AP Psychology Memory 2.3 PDF

UNIT 2: COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2.3: Introduction to Memory Without memory, how would we be able to learn anything? The ability to learn is the key to our very survival, and we cannot learn unless we can remember what happened the last time a particular situation arose. Why study forgetting? If we ca...

UNIT 2: COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2.3: Introduction to Memory Without memory, how would we be able to learn anything? The ability to learn is the key to our very survival, and we cannot learn unless we can remember what happened the last time a particular situation arose. Why study forgetting? If we can learn about the ways in which we forget information, can we apply that learning so that unintended forgetting occurs less frequently? Effortful v. Automatic Processing Effortful processing is the active processing of information that needs sustained conscious effort. ○ requires attention, ○ it can be useful for learning new information, developing skills, or solving complex problems For example, if you decide that you want to play a brand new musical instrument like the violin, it takes effortful processing to practice and rehearse reading a piece of music, figuring out different string positions, and moving the bow. Automatic processing is the unconscious processing of well-learned material. ○ similar to the term “muscle memory” because a task is performed habitually without significant thought. Tying a shoe, riding a bike, or driving a car are all examples. Or consider an experienced knitter working on a scarf. Their mind can wander while simultaneously knitting because they have knitted scarves many times in the past, allowing them to work without actively paying attention What is memory? Memory = An active system that receives information from the senses, puts that information into a usable form, and organizes it as it stores it away, and then retrieves the information from storage Three Processes of Memory → getting the information into memory system, storing it, and getting it back out ○ 1. Encoding = The set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert that information into a form that is usable in the brain's storage systems act of getting information into our memory system through automatic or effortful processing Maintain it in consciousness or prepare it for storage Ex: When people hear a sound, their ears turn the vibrations in the air into neural messages from the auditory nerve, transduction, which makes it possible for the brain to interpret that sound Encoding not limited to sensory information Can be accomplished by rehearsing information over and over to keep it in memory or elaborating on the meaning of the information ○ 2. Storage = Holding on to information for some period of time /retention of information Manipulation and rehearsal of info Different lengths depending on the system of memory being used Hold on for 20 seconds or more or less permanently ○ 3. Retrieval = Getting information that is in storage in a form that can be used Biggest problem people may have - forget something important, remember after you hand in the test Long-Term Memory (LTM) = The system of memory in which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently 3rd stage of memory Capacity : unlimited for all practical purposes/ always room for more information Duration: long ○ There is a relatively permanent physical change in the brain when a memory is formed ○ Many of the memories people have stored away for a long, long time may still be there ○ Does not mean people can always retrieve these memories Available but not accessible ○ Long-term does not mean all memories are stored forever, nor do we store every single thing that has ever happened to us ○ Only store long-lasting memories of events and concepts that are meaningful and important to us ○ Information rehearsed long enough may actually find its way into long-term memory Ex: the alphabet Rote learning → maintenance rehearsal, saying info over and over in head Not the most efficient way of putting info in LTM because to get the info back out one has to remember it almost exactly as it went in ○ LTM encoded meaningful form, mental storehouse words, concepts, images, sounds, smells, tastes ○ If STM is working surface or desk, then LTM can be thought of a huge series of file cabinets behind the desk in which files are stored in organized fashion according to meaning  Declarative (explicit) Memory = Type of long-term memory containing information that is conscious and known ○ “Knowing that” ○ The facts and information that make up knowledge ○ We encode explicit memories through conscious, deliberate, effortful processing ○ Semantic memory = Type of declarative memory containing general knowledge, such as knowledge of language and information learned in formal education Anyone can know this information (impersonal) Knowledge of language, math skills, names of objects… Relatively permanent → but possible to “lose the way” to this kind of memory ○ Episodic memory = Type of declarative memory containing personal information not readily available to others, such as daily activities and events Still factual memory, but personal knowledge → stories of our lives and experiences Represent episodes from their lives Tend to be updated and revised more or less constantly episodic memories that are specially