A&P II Exam #1 Review PDF

Chapter 13: The Brain and Cranial Nerves 1. Brain Development and Major Divisions ​ Primary Brain Vesicles 1.​ Prosencephalon (Forebrain) → eventually becomes the cerebrum (and diencephalon). 2.​ Mesencephalon (Midbrain) → remains the midbrain. 3.​ Rhomben...

Chapter 13: The Brain and Cranial Nerves 1. Brain Development and Major Divisions ​ Primary Brain Vesicles 1.​ Prosencephalon (Forebrain) → eventually becomes the cerebrum (and diencephalon). 2.​ Mesencephalon (Midbrain) → remains the midbrain. 3.​ Rhombencephalon (Hindbrain) → continuous with the spinal cord; eventually forms structures like the pons, medulla oblongata, and cerebellum. ​ Major Parts of the Adult Brain 1.​ Brain Stem (continuous with the spinal cord) ​ Medulla Oblongata (lowest part) ​ Pons (middle) ​ Midbrain (upper part) 2.​ Cerebellum 3.​ Diencephalon ​ Thalamus ​ Hypothalamus ​ Epithalamus 4.​ Cerebrum Below is more detail on each: 2. Brain Stem A. Medulla Oblongata ​ Cardiovascular center: Regulates heart rate and force of contraction, and blood vessel diameter. ​ Respiratory center: Controls the basic rhythm of breathing. ​ Reflex centers: Vomiting, swallowing, hiccupping, coughing, sneezing. ​ Continuous with the spinal cord; damage can be fatal. B. Pons ​ Relays signals for voluntary movements from the cerebral cortex to the cerebellum. ​ Also helps the medulla control breathing. C. Midbrain  ​ Coordinates movements of the head, eyes, and trunk in response to visual and auditory stimuli. ​ Connects the pons to the diencephalon. 3. Cerebellum ​ Second largest part of the brain. ​ Primary function: Evaluates and fine-tunes movements initiated by the cerebrum. ​ Coordinates skilled movements; highly folded surface (increases surface area). ​ Ataxia: Damage to the cerebellum can lead to disrupted coordination (staggering, abnormal speech, etc.). 4. Diencephalon A. Thalamus ​ Major relay station for most sensory impulses entering the cerebral cortex. ​ Makes up about 80% of the diencephalon. B. Hypothalamus ​ Crucial for homeostasis. ​ Controls many activities of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) (e.g., body temperature, thirst, hunger, etc.). ​ Produces hormones that influence pituitary function. C. Epithalamus ​ Pineal gland: Secretes melatonin, regulating the biological clock and sleep-wake cycle. 5. Cerebrum ​ The largest part of the brain; the “seat of intelligence.” ​ Longitudinal fissure: Separates the cerebrum into right and left cerebral hemispheres. ​ Surface has gyri (folds), sulci (shallow grooves), and deeper fissures. ​ Limbic System: ○​ Ring of structures on the inner border of the cerebrum and floor of diencephalon. ○​ Called the “emotional brain,” involved in emotional aspects of behavior, olfaction, and memory. Sensory Areas of the Cerebral Cortex ​ Primary Visual Area: Occipital lobe (visual processing). ​ Temporal Lobe: Perception and recognition of auditory stimuli. 6. Extensions of the Dura Mater ​ Falx cerebri: Separates the two cerebral hemispheres. ​ Falx cerebelli: Separates the two cerebellar hemispheres. ​ Tentorium cerebelli: Separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum. 7. Cranial Nerves (I–XII) 1.​ Olfactory (I): Smell. 2.​ Optic (II): Vision; optic nerves cross at the optic chiasm. 3.​ Oculomotor (III): Eye movement, pupil constriction, eyelid opening; lesions can cause strabismus or ptosis. 4.​ Trochlear (IV): Eye movement (superior oblique muscle); smallest cranial nerve. 5.​ Trigeminal (V): Largest cranial nerve; three branches (ophthalmic, maxillary, mandibular). Important for facial sensation and chewing. ○​ Trigeminal neuralgia (tic douloureux): Intense facial pain. 6.​ Abducens (VI): Eye movement (lateral rectus). 7.​ Facial (VII): Facial expression, taste on anterior 2/3 of tongue, salivary gland function. ○​ Bell’s Palsy: Paralysis of facial muscles. 8.