothold for future expansion into South America and Africa) and explore western coast of Africa (future slave trade main hub) 6)​ In 1487 they rounded Cape Hope 7)​ 1497-99 = Vasco de Gama reaches India after sailing around Africa Spain: 1)​ Gospel, Gold, Glory – the motivation for exploration, conquest and colonization 2)​ “We came here to serve God and the King, and also to get rich” ~ one of Cortez’s soldiers 3)​ Columbus: a)​ Italian merchant/seamen, around 1480s pealed the scheme to reach Asia by sailing west; King and Queen of Spain fund his expedition. b)​ In 1492 Columbus leaves with first expedition which reaches Caribbean (later named West Indies, because Columbus thought that he found a way to India); in total Columbus made 4 expeditions into Caribbean 4)​ Gold and Glory: a)​ 1519 – Cortez lands in Mexico and begins its conquest b)​ 1531 - Pizarro conquers Incan Empire in Peru c)​ Through these conquest Spain gains access to vast resources including gold and silver d)​ Silver becomes New Spain’s (Mexico) “gold” (main export resource that generates huge income) 5)​ Pattern of settlement - the encomienda: a)​ Spanish aristocracy is granted by King the right to rule native villages in New World b)​ In return for their governance and management of given village, aristocrats gain control of native people who serve as workforce in their estates c)​ As their part of deal with government in Madrid, aristocrats are obliged to fund and support Church’ work in the province, including missionary practice aimed and converting natives into Catholicism d)​ Society of extremes (small, foreign aristocratic elite enjoys privileges; while natives who made the biggest share of population lived in extreme poverty) 6)​ First permanent colony in future US was St. Augustine in Florida (1565) founded by Spanish 7)​ Spanish excised their strong influence on what became Southwest of USA (New Mexico, Arizona, California): a)​ Franciscan missionaries came to Southwest in early 17th Century; they established missions in Santa Fe (1608) and California b)​ 1526 – Royal order by king says that at least two priests have to go with conquistadors (it was supposed to fasten the spread of religion and Church’s influence) c)​ The Requirement: Conquistadors upon encountering natives were ordered to read to them text, which demanded from them acceptance of Papal and Royal authority; if natives refused conquistador were allowed to use force and seize their land in the name of King and God (they still used it because natives didn’t know Spanish) d)​ Long term plans: gradual efforts to assimilate natives by establishing missions and converting them to Christianity (that didn’t work at first, but through next centuries Church eliminated local religious believes) English Colonies: 1)​ Reign of Stuart Dynasty: a)​ 1603 = James I becomes King of England after the death of Elisabeth I b)​ He ends war with Spain; thus he is able to invest resources into exploration and colonization instead of war c)​ Financing of colonization through joint stocks company d)​ Establishment of Royal Companies on basis of royal charters (King’s permissions and grants) e)​ English colonial efforts were much more private enterprises instead of government funding (like in Portugal and Spain) 2)​ Virginia: a)​ 1607 = Virginia Company of London establishes Jamestown. b)​ Nearly collapsed after few years due to poor support. c)​ Colony gets reorganized: in 1618 there were 400 inhabitants; by 1625: 1200 inhabitants. d)​ Tobacco becomes Virginia’s “gold”; first shipment to England leaves Virginia in 1612 3)​ Tobacco: a)​ Indians taught the Spanish how to smoke, then the Spanish taught the rest of Europe. b)​ James I personally disliked tobacco and considered it as bad for people and their health, but it ensured flow of money into the treasury, so he allowed it. c)​ Headright system provided access to land and money influx d)​ 1618 reforms in Virginia: 50 acres of land for payment of passage to Virginia e)​ Rapid growth of Virginia in following years is often described as “the first American boom” f)​ With expansion of tobacco fields planters needed labor (Plantation/planter more generic in the 17th Century; it could refer both to small farm and large estate; changes its meaning around 18th Century) g)​ Indentured servants:​ - At first most of the plantations’ workers were white indentured servants (sold portion of work life in exchange for passage to colony)​ - 4 out of 5 people who came to Virginia came as indentured servants​ - Young men, 15-24, lower ranks of English society​ - Contract lasted from 4 to 7 years, bonus at the end​ - Hard life, high death rate​ - They were seen as property​ - They hoped that after contract they will receive their own plantation; in the end fever than 1 in 20 servants became planters 4)​ The switch to slave labor: a)​ 1st report of African slaves on American soil is from 1620 b)​ Their status was unclear, at first some worked as indentured servants on basis of contract, later on gaining freedom and sometimes their own plot of land c)​ Situation changes in 1660, when 1st law regarding slavery is passed; according to it becoming Christian didn’t change status of slaves d)​ Death rate declines in 1650s e)​ At first slaves cost twice as servants, so owning them wasn’t profitable  f)​ In 1650s/1660s there is increase in supply of slaves; this leads to decline of slave’s price and also to decline in supply of servants g)​ Owning a slave was now seen as profitable, because slave could be exploited and used at low costs for 30-40 years versus 4-7 years of servant’s higher costs h)​ Slave labour reproduces itself was seen as another advantage as provided slave owners with free new workers or new source of fast profit (if they decided to sell the child to other slave owner) i)​ Bacon’s Rebellion (1676) = revolt of landless ex-servants against restrictions on their access to land; failed but came close to toppling of Virginia’s government; this only convinced rich planter furthermore that they should abandon servants-based model of work for slavery j)​ Social advantages of slave labour = it ended a problem of landless ex-servants; color probable indicator of status and way of identifying slaves; racial justifications of whites’ dominance over the slaves (treating slaves due to their race as someone worse) 5)​ Carolina: a)​ Colony established in 1660s b)​ Created as support for Caribbean colonies (like Jamaica) c)​ From its creation it was connected to slavery as it was included in the charter 6)​ Massachusetts: a)​ Puritan settlement of New England has had a wild career in professional scholarship; H. L. Mencken saw Puritanism as “the haunting fear that someone, somewhere might be happy” b)​ Puritanism in England:​ - Reformation in England and the rule of Elisabeth I produces the “via media” (middle road between Catholicism and Protestantism).​ - “Via media” satisfied most, but some still wanted to “finish” the reformation of English church.​ - They wanted to “purify” Church of England of all remnants of Catholicism (Eliminate all clergy above the parish pastor, simplify worship, reorganize structure of Church by removing bishops etc.)​ - Wanted also to purify political and social life.​ - Became popular within the middle class.​ - In the end they were forced out of England. c)​ Pilgrims - The Plymouth Plantation:​ - Pilgrims left the Anglican church to establish independent congregations, they were also known as Separatists or Brownists (due to their leader’s name)​ - In 1607 they moved to Netherlands, but feared corruption of their ideals by Dutch society (they wanted to stay separate)​ - In 1620, they receive land grant from London Company and set sail to New World, they travel abroad Mayflower and after some problem they reach North America​ - after their arrival to America they create the Mayflower Compact d)​ Establishing the colony: ​ - Massachusetts Bay Company.​ - Great Migration of Puritans (1630-40), from 20 to 40k people, came in family units (nuclear families), more stable basis for society than single immigrants in Virginia.  e)​ Developing the Colony:​ - New arrival maintain the colony economically.​ - Various efforts to find marketable product (like tobacco) failed.​ - Trade becomes Massachusetts’ gold.​ - Agricultural products and fish to sugar islands in the Caribbean.​ - Rum and sugar to England.​ - Manufactured good flow from England to New England. f)​ End of a Dream:​ - New town members, who are not Puritans, changed demographic structure​ - Half-way covenant (rules who could be Puritan Church member and who can be baptized), death of a Dream about pure Puritan Church and colony.​ - Impact of the merchants.​ - “The Errand in the Wilderness” 7)​ The Puritan Legacy:​ - New England town = orderly pattern of settlement.​ - Public education based on Sunday Schools.​ - Sense of mission (later passed upon American mentality).​ - Puritan ethic: Calling (from God); Encouraged frugality, discouraged extravagance; Taxes seen as a threat to Calling and theft, boycott of taxed items required (influences future American mentality, especially during American Revolution) Other English colonies: 1)​ Formed prior to English Civil War: 1.​ Virginia (1607) 2.