A&P Exam #6 Study Guide PDF

A&P Exam #6: Study Guide Focus review topics: 1. Inspiration (Inhalation): Process: Active process requiring muscle contraction. Muscles Involved: Diaphragm: Contracts and moves downward, increasing the vertical volume of the thoracic cavity. E...

A&P Exam #6: Study Guide Focus review topics: 1. Inspiration (Inhalation): Process: Active process requiring muscle contraction. Muscles Involved: Diaphragm: Contracts and moves downward, increasing the vertical volume of the thoracic cavity. External intercostal muscles: Contract to lift and expand the ribcage. Pressure Changes: Intrapulmonary pressure decreases below atmospheric pressure. Air flows into the lungs due to the pressure gradient. 2. Expiration (Exhalation): Process: Usually a passive process during quiet breathing. Muscles Involved: Diaphragm: Relaxes and moves upward. Internal intercostal muscles (during forced expiration): Contract to depress the ribcage. Pressure Changes: Thoracic cavity volume decreases, causing intrapulmonary pressure to rise above atmospheric pressure. Air is expelled from the lungs. B. External Respiration Occurs in the alveoli. Oxygen diffuses into the pulmonary capillaries, and carbon dioxide diffuses into the alveoli. C. Internal Respiration Occurs in the tissues. Oxygen diffuses into cells, and carbon dioxide diffuses into systemic capillaries. 2. Patterns of Breathing 1. Eupnea: Normal, quiet breathing (12-20 breaths per minute). 2. Tachypnea: Rapid, shallow breathing (> 20 breaths per minute). 3. Bradypnea: Abnormally slow breathing (< 12 breaths per minute). 4. Dyspnea: Labored, difficult breathing, often described as "shortness of breath." 5. Apnea: Temporary cessation of breathing. 6. Hyperpnea: Increased depth and rate of breathing, often in response to increased oxygen demand. 7. Hypoventilation: Decreased rate and depth of breathing, leading to CO₂ retention. 8. Hyperventilation: Rapid, deep breathing, leading to excessive CO₂ loss (can cause respiratory alkalosis). 9. Cheyne-Stokes Respiration: Rhythmic, gradual increase and decrease in breathing with periods of apnea. Seen in critical conditions like heart failure or brain injury. 10. Kussmaul Respiration: Deep, labored breathing often associated with metabolic acidosis, such as diabetic ketoacidosis. 3. Respiratory Conditions 1. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD): Chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Symptoms: Dyspnea, chronic cough, wheezing, hypoxia.  2. Asthma: Reversible airway obstruction due to inflammation and bronchospasm. Symptoms: Wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness. 3. Pneumonia: Inflammation of alveoli, usually caused by infection. Symptoms: Productive cough, fever, dyspnea. 4. Tuberculosis (TB): Bacterial infection (Mycobacterium tuberculosis). Symptoms: Chronic cough, hemoptysis, weight loss. 5. Pulmonary Embolism: Blockage of pulmonary artery by a blood clot. Symptoms: Sudden dyspnea, chest pain, hypoxia. 6. Respiratory Distress Syndrome (RDS): Seen in premature infants due to lack of surfactant. 4. Pleural Conditions 1. Pleurisy (Pleuritis): Inflammation of the pleura (membranes surrounding the lungs). Symptoms: Sharp chest pain, worsens with breathing or coughing. 2. Pleural Effusion: Accumulation of fluid in the pleural space. Causes: Heart failure, infection, or malignancy. 3. Pneumothorax: Air enters the pleural cavity, causing lung collapse. Types: Spontaneous: Without trauma. Traumatic: Result of injury. Symptoms: Sudden dyspnea, chest pain, reduced breath sounds.  4. Hemothorax Blood in the pleural cavity, often caused by trauma. 5. Buffering Mechanisms The body maintains pH balance (7.35-7.45) through buffer systems: 1. Bicarbonate Buffer System (Primary System): HCO₃⁻ + H⁺ ↔ H₂CO₃ ↔ CO₂ + H₂O Reacts quickly to changes in pH. 2. Respiratory Regulation: CO₂ elimination through breathing regulates blood pH. Faster breathing reduces CO₂ → lowers acidity (respiratory alkalosis). 