​ Vestibulocochlear (VIII): Equilibrium (vestibular) and hearing (cochlear). ○​ Injuries can cause tinnitus (ringing), vertigo (dizziness). 9.​ Glossopharyngeal (IX): Tongue and throat, taste, swallowing. 10.​Vagus (X): “Wanderer” nerve; parasympathetic innervation to thoracic and abdominal organs. 11.​Accessory (XI): Supplies sternocleidomastoid and trapezius (head movement, shoulder shrug). 12.​Hypoglossal (XII): Tongue muscles for speech and swallowing. Tongue deviates to the affected side if damaged. Chapter 13 (Continued): Sensory Receptors Location-Based Classification  ​ Exteroceptors: Near body surface; provide info about external environment (touch, vision, hearing, etc.). ​ Interoceptors (Visceroceptors): In blood vessels, internal organs; monitor internal environment. Type of Stimulus Detected ​ Mechanoreceptors: Respond to mechanical stimuli (pressure, stretch, vibration). ​ Thermoreceptors: Detect temperature changes. ​ Nociceptors: Respond to painful stimuli. ​ Photoreceptors: Detect light (vision). ​ Chemoreceptors: Detect chemicals (taste, smell, blood chemistry). ​ Osmoreceptors: Detect osmotic pressure of bodily fluids. (Chapter 13 Part III is skipped.) Chapter 13 Part IV – Stages of Sleep (Slide 10) (Slides 1–9 are skipped; only Stage 10 is tested.) ​ Stages of Sleep typically include: 1.​ Stage 1 (NREM): Light sleep; transition between wakefulness and sleep. 2.​ Stage 2 (NREM): Deeper than Stage 1; “light sleep” with slower brain waves. 3.​ Stage 3 (NREM): Moderately deep sleep; body temp and BP decrease. 4.​ Stage 4 (NREM): Deep (slow-wave) sleep; difficult to awaken. 5.​ REM Sleep: Rapid eye movement, most dreaming occurs here, skeletal muscles are paralyzed except for diaphragm, eyes, etc. Chapter 14: The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) 1. Overview ​ Monitors internal environment and controls involuntary body functions. ​ Divided into: ○​ Sympathetic (thoracolumbar division; “fight-or-flight”) ○​ Parasympathetic (craniosacral division; “rest-and-digest”) 2. Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic Responses Sympathetic (Fight-or-Flight)  ​ Increased alertness, metabolic activities, and ATP production. ​ Dilation of pupils, airways. ​ Increased heart rate and force of contraction. ​ Constriction of blood vessels to GI tract and kidneys. ​ Increased blood flow to skeletal muscles and heart. ​ Increased glycogenolysis (raises blood glucose). ​ Decreased salivation and digestive functions. ​ Dilation of blood vessels in organs that help combat stress (heart, skeletal muscles). ​ Overall prepares body for emergency or stress responses. Parasympathetic (Rest-and-Digest) ​ Increased digestive and urinary functions. ​ Increased salivation. ​ Decreased heart rate and force. ​ Constriction of airways. ​ Constriction of pupils. ​ Overall conserves and restores body energy. 3. Anatomy of the ANS ​ Ganglion: A collection of neuronal cell bodies in the PNS. ​ Sympathetic Division often called “Thoracolumbar”: ○​ Sympathetic Trunk (Paravertebral) Ganglia: Vertical chain on either side of the vertebral column. ○​ Prevertebral (Collateral) Ganglia: Anterior to the vertebral column (e.g., celiac, superior mesenteric ganglia). ​ Autonomic Plexuses: Networks of sympathetic and parasympathetic axons. Examples: ○​ Cardiac plexus (supplies the heart). ○​ Pulmonary plexus (supplies the bronchial tree). ○​ Celiac (solar) plexus (largest, supplies abdominal organs). 4. ANS Neurotransmitters and Receptors ​ Cholinergic Neurons: Release Acetylcholine (ACh). ○​ Receptors: Nicotinic and Muscarinic. ○​ Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inactivates ACh quickly → effects are brief. ​ Adrenergic Neurons: Release Norepinephrine (NE) (and epinephrine in the adrenal medulla). ○​ Receptors: Alpha (α) and Beta (β). ○​ Effects last longer than cholinergic because NE lingers in the synapse longer. Chapter 16: The Endocrine System 1. Nervous vs. Endocrine Systems ​ Nervous System: Neurotransmitters, fast responses, short-lived effects. ​ Endocrine System: Hormones (carried in bloodstream), slower responses, longer-lasting and broader effects. 