​ Massachusetts (Pilgrims – 1620, Puritans – 1628) 3.​ New Hampshire (1623; 1629) = created by people who were fed up with Puritans in Massachusetts 4.​ Maryland (1634) = created by Catholic refugees from England 5.​ Connecticut (1635) = founded by the Puritans moving south 6.​ Rhode Island (1636) = established by Roger Williams who criticized the closeness of Church and State in Puritan-run colonies 2)​ Civil War halts colonial expansion. After the death of Oliver Cromwell and Restoration of monarchy in 1660 expansion resumes. New colonies are being formed: 1.​ The Carolinas (1663; separated into two parts – North and South Carolina – in 1712) 2.​ New Jersey (1664) 3.​ New York (1664, founded as New Netherlands by the Dutch in 1614) 4.​ Delaware (1664, founded as New Sweden in 1638) 5.​ Pennsylvania (1682) = founded by Quakers seeking refuge; other groups joined them and established multicultural society 6.​ Georgia (1732) = established as a buffer zone between Carolinas and Spanish Florida, it was supposed to be free of slavery (it didn’t last as the colony embraced it) The Road to Revolution 18th Century Society 1)​ Urban growth: a)​ In 1750 only 5% of colonists lived in towns of 2,500 residents or more b)​ Nevertheless, urban areas were centers of colonial society, culture and government c)​ “urban crucibles” of political change d)​ Places where revolutionary ideas were refined e)​ Urban growth 1690-1750:​ - Philadelphia: from 2,200 to 35,000 inhabitants.​ - New York: from 4,500 to 25,000 inhabitants.​ - Boston: from 6,000 to 16,000 inhabitants.​ - Charleston: from 2,200 to 12,000 inhabitants. 2)​ Trade: a)​ Cities grew and prospered according to trade. b)​ Thus merchants were key for cities’ prosperity. c)​ Workers employed directly; not to many, some clerks and day laborers; they stimulated demand for ships. d)​ Construction, sails, rope, metal workshops as main branches connected to shipping industry. e)​ Wholesalers and retailers. f)​ Warehouses, transporters, shops. 3)​ Artisans: a) Craft manufacturers b) 2/3 of city residents involved in crafts business. c) Heart of commercial life within the cities. d) Career path from Apprentice Journeyman Craftsman e) Proud of their skills. 4)​ The Poor: a)​ Three main groups:​ - Widows and orphans.​ - Rural migrants who came to the city with hopes of staring a better life.​ - Recent immigrants from Europe. b)​ Some of them lived in almshouses (shelters for poor). 5)​ Caste structure of society in America (from top to bottom): a)​ Merchants b)​ Professionals/Government officials c)​ Artisans d)​ Unskilled workforce e)​ Apprentices f)​ Indentured servants g)​ Slaves 6)​ Corporate view of society: a)​ Society viewed as one body of interdependent parts. b)​ Hierarchical and static (no social mobility). c)​ Economic security not success. d)​ Deference = subjugation to the elites and higher ups.  e)​ Government = betters deserve to rule; expected to rule in interest of the whole society, not for their own private gain. f)​ Economy = government intervention is just and necessary to ensure fairness not profit. g)​ Religion binds society and justifies social hierarchy. 7)​ Forces undermining corporate view of society: a)​ Increasing poverty (poor come to think that government doesn’t work). b)​ War (creation of depopulation, disabled veterans, widows and orphans). c)​ The Great Awakening (occurs in 1740s and 1750s). d)​ The merchant ethic (emphasized profit; disliked British mercantilist trade regulations; The Bread Riots in Boston during Queen Anne’s War [merchants refused to give Bostonians bread and send flour to West Indies and Caribbean for profit]). e)​ “Modern”, individualist views of society take roots in American cities especially among merchants. f)​ Growing sentiment for eased regulations. 8)​ First Great Awakening: a)​ Causes of The Great Awakening:​ - Signs of religious decline.​ - Half-way covenant.​ - Immorality.​ - Cold formality.​ - Lack of trained clergy (especially in the South).​ - Low church membership.​ - Scattered signs of renewed interest in religious matters in the 1730s. b)​ George Whitefield:​ - Friend of John and Charles Wesley.​ - In 1739-41 he made a tour throughout the 13 colonies to raise money for orphanage​ - 20,000 people listen to his sermon in Boston.​ - Benjamin Franklin who seen this sermon in person described him as very convincing and charismatic.​ - Made 5 more tours of the colonies before he died. c)​ Reactions to Whitefield:​ - support from some priests who seen him as reformer.​ - criticism from established clergy, who seen his activity and views as a threat​ - excessive support from enthusiasts, fanatism. d)​ Legacy:​ - Legitimated religious pluralism among Protestants​ - Encouraged separation of church and state.​ - Challenged authorities.​ - Promoted colonial unity rather than dependance on England (Colonies-wide event, New channels of communication).​ - Changed theology (from premillennial to postmillennial).​ - Great Awakening as a sign of beginning of millennial kingdom.​ - Millennial kingdom not possible with colonies under the influence of “corrupt” England. The Enlightenment 1)​ Core ideas: a)​ Present age more enlightened than the past b)​ Chief means of expanding knowledge was through reason 2)​ Popularizes ideas of Scientific Revolution and apply them to non-science fields (two important books: “2nd Treatise on Government” by John Locke and “Spirit of the Laws” by de Montesquieu. 3)​ The Enlightenment in the colonies: a)​ Flourished at the same time as the Great Awakening. b)​ Preachers “baptized” the Enlightenment, its ideas suit protestant ideas of individual understanding of the Bible. c)​ Permeated colonial society deeply (Nature of life in colonies different from the life Europe; you need to think for yourself in order to survive in the Frontier). d)​ Encourages search of new means of organizing and governing society. Imperial Relations The Pattern of Empire: 1)​ Mercantilism: a)​ Economic system in which government increases national wealth by discouraging imports and encouraging exports. b)​ For colonial empires colonies served as source of raw materials from which they could make various goods and as a market for finished products. c)​ Government had right to regulate economy. d)​ What English government wanted was not incompatible with what colonists needed, this leads to their opposition to mercantilist system. 2)​ Regulations: a)​ Prior to 1660 regulations are not effective, unclear, and inconsistent; England plunges into English Civil War and is distracted and sidelines importance of affairs in colonies. b)​ This changes with the passage of the Navigation Acts in 1660 and 1663, which are based upon 3 basic principles:​ - Trade must be conducted only by English/colonial merchants​ - “Enumerated” colonial products will be sent only to England, instead of other countries, thus granting English the monopoly on them.​ - Asian/European products were exported further to other countries through England c)​ Modifications made to Navigation Acts in later years:​ - Expansion of enumerated goods list.​ - Ban on export of colonial products that competed with English manufactures ​ (e.g. hats from colonies)​ - Introduction of new taxes on specified colonial products, to discourage their production, export and sale.​ - These regulation let to formation of sentiment among colonialists that Parliament, doesn’t represent interest of whole empire’s citizen, but only those of English merchants. 3)​ Enforcement: a)​ Since in previous decades government could not enforce regulations, it decided to form a new system dedicated to enforcement of regulation. b)​ 1696 law established 3 part system:​ - All colonial governors were forced to make an oath to enforce acts.​ - Customs service overseed execution of regulations and was supported by governors.​ - Admiralty courts, consisting judges appointed by King himself, were established in each colony, and were tasked with prosecuting violations of regulations. c)​ Works of those three part system were controlled by Board of Trade, which advised how to proceed on specific matters; despite its advisory role and fact that it could not issue orders, Board’s advice were rarely ignored. d)​ Colonial governments:​ - By 1730, most governors were royally appointed by King​ - Governor appointed a council consisting of local aristocrats; council helped governor in managing colony. ​ - Each colony also had legislative assembly, elected by people.​ - Laws passed by assemblies, must be approved by council, signed by governor, and endorsed by King.