meaningful, such as the memory of the first day of school or your first date, are more likely to be kept in LTM Some evidence suggest that women are a bit better at retrieving episodic memories than men ○ Episodic and semantic memories are explicit memories bc they are easily made conscious and brought from LT storage to STM ○ Explicit memories can be forgotten but always have the potential to be made conscious  Nondeclarative (implicit) memory = Type of long-term memory including memory for skills, procedures, habits, and conditioned responses. These memories are not conscious but are implied to exist because they affect conscious behavior ○ “Knowing how” ○ Things that people can do ○ Ex: riding a bike, tying shoes (procedural memory) ○ Unconsciously retrieved ○ Unlikely to be affected by amnesia bc procedural memories are stored in the cerebellum (balance & fine motor coordination) Separate areas of the brain control non-declarative memories → Studies of people with damage to the hippocampal area of the brain show us this ○ Emotional associations → amygdala ○ Memories of conditioned responses, skills, and habits → cerebellum Difference btw implicit and explicit memories is that it is impossible or extremely difficult to bring implicit memories into consciousness How do we retrieve implicit memories? ○ Priming → presenting cues that are associated with specific memories or concepts, which then activate related information stored in LTM (implicit memory effect in which the exposure to a stimulus influences the user's response to another) ○ Prospective memory → “memory of the future” one recalls or remembers to do something in the future  Long-term potentiation = process which synaptic connections between neurons become stronger with frequent activation ○ is a biological process for memory ○ Strengthening synapses improved by practice ○ Much of LTP occurs in hippocampus → responsible for emotion and transfer of information from STM into LT explicit memory ○ Most LT memories located in cerebral cortex, not all in same location Inside area of frontal lobe (near central fissure) → declarative and episodic memory Amygdala → primary processor of highly emotional memories Cortex of frontal lobe → basal ganglia Neurons that play important role in memory retrieval and procedural memory Create and maintain habits Short Term and Working Memory: Short-term memory (STM) = The memory system in which information is held for brief period of time while being used If sensory information is important enough to enter consciousness → moves to STM Few seconds to a minute (30 seconds) and possibly longer through maintenance rehearsal Holds info long enough for immediate tasks ○ Either discarded or transferred to LTM Selective attention = The ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input ○ STM tends to be encoded primarily in auditory (sound) form People tend to “talk” inside their own heads Verbally describe moves in our heads as we plan Working memory = An active system that processes the information in short-term memory/part of STM that is responsible for temporary holding and processing of info Manage, manipulate, and act on info → reasoning, learning, comprehension Crucial for tasks like problem solving, maintaining attention, and following instructions Holds info temporarily for quick access and use Limited capacity STM primarily serves as temporary storage buffer for info that is currently being attended to or processed. Working memory allows us to hold info in mind while simultaneously performing mental operations in that info Working Memory Model: →explains how info from working memory is processed and stored in LTM 1974: psychologists Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch Model proposes that short term memory is a complex system with multiple components ○ STM temporarily stores and processes information while performing mental tasks ○ STM and working memory are closely related but serve different functions ○ STM primarily serves as temporary storage buffer for info that is currently being attended to or processed. Working memory allows us to hold info in mind while simultaneously performing mental operations in that info Digit span test→ George Miller (1956) ○ Wanted to see how much info the human can hold in STM at any one time ○ A series of numbers is read to participants in the study who are then asked to recall the numbers in order, each series gets longer and longer until participants cannot recall any of the numbers in order ○ Conclusion: capacity of STM is about 7 items or pieces of information, plus or minus 2 items - or from 5 to 9 bits of info ○ Magic number → 7 Working memory model emphasizes active nature of STM, with infor being constantly processed and manipulated ○ Influential in understanding problem solving, decision making, and language comprehension Working Memory Model Cont.: Components of working memory model: Central Executive → main component of WM, responsible for coordinating cognitive processes ○ Allocates attention to different tasks, decides which information to focus on, and integrates information from the other components ○ It doesn't store information, but controls attention and coordinates the activities of other subsystems. ○ Determines whether incoming info is auditory or visual and then sends it to proper system Phonological Loop → auditory and verbal info ○ Phonological store (inner ear) → holds auditory