2. Types of Glands ​ Exocrine: Secrete products into ducts (e.g., sweat, sebaceous glands). ​ Endocrine: Secrete hormones directly into interstitial fluid/blood (no ducts). 3. Hormones ​ Affect only target tissues with specific receptors. ​ Local hormones: 1.​ Paracrine: Act on neighboring cells. 2.​ Autocrine: Act on the same cell that secretes them. ​ Chemical Classes: 1.​ Amino Acid Derivatives: Thyroid hormones (T3, T4), epinephrine, melatonin. 2.​ Peptide Hormones: ADH, oxytocin, growth hormone, etc. 3.​ Lipid Derivatives: Steroid hormones (androgens, estrogens, progesterone, calcitriol, corticosteroids). 4. Mechanisms of Hormone Action ​ Lipid-Soluble Hormones: Bind to receptors inside target cells (alter gene expression). ​ Water-Soluble Hormones: Bind to receptors on plasma membrane; activate second messenger systems. 5. Feedback Control ​ Mostly negative feedback (e.g., regulation of blood glucose). ​ Few positive feedback examples (childbirth contractions via oxytocin, milk let-down). 6. Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus ​ Hypothalamus: Major link between nervous and endocrine systems; produces regulating hormones for pituitary gland. ​ Pituitary: “Master gland,” attached to hypothalamus by the infundibulum. A. Anterior Pituitary Hormones 1.​ Human Growth Hormone (hGH): Stimulates protein synthesis, cell growth, tissue repair. 2.​ Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH): Stimulates thyroid hormone synthesis and secretion. 3.​ Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH): ○​ Females: Development of ovarian follicles, secretion of estrogens. ○​ Males: Sperm production. 4.​ Luteinizing Hormone (LH): ○​ Females: Triggers ovulation, secretion of estrogens/progesterone. ○​ Males: Stimulates testosterone production. 5.​ Prolactin (PRL): Promotes mammary gland development, milk production. 6.​ Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH): Stimulates adrenal cortex (cortisol release). 7.​ Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH): May influence brain activity and skin pigmentation. B. Posterior Pituitary Hormones 1.​ Oxytocin: ○​ Stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth (positive feedback). ○​ Promotes milk ejection from mammary glands. 2.​ Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH / Vasopressin): ○​ Reduces water loss (kidneys reabsorb more water → less urine). ○​ Decreases sweating; constricts arterioles → raises blood pressure. ○​ Diabetes Insipidus: Hyposecretion of ADH or nonfunctional ADH receptors. 7. Thyroid Gland ​ Location: Anterior to trachea, inferior to larynx; butterfly-shaped with two lobes. ​ Hormones: ○​ Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3) → Increase basal metabolic rate (BMR), protein synthesis, and growth. ○​ Calcitonin (from parafollicular or C cells) → Inhibits osteoclasts; decreases blood Ca²⁺ levels by reducing bone resorption. Thyroid Gland Disorders ​ Hypothyroidism Symptoms: Fatigue, cold intolerance, slow heartbeat, weight gain, brittle nails. ​ Hyperthyroidism: Increased heart rate, elevated BP, weight loss, potential exophthalmos (protruding eyes). 8. Parathyroid Glands ​ Usually 4 glands on the posterior thyroid. ​ Parathyroid Hormone (PTH): Increases blood Ca²⁺ by stimulating osteoclast activity and reducing calcium loss in urine. ○​ Also stimulates the production of calcitriol (active Vitamin D) in kidneys. ○​ Main regulator of blood calcium levels. 9. Adrenal Glands ​ Adrenal Cortex (outer): ○​ Mineralocorticoids (e.g., Aldosterone): Regulate Na⁺, K⁺; affect blood volume and BP. ○​ Glucocorticoids (e.g., Cortisol): Glucose homeostasis, stress resistance, anti-inflammatory, immune suppression, protein and lipid breakdown. ​ Adrenal Medulla (inner): ○​ Epinephrine (80%) and Norepinephrine (20%): Intensify sympathetic responses (fight-or-flight). 