​ - Assemblies proved to be the strongest of three, because they levied taxes and decided on governors salary. e)​ After some years it became clear that admiralty courts were weak in execution of laws; customs offices were understaffed and its officials poorly paid; thus regulation enforced system proved to be inefficient. f)​ Thus British control over trade with given colony came to depend on the governors’ ability to work with Assembly in his colony. g)​ For the first half of the 18th century, the system worked and governors cooperated with assemblies, but series of colonial wars in second half of the century expanded powers of governors and undermined balance of powers. Colonial Wars: 1)​ Enter the French: a)​ French arrive in America in 1530s when expedition led by Jacques Cartier explores the St. Lawrence River. b)​ 1608: Samuel de Champlain establishes French colony in Quebec. c)​ In years following French explore Great Lakes, sail down the Mississippi, and establish trade posts in there; then they claim Mississippi with settlement at Biloxi in 1700. d)​ Fur was New France’s main export good. e)​ On contrary to Spanish and English, French came to trade with Native Americans rather than displace them. f)​ Thus this lead to low immigration to New France; in 1750, population of New France was 50-60,000 Europeans vs about a million in the English colonies. 2)​ Battle for North America: a)​ From 1689-1815, England and France fought series of wars for dominance in Europe and in their colonies. b)​ Wars and their names in colonies:​ - King William’s (League of Augsburg) 1689-97​  - Queen Anne’s (Spanish Succession) 1702-13​ - King George’s (Austrian Succession) 1745-48​ - French and Indian (7 Years War) 1754 (56)-63​ - American Revolution 1774-83​ - French Revolution/Napoleonic Wars 1789-1815 c)​ First four wars (William’s, Anne’s, George’s, and French and Indian) determined the fate of New France and led to its dissolution. d)​ During first three war, North American theater was a sideshow, and wasn’t considered by European powers as a main theater of fighting; From European perspective most important during the war were sugar colonies in the Caribbean e)​ During those wars rivaling colonial empires used to cause proxy wars between native allies and enemy’s settlers for the control of borderline territories. f)​ Colonies (especially New England) bore costs of these wars. 3)​ French and Indian War: a)​ First colonial war that wasn’t sideshow, but main theater. b)​ Began with conflict between French and British settlers over settling of the Ohio River valley. c)​ In 1754 French build Fort Duquesne; Virginia’s government sends G. Washington and small group of troops to attack it, but they were defeated and forced to retreat. d)​ Virginia’s government appeals for help to London; Britain sends contingent under command of gen. Braddock, but they are also defeated by French in 1755. e)​ Till 1757 French got initiative in the colonies; this situation changes when in 1757 William Pitt became British Prime Minister; Pitt who was supporter of expanding British colonial empire decides to commit vast resources to defeat French in America and conquer New France for Britain; he also promoted young generals, who believed that war with France will end when they will take Montreal and cut off French soldiers from supplies. f)​ As a result they prepared and launched three-pronged assault on New France. g)​ After a siege in 1760 Montreal surrenders and falls into British hands. h)​ War ends soon later in 1763, with signing Peace of Paris:​ - Britain takes all of French possession east of the Mississippi.​ - Britain gets Florida from Spain, in return, Spain receives French Louisiana.​ - For colonists, Peace of Paris allowed them to expand their settlement further west, since French and Indian threats were gone. i)​ Consequences:​ - Creation of American outlook, that differed from British one.​ - Colonists for the first time fight together for common cause, instead of fighting for interest of one particular colony.​ - Unresolved problems (How to govern newly acquired territories?; How to balance promises to Indians with colonists’ desire for land?; Who pays for maintenance and stay of British armies in colonies?; Britain wonders how to repay its war debts;​ - These problems later on transform and lead to series of crises that caused American Revolution. Imperial Crisis, 1763-1783 1)​ Governing the Colonies: a)​ By 18th century, basic 3-part structure was in place:​ - Governor (appointed by the king)​ - Council (represented interests of local aristocracy)​ - Elected assemblies (representing the people of colonies) b)​ Long, evolutionary process resulted in assemblies being the most powerful part of colonial political system; largely because of taxes, that either must have been levied or approved by assembly action. c)​ Colonial elites believed that their assemblies were like (and equal to) the House of Commons in British Parliament and functioned to protect their interests against the abuse of executive power (King and his government); they claimed to had all the rights that Englishmen in England had, especially in the matter of a electing their own representation in assembly; They thought colonial assemblies did not existence to King’s consent and were not temporary (London thought otherwise) d)​ By 1763, fundamental shift in power had occurred in the colonies, thus a fundamental shift in imperial relations; King George III sidelines local assemblies and empowers his appointed governors which outrages local assemblies and colonists. e)​ Despite marginalization, assemblies asserted right to have a voice in matters that affected them f)​ British government’s actions, that sought to centralization of colonies, threatened power and authority of assemblies; eventually assemblies and colonial elites concluded that separation and declaration of their independence is the only way of protecting their freedom and rights. 2)​ “No Taxation without representation”: a)​ Taxes levied on colonies by British Parliament to cover war debts cause anger in colonies; there are two main causes of that situation:​ - Parliament’s move undermines local assemblies’ rights to levy taxes.​ - New taxes hit colonists and limited their incomes. b)​ Slogan “No Taxation without representation” is promoted; It wasn’t a call to send representatives of colonies to Parliament, but rather, a statement of a right - that the only legitimate taxes were those approved by one’s one elected representatives in their colony. 3)​ The Big Picture of colonial discontent with British rule: a)​ Colonial merchants aren’t content with taxes and start to think they cannot make the serious profits as long as colonies are under British rule. b)​ Religious people claim that colonies can’t play their destined role in establishing the millennium as long as they are attached to a corrupt England. c)​ Political elites saw freeing themselves from British rule as way to defend their power and authority within their colonies from government in London, which wanted to centralize colonies. 4)​ Whig Ideology: a)​ Whigs were 18th century British politicians who criticized the state of British politics. b)​ The main thesis of Whigs’ political program:​ - Politics is a continual struggle between the rulers and the ruled over power ​ and liberty.​  - Purpose of government is to use its power to protect people’s liberty, and not to subjugate them to government’s will.​ - Liberty is "the power which every man has over his own actions and his right to enjoy the fruit of his labor, art, and industry." ​ - Rulers often tend to use and abuse their power for their own selfish purposes ​ and gain.​ - People had a right to resist, indeed a duty, to overthrow government that abused its power.​ - Right to revolution was supposed to be only used in cases of extreme abuse or persistent pattern of abuse.​ - Tyrant government uses military to suppress dissent and deprive people of rights. c)​ Wasn’t popular in England, but gained popularity in colonies. d)​ Americans came to see British colonial policies as a part of the pattern of abuses the British Whigs described. e)​ Therefore, ideology developed by Whigs was used by American rebel elite to justify their deeds in struggle with British authorities. f)​ It soon became the frame for understanding and interpreting the actions of the British government by people in colonies. g)​ Whigs’ works were read widely, with most of population liking the writings of the radical Whig politicians. h)​ Influence of Whig ideology can be seen in “Declaration of Independence”, where Jefferson writes about a “long train of abuses”. 5)​ Mobilizing the Masses: a)​ Population of colonies was a very divided group: 1/3 supported resistance, 1/3 were neutral, and 1/3 were British loyalists. b)​ Anti-British activists “dramatized” the issues that they considered as aimed against colonists c)​ Massed resistance/crowd actions were common; crowd was seen as defender of people’s rights as Englishmen; d)​ Colonial, whig influenced perspective claimed that Parliament represents interests ​ of selected few in England, and that those interest were contradictory with interests ​ of colonists; State’s monopoly under mercantilists system was seen as a way of destroying colonial merchants class; Taxes introduced by British were seen as a threat to colonists’ property. e)​ Actions:​ - Boycott of British-made products or goods imported from England.​ - The Boston Tea Party (caused by introduction of taxes on colonial-made tea in order to sell surplus of tea that belonged to East India Co.) 6)​ “The long train of abuses”: a)​ The Proclamation Line (1763) = limits settlement of colonist to Appalachia line; causes discontent among colonists who want to move further west. b)​ Sugar Act (1764) and Stamp Act (1765) = taxes refined sugar exported from colonies, and all paper-printed documents (newspapers, legal documents etc.) c)​ Quartering Act (1765) = throwing costs of maintenance of British army in 13 Colonies onto colonists. d)​ Townshend Acts (1767) = introduced taxes on various colonial made goods.  