3. Renal Regulation: Kidneys excrete or reabsorb H⁺ and HCO₃⁻. 6. Metabolic vs. Respiratory Imbalances Type pH Primary Cause Compensation Respiratory Acidosis Low pH High CO₂ (hypoventilation) Renal: ↑ HCO₃⁻ retention Respiratory High Low CO₂ Renal: ↓ HCO₃⁻ retention Alkalosis pH (hyperventilation) Respiratory: Hyperventilation (↓ Metabolic Acidosis Low pH Low HCO₃⁻ (e.g., DKA) CO₂) High High HCO₃⁻ (e.g., Respiratory: Hypoventilation (↑ Metabolic Alkalosis pH vomiting) CO₂) 7. Pulmonary Volumes 1. Tidal Volume (TV): Volume of air inhaled/exhaled during normal breathing (~500 mL). 2. Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): Maximum air inhaled beyond TV (~3100 mL). 3. Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): Maximum air exhaled beyond TV (~1200 mL). 4. Residual Volume (RV): Air remaining in lungs after forced expiration (~1200 mL). 5. Vital Capacity (VC): TV + IRV + ERV (~4800 mL).  6. Total Lung Capacity (TLC): VC + RV (~6000 mL). 8. Lymphatic Organs and Immunity Primary Organs: Bone marrow: Produces lymphocytes. Thymus: Matures T lymphocytes. Secondary Organs: Lymph nodes: Filter lymph. Spleen: Filters blood, recycles RBCs. Tonsils: Protect upper respiratory tract. 9. Types of Immunity 1. Innate Immunity (Non-Specific): Present at birth. Examples: Skin, mucous membranes, phagocytes. 2. Adaptive Immunity (Specific): Acquired over time. Types: Natural Active: Infection. Artificial Active: Vaccination. Natural Passive: Maternal antibodies. Artificial Passive: Immunoglobulin injection. 10. Lymphatic Conditions 1. Lymphedema: Swelling due to lymphatic obstruction. 2. Lymphadenitis: Inflammation of lymph nodes. 3. Lymphoma: Cancer of the lymphatic system (e.g., Hodgkin’s lymphoma). 11. Images to Study 1. Respiratory Structures (4 Points): Alveoli, bronchi, lungs, diaphragm. 2. Additional Respiratory Structures (4 Points): Trachea, bronchioles, pleura, pulmonary capillaries. 3. Tonsils (3 Points): Palatine tonsils, pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids), lingual tonsils. Chapter 16: Lymphatic System & Immunity (Expanded) Lymphatic System 1. Lymph and Lymphatic Vessels Lymph: Clear, colorless fluid that circulates throughout the lymphatic system. Contains water, proteins, waste products, and lymphocytes (T-cells and B-cells). Lymphatic Vessels: Carry lymph from the tissues to the bloodstream, filtering out pathogens. Lymphatic Capillaries: Tiny vessels that absorb interstitial fluid and return it to the circulatory system. These capillaries are larger than blood capillaries and are more permeable, allowing for absorption of large molecules like proteins. Lymphatic Ducts: Right Lymphatic Duct: Drains lymph from the right side of the head, neck, and arm into the right subclavian vein. Thoracic Duct: Drains lymph from the rest of the body into the left subclavian vein. 2. Lymphoid Organs Lymph Nodes: Found throughout the body along lymphatic vessels. They filter lymph and store immune cells. Thymus: Located in the chest, it’s crucial for the maturation of T-cells. Tonsils: A group of lymphatic tissues in the throat that help prevent infections. The palatine tonsils are often referred to as the "tonsils." Spleen: Located in the left upper abdomen, the spleen filters blood, removes old red blood cells, and serves as a site for immune cell activation. 3. Innate vs. Adaptive Immunity Innate Immunity: Non-specific defense mechanisms that we are born with, such as physical barriers (skin), phagocytic cells, and inflammation.  Adaptive Immunity: Specific immune responses activated by exposure to pathogens. It involves B-cells (antibody production) and T-cells (direct cell- mediated response). 