A&P Test #1 PDF

LECTURE 1: Hierarchy of the Organism: 1.​ Chemical level - atomic arrangement to form macromolecules (proteins, fats, sugars, nucleic acids) 2.​ Cellular level - includes collection of biochemicals to form a cell 3.​ Tissue level - includes collection of cell types, fluids, and bioc...

LECTURE 1: Hierarchy of the Organism: 1.​ Chemical level - atomic arrangement to form macromolecules (proteins, fats, sugars, nucleic acids) 2.​ Cellular level - includes collection of biochemicals to form a cell 3.​ Tissue level - includes collection of cell types, fluids, and biochemicals 4.​ Organ levels - includes collection of different tissue types and lumens (spaces) 5.​ Body systems - includes collection of organs functioning together 6.​ Organism - UNIQUE COLLECTION biological material to form higher order living species Cellular Level: -​ Cells are the basic structural and functional units of an organism -​ Organization of “Macromolecules” makes up unique structure of cells -​ Unique structures in Eukaryotic cells that have cellular functions and composition are called ….. ORGANELLES -​ Different kinds of cells in the human body that have unique STRUCTURE and FUNCTION Tissue Level: -​ Group of cells that work together to perform a similar function -​ Contain fluids -​ 4 Basic Types of Tissues: (CEMN) -​ Connective: multiple fine lines with purple in them -​ Epithelium: tightly packed circles with dots in them -​ Muscle: thickish line with ovals on it -​ Nervous: looks like a neuron for the brain Connective: supports and protects the organs Epithelial: covers the body surface and lines body cavities Muscle: generates force to allow movement Nervous: electrical signals for communication Organ Level: structures composed of two or more different types of tissues (all 4 basic tissues represented) -​ May also contain LUMENS, or SPACES within the organ EX: Lungs contain airway spaces (airway lumens) -​ Organs have specific functions and shapes Largest Organ: skin Smallest Organ: Pineal gland (secretes hormones) Regions of the Body: (5) Cephalic: contains all portions of the body above the neck ​ Ex: brain, spinal cord (begins in) Cervical: contains all portions between collarbone and head aka just the neck ​ Ex: thyroid gland, trachea, esophagus Thoracic: contains all portions of the chest of the body ​ Ex: thymus, lungs, superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, aorta, heart Abdominal: contains all regions between the diaphragm and pelvic regions ​ Ex: stomach, liver, small intestine, large intestine, kidneys Pelvic: contains all regions below the abdominal cavity ​ Ex: urinary bladder, ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, testes Diaphragm is a powerful skeletal muscle Functions to facilitate breathing Anatomical feature that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity Glands and Sensory Organs: Endocrine Glands: -​ Secrete hormones ONLY -​ Can be independent organs -​ Adrenal gland -​ Can be embedded within other organs -​ Hypothalamus WITHIN the brain Exocrine Glands: -​ Secrete fluids -​ Can be independent -​ Tear ducts, salivary glands -​ Can be embedded within other organs  -​ Mucus glands WITHIN the lungs -​ Mammary glands WITHIN the breast Sensory Organs: What are they? (TEEN)​ Tongue, eyes, ears, nose Organ Systems: consists of related organs with a common function (12) 1. Integumentary System: consists of the skin and related structures (hair, nails, and glands) FUNCTION: protects body eliminates waste through sweat and secretions regulates temperature through sweat 2. Skeletal System: consists of bones and joints Divided into axial, appendicular and joints ​ FUNCTION: provides protection and support Houses stem cells→ which become red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets 3. Muscular System: consists of skeletal muscle, as well as smooth muscle and cardiac muscle ​ FUNCTION: Skeletal muscle: participates with the skeletal system to facilitate movement and posture ​ Smooth muscle in lungs and cardiac muscle in heart ​ Generates heat necessary for warm-blooded organisms to maintain a constant body temp through muscle metabolism 4. Nervous System: consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory organs ​ Divided into Central and Peripheral nervous system (CNS and PNS) ​ FUNCTION: Senses and responds to body conditions through nerve impulses 5. Endocrine System: consists of hormone-producing cells and “glands” scattered throughout the body FUNCTION: regulates the body through chemical mechanisms (by releasing hormones into the blood or surrounding tissue EX: adrenal gland secretes adrenaline during fight or flight response 6. Cardiovascular System: consists of the heart, blood, and blood vessels ​ FUNCTION: ​carries blood, nutrients, and gas to specific locations ​ ​ ​ Regulates blood pressure and blood flow ​ ​ ​ Regulates body temperature and water balance 7. Lymphatic System: consists of the lymphatic fluid, lymph nodes, and lymphocytes and other associated organs of the immune system like the tonsils, spleen and thymus gland ​ FUNCTIONS: develops immune system by collecting white blood cells in the spleen and lymph nodes ​ Protects against pathogens by trans of white blood cells from blood, lymph node, and spleen to local regions ​ Transports fats and proteins within the digestive system & cardiovascular system 8. Respiratory System: consists of the upper airways, the trachea, major bronchi, lungs, and the diaphragm ​ FUNCTIONS: gas exchange ​ ​ ​ Acquires O2 and eliminates CO2 ​ ​ In conjunction with the kidneys, regulates pH of blood “Buffering Blood” 9. Digestive System: consists of the esophagus, stomach, intestines, and digestive glands like salivary glands, liver, and gallbladder ​ FUNCTIONS: physical and chemical breakdown of food and elimination of waste ​ ​ ​ Acquires necessary nutrient molecules from food 10. Urinary System: consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra ​ FUNCTIONS: maintain blood pH ​ ​ ​ Balance electrolytes in the blood ​ ​ ​ Regulates blood pressure ​ ​ ​ Balance H2O level in blood ​ ​ ​ Involved in the collection and excretion of waste products in urine 11. Reproductive System: consists of the ovaries, uterus, and vagina in the female, and the testes and penis in the male ​ FUNCTIONS: reproduction of an individual or organism ​ ​ ​ Maintain “SEX” characteristics via hormone secretion Organ System Integration: Innervation: incorporation of axon bundles into tissue to trigger a neural response ​ Ex: muscular system for movement Effectors (secretion): secreted molecules that have trigger events in a tissue ​ Ex: hormones secreted from endocrine system affects many body systems Absorption: absorb biomolecules from one system to another ​ Ex: GI system absorbs nutrients into the circulatory system Gas Exchange: all tissues need O2 for metabolism/all tissue produces CO2 as a byproduct Transport: vessels transport molecules/nutrients between organs ​ Ex: blood and lymph vessels provide cells and biomolecules for wound healing Life Processes: (6 - DMMRRG) Metabolism Responsiveness (bodies responses to changing conditions) Movement Growth Differentiation (stem cells differentiate to other cell types) Reproduction BIG IDEA: all parts of our body function together in a process called homeostasis (balance) Anatomy vs. Physiology: Anatomy: study of body structure (composition only) Ex: organization of muscle fibers to form muscle groups/bones that make up skeletal system Physiology: science behind our body functions Ex: functions of breathing; includes study of homeostasis or keeping our body systems in balance Subdivisions of Anatomy: Surface Anatomy: study of form and marking of the body surface often explored through visualization without any cutting ​ Gross Anatomy: study of anatomical structures visible to unaided eye by cutting and looking only with the eye ​ Gross Anatomy Subdivisions: -​ Systemic Approach: study by body system (ex: cardiovascular heart, vessels) broad -​ Regional Approach: study based on anatomical regions that are all studied together specific Histology: study of tissues Cytology: individual cellular structures EX: Mitochondria Pathology: study of anatomical changes due to diseases -​ Use gross inspection (cutting), cytologic, histologic, and lab exams to discover source of disease ​ ALL USE MICROSCOPE Anatomical Positions: 1. Superior: toward the head or upper part of a structure​ ​ 2. Inferior: away from the head or lower part of a structure 3. Anterior (ventral): nearer or at the front of body 4. Posterior (dorsal): nearer to or at the back of body 5. Medial: nearer to the midline 6. Lateral: farther away from the midline 7. Ipsilateral: on the same side of the body 8. Contralateral: on the opposite side of the body 9. Proximal: nearer to the attachment of a limb to the trunk (TRUNK: JUST the body without its head, arms or legs) 10. Distal: farther from the attachment of a limb to the trunk 11. Superficial: toward or on the surface of the body 12. Deep: away from the surface of the body EX1: The heart is superior to the liver EX2: The stomach is inferior to the lungs EX3: The sternum (breastbone) is anterior to the heart EX4: The esophagus (food tube) is posterior to the trachea (windpipe) EX5: The ulna is medial to the radius EX6: The lungs are lateral to the heart EX7: The right hand and right leg are ipsilateral EX8: The right hand and left leg are contralateral EX9: The humerus is proximal to the radius EX10: The phalanges are distal to the wrist bones EX11: The ribs are superficial to the lungs EX12: The ribs are deep to the skin and back Visceral: pertaining to the covering of an organ that is inside the organ (closer inwards) Parietal: pertaining to the covering of an organ that is outside of the organ but covers it (outermost covering) Body Planes: imaginary flat surfaces that separate the body or body part into portions Sagittal: midline that splits the body into left and right sides -​ Midsagittal: splits the body evenly into left and right sides -​ Parasagittal: split the body into unequal halves Transverse: horizontal line that splits the body into superior and inferior positions (upper and lower) Frontal (coronal): splits the body into anterior and posterior positions (front and back) Oblique planes: pass through the body or organ at an angle Body Cavities: 2 Major- ​ Dorsal Cavity: brain and spinal cord develop here ​ Ventral Body Cavity: remaining body organs Dorsal Cavity - contains cranial and spinal cavity (vertebral canal) ​ Cranial: formed by cranial bones and contains brain (cephalic region) ​ Vertebral canal: formed by vertebral column and contains spinal cord and beginnings of spinal nerves (originates at cephalic and extends to pelvic) Thoracic Cavity - contains pericardial and pleural cavities; formed by sternum, ribs, and thoracic portion of bony vertebral column ​ Pleural: each surrounds a lung; fluid filled space that surrounds each lung ​ Pericardial: surrounds the heart; fluid filled space that surrounds the heart ​ Mediastinum: portion between lungs; contains heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea, and large blood vessels Abdominopelvic Cavity - contains abdominal and pelvic cavity Thoracic and abdominal cavities lined by thin, slippery, double-layered membranes called serous membranes - visceral and parietal layers Visceral pleura - inside membrane lining of the lungs Parietal pleura - outside membrane lining of the lungs Visceral pericardium - inside membrane lining of the heart Parietal pericardium - outside membrane lining of the heart Visceral peritoneum - inside membrane lining of the abdominal organs Parietal peritoneum - outside membrane lining of the abdominal organs 4 Abdominopelvic Quadrants: Right Upper Quadrant -​ liver Left Upper Quadrant -​ Spleen and left kidney Right lower quadrant -​ appendix Left lower quadrant -​ Left ovary