e)​ Boston Massacre (1770) = British soldiers shoots colonists protesting Townshend Acts in Boston. f)​ Tea Act (1773) = taxes colonial-made tea. g)​ Coercive Acts (1774) = Took away self-governance and rights that Massachusetts had enjoyed since its founding, and enacted repressions against participants of Boston Tea Party; triggered outrage among colonists. h)​ Quebec Act (1774) = changed boundaries of Quebec province by taking from 13 Colonies territories of Ohio valley. Declaring Independence 1)​ First Continental Congress (1774): a)​ Was called to coordinate colonists’ response to Coercive Acts. b)​ Declared complete boycott of British goods, but affirmed Parliament’s right to tax trade, and wrote petition to King George III, asking him to repeal Coercive Acts. c)​ Petitions and resolution of First Continental Congress were rejected by British, who considered resistance from colonists as an act of separatism and independence from the Crown. 2)​ From Lexington to Breed’s Hill: a)​ 4000 British troops stationed in Boston to enforce Coercive Acts. b)​ Colonial militias started to stockpile arms, preparing for the eventual fight against British. c)​ On 19 April 1774, British troops set out of Boston to destroy arms storages, but on they were ambushed by American militia near Lexington and forced to retreat to Boston; colonial militias begun siege of Boston. d)​ Fights start to spread into Vermont and North Carolina. 3)​ Second Continental Congress: a)​ Gathered in May 1775, to discuss conflict with British. b)​ Conflicting signs; on one side Congress raises an Continental Army, consisting of 20,000 men, and makes George Washington its commander, but on the other side members of Congress write Olive Branch Petition to the King in which they reassure George III that they are loyal to the Crown. c)​ Petition was rejected by King and Parliament who considered Second Continental Congress rebels; London decides to commit more British troops to the colonies and outlaws all trade with 13 Colonies. d)​ In January 1776 Congress is influenced by Thomas Paine’s Common Sense; Paine pointed that monarchic system was the source of all problems and injustices, which has befallen onto colonists. e)​ Conflict escalates:​ - March 1776: British troops are forced out of Boston and evacuate from the city.​ - Colonialist begin raids on British merchant ships.​ - In May colonies formally remove all royal officials. f)​ Members of Continental Congress understands that they need to win fight for independence, therefore they need a clear statement of intentions. g)​ On 7 June a special committee to write a formal declaration of independence from Britain is organized. h)​ On 28 June Thomas Jefferson delivers first draft to Congress. i)​ On 2 July Declaration is approved by Congress.  j)​ On 4 July Declaration is signed by state delegations and adopted. Winning Independence 1)​ Gaining alliances: a)​ French assistance crucial (loans, weapons, ammo and military advisors) b)​ Spanish c)​ Dutch 2)​ Northern Campaigns: a)​ Battle of Saratoga, October 1777 (defeat of British army; occurs during negotiations with the French, they decide that colonists have a chance of winning) b)​ George Washington:​ - Master of strategic retreat (picks his battles)​ - Kept the army on the field​ - Aware of war fatigue in Britain​ - Inspiration​ - Recognized capable leaders (Puławski – cavalry, Kościuszko – engineering) 3)​ Southern Campaigns: a)​ Battle of Yorktown, October 1781 (Cornwallis surrounded by French Fleet, forced to surrender) 4)​ Peace of Paris, 1783: a)​ Independence of the 13 Colonies b)​ Established boundaries (Mississippi river to the West, problem of Canadian borderline) c)​ Florida goes to back to Spain in exchange for their support d)​ Mutual return of confiscated property (including slaves) e)​ France does not get New France or Louisiana f)​ Dutch get back what they lost Road from the Revolution A Social Revolution?: 1)​ Home rule vs who should rule at home?: a)​ American Revolution as essentially, a conservative revolution that sought to preserve and protect the place of colonial elites in colonial society. b)​ Impact on social classes (not much; some opportunity based on removal of loyalists from administration) c)​ Not good economy after the war (lost markets in British colonies; ) d)​ Opportunity to improve your life in the West 2)​ Impact on African Americans: a)​ Emancipation and abolition b)​ Abigail Adams in her letters to John Adams (Wahington’s VP and future President) criticized inconsistency of Founding Father, who at one side claimed that all men are equal, but at the same time they refused to outlaw slavery and recognize rights of African Americans c)​ Massachusetts court declared slavery unconstitutional d)​ Pennsylvania passed gradual emancipation law, which after some time abolished slavery in state  e)​ Virginia and Maryland debated emancipation. In the end both states resolved themselves only to passing acts that made manumission (liberation of slaves by the will of their owners) easier f)​ South Carolina and Georgia on the contrary to the North, not only rejected ideas of emancipation, but passed harsher slave codes and continued importing slaves. g)​ African American Initiatives:​ - Crispus Attucks and the Boston Massacre.​ - Slave volunteers in the Continental Army and State Militias, some got freedom for service.​ - Pennsylvania’ s law of emancipation was a result of slave petitions and activism. 3)​ Impact on Women: a)​ Women in 18th Century America were treated like children and were not considered legal entities. They were under guardianship of father until marriage, afterwards under guardianship of husband. b)​ Traditional women’s responsibilities took on political meaning c)​ Boycotts challenged household management d)​ Daughters of Liberty e)​ Women replace men that went to war in the workforce f)​ New Jersey Constitution loophole (used gender neutral terms, which allowed women to vote for a decade, afterwards politicians amended law and disenfranchised women) g)​ Long term social changes accelerated by Revolution:​ - decline of arranged marriages​ - increasing number of unmarried women ​ -feminization of church activities h)​ The Republican mother / Republican motherhood:​ - Ideology reshaping the understanding of women’s roles in the new nation​ - It claimed that the new Republic needed virtuous citizens, who must have been educated to be virtuous at homes by their mothers; therefore it recognized fact that women need education (although limited one)​ - Recognized importance of domestic sphere and women’s work in civil society, but at the same time it denied them right to vote, legitimated women’s work only in a narrow range of activities, and forced women to not voice their political opinions. 4)​ “All men are created equal”: a)​ Turned out that “All white men with property are created equal”. b)​ There were few justifications for this state of things:​ 1. Politics – Founding Fathers were arguing for political rights not social rights; they wanted political revolution that would defend their place in colonial society from interference of royal government, that sought to centralize colonies; They didn’t wanted a social revolution that might undermine their position in society, and give everyone, regardless of status, equal rights.​ 2. Attitudes - this way of thinking about limited suffrage, was part of the culture of the society in which they grew up.​ 3. Economic – FF feared competition; slaves represent large capital investment, and an inexpensive labor force. ​ 4. Property - slaves were considered property and thus were a part of what Jefferson wanted to protect.​ 5. Fear of emancipation – they were concerned that free slaves might raise demands.  c)​ The outgroups not included in the system forced a redefinition of this rule and expansion of suffrage. Reshaping American Politics 1)​ The Confederation Experiment: a)​ Declaration defined new county as community of “free and independent States”. b)​ Under this interpretation Founding Fathers sought to create a government strong enough to protect independence, but not so strong as to threaten the liberty and ​ enforce laws against citizens will. c)​ In years 1776-1789, colonies were governed by the Confederation Congress, consisting of States’ representations. 2)​ Articles of Confederation: a)​ Legalized actions of Second Continental Congress against British. b)​ Gave each state one vote in Confederation Congress. c)​ 9/13 (~69%) majority required for passing most laws, 13 of 13 (100%!) for important laws. d)​ There is no separate executive branch; President only as chairman of Confederation Congress. e)​ Confederation Congress could declare war, make peace, establish postal service, and coin money. f)​ It could not levy taxes, draft troops, and create courts. g)​ Weaknesses of Articles reflect the concerns over which the Revolution was fought: fear of a strong central government. h)​ Articles probably reflect the ideals of the Declaration better than the Constitution. 