10. Pancreas ​ Endocrine part: Islets of Langerhans. ○​ Alpha cells: Secrete Glucagon → raises blood glucose. ○​ Beta cells: Secrete Insulin → lowers blood glucose. ○​ Delta cells: Secrete Somatostatin → inhibits insulin and glucagon secretion. 11. Thymus ​ Involved in T-cell maturation (immunity). ​ Shrinks with age (large in infants, small in adults). 12. Aging and the Endocrine System ​ Decreased levels of growth hormone, thyroid hormones, calcitonin, and insulin in older adults.  ​ Can lead to reduced metabolic rate, bone density changes, and possible glucose homeostasis issues. 13. Common Endocrine Disorders Pituitary Gland Disorders ​ Pituitary Dwarfism: Hyposecretion of hGH in childhood → slowed bone growth. ​ Gigantism: Hypersecretion of hGH in childhood → very tall stature. ​ Acromegaly: Hypersecretion of hGH in adulthood → enlarged hands, feet, facial bones. ​ Diabetes Insipidus: Insufficient ADH release or response → excessive urination, thirst. Thyroid Gland Disorders ​ Congenital Hypothyroidism (Cretinism): Hyposecretion of thyroid hormones from birth → severe growth and mental deficits. ​ Myxedema: Adult hypothyroidism; edema, low heart rate, cold sensitivity, weight gain. ​ Grave’s Disease: Hyperthyroidism; may present with exophthalmos, high metabolism, sweating. ​ Hashimoto’s Disease: Autoimmune hypothyroidism; most common cause of hypothyroidism in the US. Adrenal Gland Disorders ​ Cushing’s Syndrome: Hypersecretion of cortisol → “moon face,” “buffalo hump,” poor wound healing, hypertension. ​ Pheochromocytoma: Tumor in adrenal medulla → excessive epinephrine/norepinephrine, high BP, tachycardia. Diabetes Mellitus ​ Type 1 (Insulin Dependent): Autoimmune destruction of beta cells → little/no insulin; requires insulin injections. ​ Type 2 (Non-Insulin Dependent): Often due to insulin resistance; 90% of cases; associated with obesity, lifestyle. ​ Hyperinsulinism: Excess insulin → hypoglycemia, potential insulin shock. Quick Tips for Exam Preparation 1.​ Focus on Key Functions: For each major brain region, know its main roles (e.g., medulla → heart rate, respiration).  2.​ Learn the Cranial Nerves: Know each by name, number, and primary functions; be aware of common clinical correlations (e.g., Bell’s palsy for Facial nerve). 3.​ Autonomic Nervous System: Distinguish sympathetic vs. parasympathetic effects thoroughly—these are commonly tested. 4.​ Endocrine Hormones & Disorders: Be able to connect a gland → hormone → primary actions → typical disorders. 5.​ Compare Nervous and Endocrine: Know how they differ in speed, duration, and mode of action. Final Note This document integrates all key points from your review sheet—be sure to go through each section, practice recalling major concepts, and understand how systems interact (e.g., hypothalamus and pituitary gland, sympathetic and parasympathetic balance). Good luck on your exam! o1 You said: Remove any redundant or repetitive information while still ensuring that the notes cover all points from the review sheet. Reasoned about exam review note refinement for 10 seconds Streamlining the review I’m thinking about condensing the review sheet by cutting redundancies and trimming extra details, while keeping all necessary key points intact. Refining key concepts I'm focusing on maintaining the review sheet structure, ensuring it includes all relevant points while avoiding redundant or extraneous details. Below is a condensed yet complete set of notes covering all points from the review sheet. Redundant or repetitive details have been removed, but the key information remains intact. Use these notes as a streamlined study guide. Chapter 13: The Brain and Cranial Nerves Brain Development & Major Divisions  ​ Prosencephalon (Forebrain) → becomes the cerebrum (and diencephalon). ​ Mesencephalon (Midbrain) → remains the midbrain. ​ Rhombencephalon (Hindbrain) → continuous with spinal cord; forms medulla, pons, cerebellum. Major Parts of the Brain 1.