info in a speech-based form for a brief period (2 seconds or so) ○ Articulatory control process (inner voice) → rehearsal of verbal information, helping to refresh and maintain in phonological store Visuospatial sketchpad → processes visual and spatial info ○ Tasks: mental imagery, spatial reasoning, and navigation Episodic buffer → temporary storage system that integrates info from phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and LTM into single representation ○ Workspace for holding and manipulating info from multiple sources How do we transfer info from WM to LTM? → active rehearsal and elaboration techniques ○ Rehearsal → repeatedly exposing oneself to info (strengthens connections between neurons) ○ Elaboration → making connections btw new infor and existing knowledge (facilitates integration into LTM) (making personal connections helps) ○ Retrieval → reconstructing the stored memory based on cues or prompts from the environment (info taken from LTM and used in WM) The Multi-Store Model: Current accepted model of memory developed by psychologists Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin Three Stages of Memory: 1. Sensory Memory (sensory register) = The first stage of memory where sensory information is registered for a brief period (less than a second to several seconds) Iconic Memory = The visual form of sensory memory that retains images for a short duration. Echoic Memory: The auditory form of sensory memory that holds sounds for a brief period. ○ Information in sensory memory quickly fades unless it is attended to immediately and transferred to STM → can’t go to LTM 2. Short-Term Memory (STM) = The stage of memory that temporarily holds a small amount of information (usually up to 7 items) for a limited duration (up to 30 seconds). ○ Involves conscious, active processing of auditory and visual-spatial information - and retrieval of LTM ○ Functions as a mental "scratch pad" for temporary information storage. ○ Highly sensitive to interruptions; distractions can lead to forgetting. 3. Long-Term Memory (LTM) = The final stage of memory that can store information indefinitely. ○ Information is retained based on its significance and relevance to the individual. ○ Requires Encoding: Taking stimuli from the environment and converting them into a form or construct that the brain can understand and use. This conversion takes place by comparing new information to information previously learned ○ No known limit to the capacity of long-term memory; new memories can continuously be added throughout life. **model focuses on the impact of automatic and effortful processing on memory encoding, storage, and retrieval Sensory Memory: Chicken or the Egg? Ex: sight sensory memory occurs after the sensory receptors have detected stimuli but before the neural signals reach the visual cortex for processing 1. Detection by Sensory Receptors: ○ When light enters the eye, it is detected by photoreceptors (rods and cones) in the retina. ○ These sensory receptors convert light into electrical signals. 2. Transmission of Neural Signals: ○ The electrical signals generated by the photoreceptors are transmitted through the optic nerve. ○ These signals travel towards the brain, specifically to the visual cortex located in the occipital lobe. 3. Formation of Sensory Memory: ○ As these visual signals are being transmitted, the brain briefly holds onto the sensory information in the form of sensory memory. ○ Iconic Memory deals with visual stimuli, retaining images for a very short duration (milliseconds). 4. Processing in the Visual Cortex: ○ Once the neural signals reach the visual cortex, the brain interprets the information (e.g., recognizing shapes, colors, and movements). ○ If the information is attended to and deemed important, it may be encoded into short-term memory. Summary: Sensory memory acts as a temporary holding area for sensory information immediately after detection and before detailed processing in the visual cortex occurs. It allows the brain to manage incoming stimuli and decide which information is worth further processing The Levels of Processing Model: Critiques multi-store model bc there are more factors involved in creating LTMs than the model describes Levels of Processing Model = the depth of processing affects the encoding and subsequent retrieval of info ○ 3 main levels of processing: ○ Structural Encoding = encoding physical characteristics of stimuli (appearance, shape, sounds) Superficial w/out consideration of meaning Shallow processing = simply trying to memorize something without attaching a meaning to it Learning ideas on a superficial level We tend to forget these ideas quickly ○ Phonemic Encoding = processing the sound or pronunciation of a stimulus such as a word or phrase Phonological characteristics → rhyming pattern, syllable structure, or phonemic components ex: how it sounds and how its sound relates to other words Still shallow but deeper than structural ○ Semantic Encoding = processing the meaning of a stimulus and its relationship to other components and info stored in memory Deep processing by actively relating stimulus to our existing knowledge/experiences/understanding Deep processing = a way of learning that involves making information meaningful and elaborately processing elaborative rehearsal = linking new info with existing memories and knowledge in LTM, good way to transfer info from STM into LTM