3)​ Successes of the Confederation: a)​ Won the war and independence. b)​ Convinced seaboard states to give up claims to territories located deeper into land; this led to transition of territories to states and formation of new states. 4)​ Failures of Confederation: a)​ Diplomacy: treaties failed on sectional votes; divisions among colonies led to some voices grumbling about creating possible separate confederacy. b)​ Shays’s Rebellion: revealed the inability of Confederation to solve problems. c)​ Failures created popular support for revising Articles of Confederation. 3)​ Reshaping American Politics 1)​ Creating the Constitution: a)​ May 1787 = general conference in Philadelphia b)​ Questions whether to revise/amend Articles of Confederation or start over with new constitutional document c)​ Virginia Plan vs New Jersey Plan:​ - VA Plan: bicameral, popular representation, proportional voting system (favours more populous states, giving them advantage because of their population), stronger federal government ​ - NJ Plan: unicameral, state representation (13 delegation working the same way as Congress of the Confederation), same number of delegates for every state regardless of its size (favours smaller states by giving them equal footing with bigger states, despite having less inhabitants), bigger role of states (as in AoC) d)​ Compromises (made thought merging VA and NJ plans):​ - Representation (The House of Representatives based on population, every state gets 2 Senators; Big states are happy with proportional representation in the House, small states are content with equal representation in the Senate)​ - Population (Slaves counted as 3/5s of a person)​ - Slavery (No abolition; No laws on prohibition of slave trade for 20 years since ratifying Constitution; Fugitive slaves must be returned)​ - Voting in Congress (votes cast by individual representatives, not entire state delegations) e)​ Document:​ - Creates a more powerful government (Congress receives power to tax and regulate trade between states)​ - Creates independent executive branch with President who is Commander in Chief of Military​ - Creation of independent judiciary (Supreme Court and federal system of courts)​ - Theory of the supreme law of the land (if state law contradicts federal law, its overruled)​ - While powerful, government is still limited​ - In contrast to British Constitution which was (and still is) unwritten, American Constitution is written​ - Concept of Federalism (devolution of power between states and central government)​ - Electors for president (elitist element)​ - Senators are chosen by the state legislatures​ - States regulate rules of conducting election (set voter qualifications, e.g. property census, literacy tests etc.) and organize elections​ - Checks and balances (not separate but blended; Madison’s idea [Federalist ​ No. 51]: personal ambition of members of separate branches will keep other “Ambition must be made to counteract ambition”) 2)​ Ratifying the Constitution: a)​ 9/13 approvals from States for Constitution to take effect instead of b)​ Specially elected state conventions for ratification  c)​ Advantages for the Federalists:​ - Support of respected leaders (including Washington, Hamilton, Jefferson etc.)​ - Offered a positive program which was presented as better than AoC d)​ Advantages for the Anti-Federalists:​ - Too powerful government; independent and strong Presidency (strong executive reminded them of King George III whom they fought against)​ - No bill of rights (concerns that government would not respect rights of individual) e)​ Winning strategy:​ - Smaller states recognized the good deal and how they could benefit from new system​ - Promise made by the Federalists to Massachusetts convention to add bill of rights to the constitution​ - Federalist Papers, written by Hamilton, Madison and Jay, secures ratification in New York​ - Jefferson, Madison and other politicians from Virginia influence their home state to support ratification f)​ The Bill of Rights:​ - 10 amendments ratified by December 1791 ​ - 1st protects the freedom of expression and conscience​ - 2nd protects state militias/citizens to bear arms​ - 3rd ensures no quartering of soldiers​ - 4th – 8th protects citizens legal rights​ - 9th other rights reserved to the people​ - 10th states retain powers not delegated to the Federal government by the Constitution 3)​ Governing under the Constitution: a)​ Constitution makes no provision for political parties (Founding Fathers disliked parties) b)​ Idea of putting Country over individual needs c)​ Political parties are created in 1790s due to differences in visions for the future of America between Founding Fathers d)​ Alexander Hamilton’s vision:​ - Secretary of Treasury in Washington’s Administration​ - Proponent of strong economy based on developing manufacturing and commerce​ - Report on Public Credit, Report on National Bank, Report on Manufactures as the documents in which Hamilton described his vision and why it should be implemented​ - According to him usage of implied powers of the government (not directly specified in Constitution) was “necessary and proper”​ - Unlike Jefferson and others, Hamilton supported alliance with England, believing that having British and Royal Navy on American side would benefit America’s trade​ - Parties begin to form on the basis of support or opposition to Hamilton’s proposals​ - Hamilton and the group of his supporters create Federalist Party through which they seek to implement their proposals of strong government e)​ Thomas Jefferson’s vision:​ - Secretary of State in Washington’s Administration​ - Ideas of personal liberty (in opposition to Hamilton’s strong government), which is understood as ensuring social and economic equality​ - According to Jefferson, backbone of new American republic are yeoman farmers, not commerce and manufacturing which leads to concentrations of wealth in the hands of the rich (agrarianism and egalitarianism)​ - Opposition to industrialisation (“Let our workshops stay in Europe”)​ - Territorial expansion of US into Louisiana and other regions as a way to create new opportunity for citizens 19th Century Society: Modernization 1)​ A modernizing nation is the one that: a)​ Is developing national market economy b)​ Values change c)​ Determines statues though personal achievements, not social status on birth d)​ Has growing literacy e)​ Is urbanizing f)​ Is industrializing 2)​ In 1860, the United States was most rapidly modernizing nation, with the exception of the South 3)​ The cause of the Civil War was that North was modernizing, the South was not. The reason the South was not modernizing was it’[s dependence on slavery. 4)​ Industrialization: a)​ Craft manufacturing:​ - Small scale, decentralized, local market​ - Made the entire product on order with help of apprentices and family​ - Merchants as the key to transformation (they provide raw materials, access to markets for excess product, funds [capital], and organizational skills necessary to build successful enterprise) b)​ Population growth in 1820-1860:​ - Population of the US grows from 9m to 32m​ - More consumers and more workers c)​ Development of transportation:​ - Essential to have inexpensive transportation infrastructure​ - At first rivers and canals serve that role​ - Erie Canal (1825) starts boom for building canals in the US​ - Railroads overtake canals and become the most important way of transporting goods (mostly in the North; its development and expansion stimulates economic and industrial growth; leads to industrial specialization of given regions) d)​ Characteristics of Industrial production:​ - Specialization of labour​ - Technical innovation creating machines​ - Large capital investment needed​ - Separation of producer from consumer​ - Growing class consciousness​ - Factories as site of mass production​ - Artisans transform into wage earners (they don’t control their earnings) e)​ Textile manufacturing:​ - Fiber into thread, thread into cloth, cloth into clothes (craft production)​ - under industrial production, entire process takes the same steps but are done different en masse, by the machines not human hands 5)​ Lowell, Massachusetts = Manchaster/Łódź of the US, center of textile industry: a)​ Entire town built for textile mills b)​ Largest mill capitalized at 400,000$  c)​ Lowell workers:​ - 70% of labor force was women​ - 16–29-year-olds daughters of farmers​ - Worked until they married​ - Cheaper than men​ - Couldn’t convince men to leave farms​ - Temporary workers, thus more cooperative​ - Gave women some measure of economic independence​ - Save for a dowry d)​ Working in Lowell:​ - Regimented, exhausting, and boring​ - 12 hours a day, 6 day a week, to earn 3.50$ a week​ - Clock sets the schedule, beginning of time-oriented work​ - Unskilled workers, serving as tenders of machines e)​ Living in Lowell:​ - Company boarding houses​ - 6-8 women per room​ - overseen by older women​ - strict set of rules (violation could result in kicking out; e.g. “improper conduct”, “you can’t keep pigs/hens as pets”) f)​ Defending Lowell:​ - Critique of Lowell by Bronson and conservatives; They claimed that working in factory isn’t appropriate for