4. Active vs. Passive Immunity Active Immunity: The body produces its own antibodies, typically after exposure to a pathogen or through vaccination. Passive Immunity: Antibodies are transferred from another source, such as through breast milk or immune globulin injections. Chapter 17: Respiratory System (Expanded) Anatomy and Function of the Respiratory System 1. Upper Respiratory Tract Nose: The primary passage for air; contains structures like the nasal cavity and mucus membranes that filter, warm, and moisten the air. Cilia help trap dirt and particles. Pharynx: Divided into the nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx, it serves as a passageway for air and food. Larynx: Contains vocal cords for sound production and acts as a gateway to the trachea. The epiglottis prevents food from entering the airways during swallowing. 2. Lower Respiratory Tract Trachea: The windpipe that connects the larynx to the bronchi. It’s lined with cilia to filter incoming air. Bronchi: Branches from the trachea into the lungs, where they split into smaller bronchioles. Alveoli: Tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs. Oxygen diffuses from alveoli into the blood, while carbon dioxide diffuses out. 3. Respiratory Volumes Tidal Volume (TV): The volume of air inhaled or exhaled during normal breathing (~500 mL). Vital Capacity (VC): The maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after a maximum inhalation. Residual Volume (RV): The amount of air that remains in the lungs after exhalation to prevent lung collapse. Respiratory Function and Gas Exchange External Respiration: The exchange of gases (O2 and CO2) between the alveoli and blood in the pulmonary capillaries. Internal Respiration: The exchange of gases between the blood and the tissues. Oxygen is delivered to the tissues, while carbon dioxide is removed from the tissues to the blood. Mechanics of Breathing Inspiration: The diaphragm contracts, causing the thoracic cavity to expand and lowering air pressure within the lungs, drawing air in. Expiration: As the diaphragm relaxes, the thoracic cavity decreases in volume, pushing air out of the lungs. Disorders of the Respiratory System Chronic Bronchitis: Inflammation of the bronchial tubes that leads to a chronic cough and mucus production. Emphysema: Destruction of the alveoli, reducing the surface area for gas exchange. Pneumonia: Inflammation of the lung tissue caused by an infection, leading to fluid in the alveoli and difficulty with gas exchange. Pulmonary Embolism: A blockage in one of the pulmonary arteries in the lungs, usually caused by blood clots that travel from the legs or other parts of the body (deep vein thrombosis). Chapter 22: Acid-Base Balance pH and Buffering Mechanisms pH Scale: Ranges from 0 to 14. Blood pH is maintained between 7.35 and 7.45. Acidosis: When the blood pH falls below 7.35, indicating an increase in hydrogen ions (H+). Alkalosis: When the blood pH rises above 7.45, indicating a decrease in hydrogen ions (H+). Buffer Systems: Bicarbonate Buffer System: The primary buffer system in blood, regulating pH through the balance between carbonic acid (H2CO3) and bicarbonate (HCO3-). Protein Buffers: Proteins like hemoglobin act as buffers, especially in red blood cells. Regulation of pH 1. Respiratory Mechanism: The lungs help maintain pH by regulating the levels of carbon dioxide (CO2). Increased CO2 levels lower pH, while decreased CO2 levels raise pH. Respiratory Acidosis: Occurs when CO2 builds up, leading to increased carbonic acid (H2CO3) and lowered pH. Conditions like hypoventilation (slow breathing) contribute to this. Respiratory Alkalosis: Occurs when CO2 is expelled too quickly, resulting in a higher pH. Conditions like hyperventilation (rapid breathing) lead to respiratory alkalosis. 2. Renal Mechanism: The kidneys help maintain pH by excreting hydrogen ions (H+) and reabsorbing bicarbonate (HCO3-). The kidneys play a slower but more long-term role in regulating blood pH. Acid-Base Disorders Metabolic Acidosis: Occurs when there is a decrease in bicarbonate (HCO3-) or an accumulation of acid, as seen in diabetic ketoacidosis or renal failure. Metabolic Alkalosis: Results from an increase in bicarbonate or excessive loss of hydrogen ions, such as in vomiting or diuretic use.