​ Brain Stem (continuous with spinal cord) ○​ Medulla Oblongata: ​ Cardiovascular center (regulates heart rate, vessel diameter) ​ Respiratory center (basic breathing rhythm) ​ Reflexes (vomiting, swallowing, coughing) ○​ Pons: ​ Relays signals for voluntary movements from the cerebral cortex ○​ Midbrain: ​ Coordinates head, eye, trunk movements to visual/auditory stimuli 2.​ Cerebellum ○​ Evaluates and coordinates movements (initiated by cerebrum) ○​ Damage may cause ataxia (loss of coordination) 3.​ Diencephalon ○​ Thalamus: Major relay station for most sensory impulses (80% of diencephalon) ○​ Hypothalamus: Controls many autonomic activities, critical for homeostasis ○​ Epithalamus: Pineal gland secretes melatonin (regulates biological clock) 4.​ Cerebrum ○​ Seat of intelligence ○​ Longitudinal fissure separates right/left cerebral hemispheres ○​ Limbic System (“emotional brain”): Involved in emotion, olfaction, memory Sensory Areas of the Cerebral Cortex ​ Primary visual area: Occipital lobe ​ Temporal lobe: Auditory perception/recognition Protective Structures ​ Falx cerebri: Separates the two cerebral hemispheres ​ Falx cerebelli: Separates the two cerebellar hemispheres ​ Tentorium cerebelli: Separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum Cranial Nerves (I–XII) 1.​ Olfactory (I): Smell 2.​ Optic (II): Vision; fibers cross at optic chiasm 3.​ Oculomotor (III): Eye movement; damage may cause strabismus, ptosis 4.​ Trochlear (IV): Eye movement (smallest CN)  5.​ Trigeminal (V): Facial sensation, chewing; largest CN ○​ Trigeminal neuralgia (tic douloureux) 6.​ Abducens (VI): Lateral eye movement 7.​ Facial (VII): Facial expression; Bell’s palsy if damaged 8.​ Vestibulocochlear (VIII): Equilibrium, hearing; injury → tinnitus, vertigo 9.​ Glossopharyngeal (IX): Tongue/throat; swallowing 10.​Vagus (X): “Wanderer”; extensive parasympathetic output 11.​Accessory (XI): Supplies sternocleidomastoid, trapezius (head movement, shrug) 12.​Hypoglossal (XII): Tongue muscles; deviation if damaged Sensory Receptors (Chapter 13) ​ Location ○​ Exteroceptors: External environment ○​ Interoceptors (Visceroceptors): Internal environment ​ Type of Stimulus ○​ Mechanoreceptors (pressure, vibration, stretch) ○​ Thermoreceptors (temperature) ○​ Nociceptors (pain) ○​ Photoreceptors (light) ○​ Chemoreceptors (chemicals) ○​ Osmoreceptors (osmotic pressure) Stages of Sleep (Chapter 13 Part IV, Slide 10) 1.​ NREM Stages 1–4: Ranging from light to deep sleep 2.​ REM Sleep: Rapid eye movement, dreaming Chapter 14: The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) Overview ​ Sympathetic (Thoracolumbar): “Fight or flight” ○​ Increased heart rate, blood glucose, pupil dilation; decreased GI activity ​ Parasympathetic (Craniosacral): “Rest and digest” ○​ Decreased heart rate, pupil constriction; increased digestion, salivation Sympathetic Ganglia  1.​ Sympathetic trunk (paravertebral): Vertical chain on either side of the vertebral column 2.​ Prevertebral (collateral): Anterior to vertebral column Autonomic Plexuses ​ Cardiac plexus (heart), Pulmonary plexus (bronchial tree), Celiac (solar) plexus (largest) Neurotransmitters & Receptors ​ Cholinergic neurons: Release ACh ○​ Receptors: Nicotinic, Muscarinic ○​ Rapidly inactivated by acetylcholinesterase ​ Adrenergic neurons: Release NE (norepinephrine) ○​ Receptors: Alpha, Beta ○​ Effects last longer than cholinergic The Endocrine System (Chapter 16) Nervous vs. Endocrine ​ Nervous: Fast, short duration; Endocrine: Slower, longer-lasting Hormones ​ Exocrine glands: Ducts ​ Endocrine glands: Ductless, secrete into bloodstream ​ Local hormones (paracrine, autocrine) vs. circulating hormones ​ Chemical