women, destroys family, corrupts moral values (they even went that far to call the boarding houses “whorehouses” and “brothels”)​ - Publication of “The Lowell Offering”, which is used by women to fight back conservative critiques of the mills, who deny them right to work; Later on they decide to use it to fight against owners of the mills who exploited them g)​ Protesting Lowell:​ - Little job mobility​ - Women could not become a supervisor​ - Protest over wage cuts​ - Workers call the owners’ actions as “threat to workers independence”​ - Subjugation to wage slavery​ - Application of American Revolution’s rhetoric to women’s economic position​ - Revolutionary songs (comparison of owners to the Tories [British loyalists and enemies of Revolution]) Reform 1)​ Changing of status of women: a)​ Experience of Lowell’s women suggest modernization creates new circumstances for women. b)​ Decline in home manufacturing. c)​ New opportunities but more bound by ideology to the home. 2)​ Cult of the True Womanhood: a)​ Piety (and connected to it: Purity, Submissiveness, Domesticity [woman’s place is at home]) b)​ The more northern, the more whiter, the more middle class, the more likely the family followed these values. c)​ Becomes a frame for judging other women (used by conservatives to accuse women from Lowell for “being immoral”) d)​ Seen as “liberating” by clearly defining a separate sphere for women e)​ Seen as product of American democratic institutions f)​ Used as basis for women’s actions outside the home g)​ Women claimed that if world’s evil threaten the home, and women are moral guardians responsible for educating the youth, as according this thought, then they demanded the politicians to fight evils from the outside that threaten the homes and family’s integrity (e.g. alcoholism) 3)​ Women and Reform: a)​ Temperance movement (fight against alcohol; implications that alcohol causes poverty and domestic violence) b)​ Campaigns against the prostitution c)​ Participation in abolition movement 4)​ Limitations: a)​ Higher education limited to female seminaries b)​ Exclusion of women from almost all professions and careers c)​ No voting rights, no right of holding political office d)​ Legally treated as a minor under male protection e)​ Husband controlled property, even wages his wife earned f)​ Divorce was rare, but in its case, custody of children went to husband g)​ Double standards of sexual morality (Men are allowed to have affairs while women not) 5)​ First wave feminism: a)​ Born in the antislavery movement b)​ Protests and criticism, against antislavery activity of Grimke sisters, Sarah and Angelina c)​ 1840 = antislavery conference in London, isolating of American women with curtain d)​ 1848 = Seneca Falls Convention e)​ Declaration of Sentiments:​ - Copy of Declaration of Independence​ - List of grievances against the women​ - Right to vote as fundamental right​ - Demands for fair treatment of women by men during divorce​ - Women’s right to property​ - Critique of double standard morality f)​ Limited Progress of First wave feminism:​ - Property rights for women in a few states​ - Real collage education​ - Nursing and education as female professions​ - No progress on voting rights Religion and Reform: 1)​ The Second Great Awakening: a)​ Reform justified theologically; evils to be reformed became objects of crusades sustained by religious zeal b)​ Spread over 40 years, from 1790s to 1830s c)​ Variety of forms: ​ - quiet church centered meetings​ - camp meetings​ - city wide campaign d)​ Later years dominated by Charles Finney e)​ Rapid growth of Methodist and Baptist denominations 2)​ Shift in understanding of conversion: a)​ Emotions over doctrine in sermons b)​ Conversion now act in obedience to God’s command, not an act of God c)​ Salvation open to all who obeyed not just the elect whom God chose d)​ Emphasis on human ability to change was religion’ contribution to reform e)​ Social ills (such as alcohol, but also slavery) were considered as sins and were supposed to be repented 3)​ Reforms reinforced by postmillennialism: a)​ Reform was treated as preparation of society for Christ’s return b)​ People chose to be good over evil, thus sin eliminated from world and millennial kingdom is established c)​ “Be perfect, even as your Father in heaven is perfect.” Abolition 1)​ Prior to 1831, ending slavery focused on gradual emancipation by individual masters who freed their slaves 2)​ American Colonization Society (1816): a)​ Aims to end slavery by paying slave owners compensation and freeing slaves b)​ Addresses the issue of what to do with freed slaves (sending them to new American colonies in the West Coast of Africa) c)​ From 12 up to 15 thousand slaves were sent to newly established Liberia (name of the colony was given on purpose, like the name of its capital – Monrovia – which referred to then president Monroe), which later on becomes new country d)​ Never had the proper resources to archive their goals (lack of money for compensations and covering their travel to Liberia) e)​ Free blacks adamantly opposed Society, seeing its plans as continuation of slavery and black dependence on whites 3)​ After 1831, groups aiming for immediate liberation gain popularity and national prominence: a)​ William Garrison creates the abolitionist newspaper The Liberator b)​ Garrison and other new abolitionists demand immediate abolition of slavery, without compensation for slave owners, and oppose sending former slaves to Africa c)​ Garrison despised politicians whom he seen as supporters of slavery and referred to the Constitution as “A covenant with death, an agreement with hell”  d)​ Later on in 1833 abolitionist groups unite into American Anti-Slavery Society 4)​ The 1830s - Tactics of moral suasion: a)​ Abolitionist argued that slavery was a sin and tried to play on religious views of slave holders b)​ Slave holders could demonstrate repentance by freeing their slaves c)​ Campaign to convince Northerners of their complicity d)​ “The spirit of slavery is not confined to the South” ~ Garrison e)​ Inhumanity and brutality of slave masters towards slaves was shown in ​ The Liberator which often published stories of former or runaway slaves f)​ By the late 1830s, it becomes that moral suasion doesn’t work; Southerners begin to show slavery as good, because their “take care” of their slaves by providing them food and roof over their heads 5)​ The 1840s – Political means?: a)​ Some abolitionists proposed to get in touch with politicians or create their own political movement, which was opposed by Garrison who rejected politics b)​ Few suggested that Federal government could abolish slavery in the States c)​ Proposals put by abolitionists to Federal government to use its powers and ban slavery in D.C. and prevent slavery from being established on new territories d)​ Formation of Liberty Party (1840), insignificant; gathers 10% of popular vote tops and doesn’t carry any state; Northerners weren’t willing to abandon traditional parties for a one-issue party 6)​ Northern attitudes: a)​ Abolitionists perceived by public as fanatics and radicals b)​ Racism is common among people c)​ System of apartheid d)​ Minstrel shows as popular form of entertainment (actors doing blackface, racist stereotypes regarding African Americans, characters of Jim Crow and others) 7)​ The 1850s – new message: a)​ Slavery’s immorality not ignored and more people slowly accepted pro-abolitionist stances b)​ Slaveholders, according to abolitionists, were aristocratic and undemocratic and were determined to make slavery a nationwide institution, present not only in the South c)​ The South was a “slave power” threatening the survival of the republic d)​ Prevention of spread of slavery into new territories e)​ Abolitionists failed to achieve the peaceful end of slavery A Modernizing North 1)​ Local economy into national integrated market 2)​ Shift from labor intensive to capital intensive production 3)​ Industrialization and urbanization, increases standard of living, literacy and education 4)​ Values that emphasize change spread among the society 5)​ Status in this society was no longer based on social background, but on merit 19th Century Society – The South Introduction: 1)​ Southern values: a)​ Emphasized family and status (instead of egalitarianism and social mobility present in the North) b)​ Paternalism governed relationship c)​ Maintained a chivalrous code of conduct d)​ Aristocratic order in society (plantation owners considered themselves local aristocracy) Economy: 1)​ Southern economy was very strong, perhaps 4th largest in the world 2)​ Based on production and export of cotton: a)​ By 1820 the South was largest producer of cotton in the World b)​ Cotton made half of US agricultural export in 1820s, by 1840s it made 63% of all US export. 3)​ Growth cotton meant the spread of slavery: a)​ Importation of slaves ended in 1808. b)​ Price of slaves rises (1840 = $600, 1860 = $1800). c)​ Production of cotton spreads West, into Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Texas. d)​ Slave population grows from 1.5m in 1820 to 4m in 1860. e)​ After import of slaves from Africa is outlawed, internal slave trade flourish (e.g. 300,000 slaves from Virginia were sold to Southwest). f)​ Income from selling cotton abroad and slaves to other states was considered by Southern elites as safe and already tested, thus they continued supporting this economic model instead of embracing industrialization. 4)​ Place of slaves in the southern economy: a)​ 75% of slaves worked in agriculture (55% in cotton, 10% in tobacco, 10% in other crops); 25% worked in other areas (as domestic servants in planters’ mansions, artisans in cities, etc.) b)​ There were attempts to use slaves in factories in Virginia, but slave owners postponed the whole idea soon after it began. 5)​ Profitability of slave labour: a)​ Not free labour; slaves don’t receive money and wages, but slave owner provides food, clothing and shelter; they gave to slaves only bare minimum, so after adding living expanses to incomes, slave owner still earned a lot of money. b)​ In 1859, average slave produced $78 in cotton earnings, while costing $32 for maintenance (still after adding expanses planter receives $46 per slave) 6)​ Other cash crops (agricultural products meant only for export), besides cotton: a)​ Tobacco b)​ Rice c)​ Sugar 7)​ Conclusion: a)​ Economic growth was impressive but limited b)​ The South was destined to remain quasi-colonially dependant on the North, as they did not produce any industrial goods of their own but imported everything from the North. Society: 1)​ Distribution of slaves: a)​ Percentage of white population that owned given amount of slaves:​ - 100+ slaves = 0.1%​ - 10-99 slaves = 6.6%​ - 9 or less slaves = 17.2%​ - 0 slaves = 76.1% b)​ Distribution of slaves among planters:​ - 25% of slaves were owned by planters who owned 9 or less slaves.​ - 75% of slaves were owned by planters who had more than 10 slaves. c)​ Thus we can say that 75% of slaves were owned by just 6.7% of population. 2)​ The Planter Elite: a)​ They set the tone and standard of southern society. b)​ In 1850, most of planters were self-made men. c)​ Not well educated, they invested in education of their children (private tutors, establishment of church related collages). d)​ Despite being self-made men, they saw themselves as an aristocracy e)​ The Code of Honor f)​ “The Difference in race between Norther People and Southern People” (Considered themselves as descendants to supporters of English aristocracy supporting king Charles II during English Civil War [American equivalent of Polish Sarmatism]) g)​ Strong militarist spirit (required to counter fight slave uprisings and rival planters) h)​ Common way of resolving disputes were violent means with use of force; Southerners tried to ennoble this practices by calling it “dueling” 3)​ Their wives: a)​ Being in “The Moral Bind”. b)​ Double standard of sexuality (instead of using prostitutes, planters abuse slaves; which angered their wives) c)​ Women as the overseers of the households. 4)​ Other whites: a)​ Largely self-sufficient, yeoman farmers b)​ Farms of 100 acres (60 hectares), less fertile land (most fertile ones were owned by planters) c)​ Main crops: corn, wheat, hogs, cotton/tobacco (they used to earn more money for taxes etc.) d)​ Proud of their independence, didn’t challenge political and social dominance of planters e)​ “Planter’s hegemony” (planters excise their influence to convince Southern whites that system of slavery and planters’ economic, political and social dominance is natural) 5)​ The poorest whites: a)​ Lived in the mountainous regions of the South b)​ They cultivated very poor soils c)​ Barely got through year 6)​ Defending slavery: a)​ Claimed as necessary evil to positive good b)​ Attacks on institution of slavery c)​ Those attacks lead to defence of slavery by the Southerners: d)​ Usage of the Bible (selective readings, such as the parts e)​ Historical justification (claims that ancient Rome and Greece built its greatness because of exploiting slaves) f)​ Constitutional justification (slavery clauses in Constitution, Founding Fathers as slave owners and their unclear position of slavery) g)​ Pseudoscience (skull measuring and other racial claims that white are superior to blacks) h)​ Sociological justification ( 7)​ Possible real cause for defence of slavery: Planters defended their income and social status as local aristocrats Slavery 1)​ Functions and roles of slavery: a)​ A way of organizing the Southern agricultural work force b)​ Mean of regulating race relations and social control between blacks and whites 2)​ Slaves as “Chattel Personal” (counted into livestock with animals): a)​ Slaves as property:​ - This aspect was foremost present in nearly all slave codes.​ - Killing a slave was not treated as murder but as destruction of property.​ - Rape on slave was treated as trespass. b)​ Slaves as humans:​ - Some laws recognized the humanity of slaves, yet at the same time still regarded them as part of property​ - Conversion didn’t change status of slave ​ - Lack of recognition for marriages between slaves (this allowed slave owners to separate families and sell its members away)​ - Education forbidden (planters understood that an educated slave is a dangerous slave)​ - Since slaves were treated as property they couldn’t own their own property 3)​ Slave Life: a)​ Work:​ - The fields as the main place where slaves worked ​ - The Great House – slaves as servants in planters’ estates as butlers, kitchen workers, nannies for planters’ children, coachmen etc.​ - Other places: some slaves worked as dock workers, artisans (they made famous balcony railings in French Ward, New Orleans), and factory workers (very rare) b)​ Tactic of carrot and stick (rewards and punishments; rewards for loyalty and punishment for disobedience; rewards included days off or allowance to visit family on different plantation; punishment was usually whipping) c)​ Families:​ -Family relationships not recognized by slave owners​ Life threatened by high infant mortality (SIDS).​ -Abuse of the women by planters.​  - Female slaves were seen by planters as both producers in the field and reproducers of children.​ - Despite hardships, a semblance of family life is developed.​ Slaves’ quarters functioned as extended kinship network (other slaves who lived under one roof saw themselves as family).​ - Role of family = Socialize children, leads to formation of identity d)​ In the house of the Lord:​ - Usage of religion by masters to control the slaves and force them to accept their fate as designed by the God himself​ - The “Invisible institution” = secret religious practices of slaves that differed from their masters’ vision of Christianity​ - Spirituals = Religious folks songs created by slaves blend African musical traditions with Christian lyrics; tradition began in 18th Century​ - Secret code system​ - Affirmation of personhood​ - Hope for freedom (referencing to liberation of Jews from slavery in Egypt and Babylon) e)​ Resistance:​ - Day to day resistance (slow down work, fake sickness, forgetting tools; sabotage of tools, crops and self; playing on contradictions between master and )​ Running away (in anticipation of or humiliation from punishment; to reunite with family; to free themselves from slavery)​ - The Underground Railroad (network of shelters for runaway slaves, so they could safely hide, leave the South and travel North to begin a new life)​ - Rebellion (Gabriel Prosser, Richmond, Virginia, 1800; German Coast Uprising, ; Nat Turner’s Uprising, Virginia, 1831 [traumatized slave owners who from this moment on enacted measures to prevent future slave revolts]) 4)​ Free African Americans: a)​ In 1860, there were:​ - 3.9 million slaves​ - 250,000 free blacks in the South (mostly small farmers)​ - 250,000 free blacks in the North b)​ Two tales:​ - William Elison (b. 1790), was freed in 1816; he was master builder and repairer of cotton gins machines, by 1860 he owned 1000 acre plantation and 100 slaves, he died in 1861 supporting the secession and the Confederacy;​ - William Johnson (b. 1809) was freed in 1820 he was a bastard of plater; he trained with his brother and became a barber; owned 3 shops and 16 slaves; married free woman from New Orleans and sired 11 children; murdered in 1851 by his white neighbor over the land dispute (only witness of murder was Johnson’s slave and his testimony was dismissed as blacks were not allow to testify against whites); Civil War 1)​ The Big Picture: a)​ The South lost b)​ Slavery was abolished c)​ The North’s view of the Union vindicated These points are often contested by the Southerners who believe in the lost cause myth. 2)​ The Historical Controversy: a)​ Dispute over slavery (William H. Steward: “US must either become entirely slave-holding nation or free-labour nation”) b)​ Civil War was not inevitable as some claim. c)​ Revisionist historians calls Civil War as an “accidental and unnecessary”:​ - Roots of conflict seen in actions of political opportunists who​ - Minimalization of slavery ​ - Slavery has reached its natural limits​ - Ties and similarities between the South and North d)​ Anti-revisionist historians reply to revisionists:​ -​ - Question of slavery reaching its limits cannot be answered as we don’t know how America would look like without Civil War ​ -​ - ​ -​ -​ - 3)​ The Missouri Compromise (1820): a)​ Circumstances:​ - Profits from cotton leads to expansion of slavery into Central-Eastern part ​ of the South.