Classes: ○​ Amino acid derivatives (thyroid hormones, epinephrine) ○​ Peptides (ADH, oxytocin) ○​ Lipid derivatives (steroids) Mechanisms & Feedback ​ Lipid-soluble: Receptors inside target cells ​ Water-soluble: Receptors on plasma membrane ​ Mostly negative feedback regulation Pituitary & Hypothalamus ​ Hypothalamus: Major link between nervous and endocrine, regulates pituitary  ​ Pituitary gland: Attached by the infundibulum ○​ Anterior (adenohypophysis) hormones: ​ hGH, TSH, FSH, LH, PRL, ACTH, MSH ○​ Posterior (neurohypophysis) hormones: ​ Oxytocin (uterine contractions, milk ejection) ​ ADH (reduces water loss; hyposecretion → diabetes insipidus) Thyroid Gland ​ Location: Anterior to trachea, inferior to larynx ​ Hormones: T3, T4 (increase basal metabolic rate), and Calcitonin (decreases blood Ca²⁺) Parathyroid Glands ​ Usually 4, on thyroid’s posterior ​ PTH: Increases blood Ca²⁺ (stimulates osteoclasts, reduces Ca²⁺ loss in urine) Adrenal Glands ​ Adrenal Cortex ○​ Mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone) – regulates Na⁺, K⁺, BP ○​ Glucocorticoids (Cortisol) – glucose homeostasis, stress response, anti-inflammatory ​ Adrenal Medulla ○​ Epinephrine (80%), Norepinephrine (20%) – intensify sympathetic response Pancreas ​ Islets of Langerhans ○​ Alpha cells: Glucagon (raises blood glucose) ○​ Beta cells: Insulin (lowers blood glucose) ○​ Delta cells: Somatostatin Thymus ​ Involved in T-cell maturation, shrinks with age Aging Effects ​ Decreased production of growth hormone, thyroid hormone, calcitonin, insulin Common Endocrine Disorders ​ Pituitary ○​ Dwarfism (hyposecretion of hGH in childhood) ○​ Gigantism (hypersecretion of hGH in childhood) ○​ Acromegaly (hypersecretion of hGH in adulthood) ○​ Diabetes Insipidus (low ADH or nonfunctional ADH receptors) ​ Thyroid ○​ Congenital hypothyroidism (Cretinism): Stunted growth, mental deficits ○​ Myxedema (adult hypothyroidism): Facial swelling, slow HR, cold sensitivity ○​ Grave’s Disease (hyperthyroidism): May include exophthalmos ○​ Hashimoto’s Disease: Autoimmune hypothyroidism ​ Adrenal ○​ Cushing’s Syndrome: Hypercortisolism; “moon face,” “buffalo hump” ○​ Pheochromocytoma: Adrenal medulla tumor; excess epinephrine/norepinephrine ​ Pancreatic ○​ Diabetes Mellitus: High blood glucose ​ Type 1: Low insulin (autoimmune) ​ Type 2: Insulin resistance ○​ Hyperinsulinism: Too much insulin → hypoglycemia Study Tips 1.​ Link Structure & Function: E.g., medulla → vital centers; pons → bridge for movement signals; hypothalamus → ANS and endocrine control. 2.​ Cranial Nerves: Know name, number, function, common disorders. 3.​ ANS: Compare sympathetic vs. parasympathetic effects. 4.​ Endocrine: Know each gland, hormone(s), and common pathologies. Use these notes to ensure you’ve covered all exam topics without unnecessary repetition. Good luck studying! o1 You said: Ensure that any acronyms are spelled out and the abbreviation is next to them in parentheses. Reasoned about exam review sheet for 46 seconds Clarifying acronyms I’m thinking through the need to fully spell out acronyms and place their abbreviations in parentheses, ensuring clarity. Each acronym, like "Cranial Nerves" and "Medulla Oblongata," needs a clear, concise abbreviation. Clarifying medical terms I’m mapping out several medical acronyms, ensuring each one is spelled out and accompanied by its abbreviation. This approach highlights the importance of precise terminology in medical discussions. Verifying acronyms I'm examining the use of acronyms like "CN" and "CNS." Ensuring clarity will involve integrating their full forms, like "cranial nerve" and "central nervous system," where applicable. Verifying terminology I'm checking the use of abbreviations and medical terms, ensuring each acronym is spelled out accurately, like "Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)" and "Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)." Verifying details I’m mapping out the list of abbreviations and medical terms to ensure each acronym, like "T3" and "BP," is fully spelled out and correctly integrated into the context. Confirming acronym integration I’m verifying the use of medical acronyms like "hGH" for human growth hormone and "BMR" for basal metabolic rate, ensuring each is fully spelled out and integrated into the context. Clarifying chemical symbols I'm noting that "Na+" is a chemical symbol, not an acronym. According to the instructions, chemical symbols like "Na+" should not be expanded when they are commonly used in their abbreviated form, especially in physiology notes. Clarifying terms I’m noticing that "Beta (β)" and "Alpha (α)" are not acronyms, and terms like "CNS" and "EPSP" are omitted. Now I'm identifying terms like "Stroke Volume (SV)" and "End-Systolic Volume (ESV)" as not being mentioned. Clarifying terms I’m focusing on expanding key medical terms and hormones like "Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)" and "Human Growth Hormone (hGH)," ensuring each acronym is properly spelled out and integrated into the final notes. Below is a condensed yet complete set of notes covering all points from the review sheet. Acronyms are now spelled out with their abbreviations in parentheses. Use these notes as a streamlined study guide. Chapter 13: The Brain and Cranial Nerves Brain Development & Major Divisions ​ Prosencephalon (Forebrain) → becomes the cerebrum (and diencephalon). ​ Mesencephalon (Midbrain) → remains the midbrain. ​ Rhombencephalon (Hindbrain) → continuous with spinal cord; forms medulla, pons, and cerebellum. Major Parts of the Brain 1.​ Brain Stem (continuous with spinal cord) ○​ Medulla Oblongata ​ Cardiovascular center (regulates heart rate, vessel diameter) ​ Respiratory center (basic breathing rhythm) ​ Reflexes (vomiting, swallowing, coughing) ○​ Pons ​ Relays signals for voluntary movements from the cerebral cortex ○​ Midbrain ​ Coordinates head, eye, and trunk movements to visual/auditory stimuli 2.​ Cerebellum ○​ Evaluates and coordinates movements initiated by the cerebrum ○​ Damage can cause ataxia (loss of coordination) 3.​ Diencephalon ○​ Thalamus: Major relay station for most sensory impulses (80% of diencephalon) ○​ Hypothalamus: Controls many autonomic activities, critical for homeostasis ○​ Epithalamus: Pineal gland secretes melatonin (biological clock) 4.​ Cerebrum ○​ “Seat of intelligence” ○​ Longitudinal fissure separates right/left hemispheres ○​ Limbic System (“emotional brain”): Involved in emotion, olfaction, memory Sensory Areas of the Cerebral Cortex ​ Primary visual area: Occipital lobe ​ Temporal lobe: Auditory perception/recognition Protective Structures  ​ Falx cerebri: Separates the two cerebral hemispheres ​ Falx cerebelli: Separates the two cerebellar hemispheres ​ Tentorium cerebelli: Separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum Cranial Nerves (I–XII) 1.​ Olfactory (I): Smell 2.​ Optic (II): Vision; fibers cross at the optic chiasm 3.​ Oculomotor (III): Eye movement; damage may cause strabismus, ptosis 4.​ Trochlear (IV): Eye movement (smallest cranial nerve) 5.​ Trigeminal (V): Facial sensation, chewing (largest cranial nerve) ○​ Trigeminal neuralgia (tic douloureux) 6.​ Abducens (VI): Lateral eye movement 7.​ Facial (VII): Facial expression; Bell’s palsy if damaged 8.​ Vestibulocochlear (VIII): Equilibrium, hearing; injury → tinnitus, vertigo 9.​ Glossopharyngeal (IX): Tongue/throat; swallowing 10.​Vagus (X): “Wanderer”; extensive parasympathetic distribution 11.​Accessory (XI): Supplies sternocleidomastoid and trapezius (head movement, shoulder shrug) 12.