​ - Concerns over balance of powers b)​ The Debate:​ - Southerners: Congress can’t make abolition of slavery a precondition for admission; defence of citizens right to property (slaves); States’ right to set laws should be respected; If not resisted this was supposed to set precedence to enforce other federal laws against states and Southerners will.​ - Northerners: c)​ The Compromise:​ - Missouri shall join the Union as the slave state;​ - Maine separates from Massachusetts and joins as free state to maintain balance between free and slave states; ​ - Rest of the territories were divided by the line (above the line were free states, below the slave ones) 4)​ The Interim: a)​ Politics (1820-1850):​ - Passions regarding slavery faded;​ - Focus on internal improvements; building roads, canals etc.  b)​ Territorial expansion:​ - 1783 = Peace of Paris creates original 13 colonies;​ - 1803 = Louisiana was purchased​ - 1819 = Florida is bought from Spain​ Manifest Destiny serves as a breaking point: serves as justification for American expansion westward to the Pacific​ - Rapid expansion in 1840s caused matter of slavery to come back and reignite c)​ Politics of Territorial Expansion:​ - Texas ​ - Annexation of Texas​ - Senator’s Wilmot Proviso tried to bind military founding and help for war with prohibition of slavery on newly acquired territories. ​ - Calhoun Resolution tried to protect the slavery​ - Rest of senators come with the middle ground project of popular sovereignty: people of the states and territories. 5)​ Compromise of 1850: a)​ Causes:​ - Question of California joining the Union​ - Question of the rest of the territory acquired as the result of Mexican Cession​ - Texas’ laid claim to the eastern half of New Mexico (fear of Texas growing too powerful or braking into three smaller slave states, which would upset the balance) ​ - Abolitionist b)​ The Deal:​ - California joins as a free state (free states gain upper hand in the Senate)​ - Utah and New Mexico will be organized on basis of popular sovereignty.​ - Texas gives up their claim for New Mexico in exchange for taking 10m $ of Texas’ debt by the Federal Government.​ - Slave trade banned in DC (symbolic)​ - New tougher fugitive slave laws, which encouraged federal judges to persecute fugitives (relation to payment – if judge declared fugitive free man, he was paid 2$; while for declaring fugitive a slave and ordering his return to owner, he was paid 10$) c)​ The Failure of Compromise:​ - Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854) = Kansas and Nebraska that were designed in 1820 as free territories, are to become slave or free state based upon popular sovereignty rule. ​ - Kansas- Nebraska Act leads to rush of abolitionists and slave owners into Kansas, causing brutal fight between them that kame to be known as Bleeding Kansas.​ - The Failure of Compromise led to birth and rise of the Republican Party (GOP success shows how people in the North turned against slavery).​ - Republican Ideology (Free Labour, broadly defined [for workers, farmers and slaves]; Allowance for workers to become independent and free from “wage slavery” of industrialists; Slavery denied both independence and opportunity, expansion of slavery blocks progress and growth of the US, it’s in the Northerners’ economic interest to abolish slavery) 6)​ Change in politics: a)​ In 1852 Democrats dominate politics as people support compromise of 1850. b)​ In 1856 Republicans almost won presidential election gaining strong presence in the North, they lose only because Whigs take part of Republican leaning liberal voters. 7)​ Polarization in the second half of 1850s: a)​ Supreme Court’s decision in Dred Scott’s case (1857) = Scott was a slave that claimed that because he was in Minnesota (which was a free territory) he should be free; Supreme Court rejected his claims; denied him rights to sue, as he is not a person but a property; Supreme Court goes further and denies all African American rights (even the free ones) and declares Missouri Compromise unconstitutional (even though it was already dead) b)​ Government in Kansas = both abolitionists and pro-slavery declare their victory in election and form their own governments, Federal Government recognizes abolitionist government, which leads to outrage from the South. c)​ John Brown’s raid (1859) = wants to lead slave rebellion, seeks to steal weapons form the arsenal in Harpers Ferry but gets caught and is killed (boost anti-Republican fears in the South). d)​ Lincoln wins in 1860 election; Democrats break into two factions (Northern and Southern); National parties break, Democrats represent only South, while Republicans represent only North. Secession and Civil War 1)​ Beginning of secession: a)​ As soon as Lincoln wins election Deep South states secede b)​ 4 states in the middle take wait-and-see approach 2)​ 15 Slave states in 1860: a)​ 11 break-off and found Confederate States of America (CSA) ( b)​ 4 remain in the Union (Kentucky, Missouri, Delaware, and Maryland) 3)​ Comparison of the sides: a)​ Population: 9.1m in the South (including 3.5m slaves) vs 23.7m in the North; b)​ Males, age 18-40 (core of the army, they serve as soldiers): ​ 1.1m in the South vs 4m in the North; c)​ Mobilized (out of the previous numbers): 900k in the South vs 2m in the North; d)​ Peak size of the army: 261k CSA (1863) vs 622k USA (1865); e)​ The North had:​ - 90% of the US industry;​ - 11 times more ships;​ - Twice as much Railroad tracks. f)​ The North produced:​ - 15 times more iron;​ - 17 times more textiles;​ - 24 times more locomotives;​ - 32 times more firearms; 4)​ Southern Strategic Failures: a)​ Misplayed cotton card (British who were the main importers of cotton stockpiled it so they were not hit by the Southern embargo; Drought in England causes London to import grain from the North which switch British support) b)​ Misconceived war plan:​ - Conventional war with Napoleonic style campaign;​ - War of national liberation (Washington’s approach)​ They picked first, because they considered Washington style retreat as dishonor (southern chivalry) 5)​ Union’s War Plan – Anaconda Plan: a)​ Encirclement of the South; b)​ Cut off Southern ports to prevent the CSA from exporting and importing anything; c)​ Separation of the CSA in the half alongside Mississippi line; d)​ Then squeeze (like anaconda) the South till they surrender; 6)​ Military Turning Points: a)​ Antietam (September, 1862): ​ - Gen. Robert E. Lee seeks to attack Maryland (which in his view upon “liberation” would join the CSA and march on Washington, forcing Union’s government to flee);​ - Results in stalemate, but till towards Union; ​ - Transformed the war, as it’s result Lincoln issued Emancipation Proclamation (transforms war of maintaining the Union’s integrity into war against slavery) b)​ Gettysburg and Vicksburg (July, 1863):​ - Signaled incoming CSA military collapse;​ - Lee tries to prevent Union forces from pushing further South;​  - Gen. Ulysees Grant makes an bold move of moving down Mississippi and attacking Confederates from the other side.​ - Grant sieges and conquers Vicksburg; Union gains control over Mississippi;​ - Lee planned to strike North and take logistic center near Gettysburg;​ - Battle of Gettysburg lasts for over three days, as a result Lee’s forces are defeated and forced to retreat; CSA never took back initiative and were forced to defend and retreat further South;​ - Grant’s victories result in his promotion by Lincoln to position of Commander of US Forces in the Virginia theater; c)​ Atlanta (September, 1864):​ - Atlanta as Confederate hub for supplies ​ - Gen. Sherman develops plan to take Atlanta and separate confederate forces in half;​ - Political context: Lincoln runs in the election; one of the Union’s generals​ - Taking of Atlanta secures Lincoln’s electoral victory;​ - Sherman uses scorched-earth tactics, burning and destroying everything as he marches through Georgia towards the sea; 7)​ Failures of the Confederacy: a)​ South was forced to start it’s industrialization; rapid development in some cities (e.g., Birmingham, Alabama) and branches of industry (gunpowder production); b)​ Urbanization ( ); c)​ Diversification of agriculture (they can’t export cotton, so they plant food crops); d)​ Changes status of southern women due to lack of man; e)​ Irony: the war forced the South to modernize which they were claiming to fight against; f)​ Fails to develop its own nationalism. 8)​ The Failure of Confederate Nationalism: a)​ Class system failed to cohere (war fought by the poor for the interests of the rich; ​ war causes the breakdown); b)​ Pretentions of aristocratic order vs democratic ideology; c)​ States right and localism vs need of national government fighting a war; Notes to exam: a)​ T/F questions; b)​ questions of multiple choice (a/b/c/d); c)​ two short essays where we choose to answer one of them (one is based upon lectures, one upon the reading); d)​ Blanks to fill; e)​ There should be nothing from the assigned history handbook; f)​ Reconstruction won’t be present on exam; g)​ Exam will last for 90 minutes and take place in room 1.008 (Aula)