​Hypoglossal (XII): Tongue muscles; deviation if damaged Sensory Receptors (Chapter 13) ​ Location ○​ Exteroceptors: External environment ○​ Interoceptors (Visceroceptors): Internal environment ​ Type of Stimulus ○​ Mechanoreceptors (pressure, vibration, stretch) ○​ Thermoreceptors (temperature) ○​ Nociceptors (pain) ○​ Photoreceptors (light) ○​ Chemoreceptors (chemicals) ○​ Osmoreceptors (osmotic pressure) Stages of Sleep (Chapter 13 Part IV, Slide 10) 1.​ Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) Stages 1–4: Light to deep sleep 2.​ Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep: Dreaming, skeletal muscle paralysis except for breathing/eye muscles Chapter 14: The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) Overview ​ Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) monitors internal environment and controls involuntary functions. ​ Divisions: ○​ Sympathetic (Thoracolumbar) → “Fight or flight” ​ Increases heart rate, blood glucose, pupil dilation; decreases Gastrointestinal (GI) activity ○​ Parasympathetic (Craniosacral) → “Rest and digest” ​ Decreases heart rate, constricts pupils; increases digestion, salivation Sympathetic Ganglia 1.​ Sympathetic trunk (paravertebral): Vertical chain near vertebral column 2.​ Prevertebral (collateral): Anterior to vertebral column Autonomic Plexuses ​ Cardiac plexus (heart), Pulmonary plexus (bronchial tree), Celiac (solar) plexus (largest) Neurotransmitters & Receptors ​ Cholinergic Neurons: Release Acetylcholine (ACh) ○​ Receptors: Nicotinic, Muscarinic ○​ Rapidly inactivated by Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) ​ Adrenergic Neurons: Release Norepinephrine (NE) ○​ Receptors: Alpha, Beta ○​ Effects last longer than cholinergic The Endocrine System (Chapter 16) Nervous vs. Endocrine ​ Nervous: Fast signals, short duration ​ Endocrine: Slower signals, longer-lasting effects Hormones ​ Exocrine glands: Use ducts  ​ Endocrine glands: Ductless; secrete into bloodstream ​ Local hormones: Paracrine (neighboring cells), Autocrine (same cell) ​ Chemical Classes ○​ Amino acid derivatives (thyroid hormones, epinephrine) ○​ Peptides (antidiuretic hormone, oxytocin) ○​ Lipid derivatives (steroids) Mechanisms & Feedback ​ Lipid-soluble: Receptors inside target cells ​ Water-soluble: Receptors on plasma membrane ​ Primarily negative feedback regulation Pituitary & Hypothalamus ​ Hypothalamus: Regulates pituitary gland ​ Pituitary gland (attached by infundibulum) ○​ Anterior (Adenohypophysis) Hormones: ​ Human Growth Hormone (hGH), Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH),​ Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH), Luteinizing Hormone (LH),​ Prolactin (PRL), Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH),​ Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH) ○​ Posterior (Neurohypophysis) Hormones: ​ Oxytocin (uterine contractions, milk ejection) ​ Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) (water retention; hyposecretion → diabetes insipidus) Thyroid Gland ​ Location: Anterior to trachea, inferior to larynx ​ Hormones: ○​ Triiodothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine (T4) → Increase Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) ○​ Calcitonin → Decreases blood calcium (Ca²⁺) by inhibiting osteoclasts Parathyroid Glands ​ Usually four, on the posterior thyroid ​ Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) → Increases blood calcium by stimulating osteoclasts and reducing calcium loss in urine Adrenal Glands  ​ Adrenal Cortex ○​ Mineralocorticoids (e.g., aldosterone) → Regulate sodium (Na⁺), potassium (K⁺), blood pressure (BP) ○​ Glucocorticoids (e.g., cortisol) → Glucose homeostasis, stress response, anti-inflammatory ​ Adrenal Medulla ○​ Epinephrine and Norepinephrine (NE) → Intensify sympathetic effects Pancreas ​ Islets of Langerhans ○​ Alpha cells: Glucagon (raises blood glucose) ○​ Beta cells: Insulin (lowers blood glucose) ○​ Delta cells: Somatostatin Thymus ​ Involved in T-cell maturation; shrinks with age Aging Effects ​ Decreased production of growth hormone, thyroid hormone, calcitonin, insulin Common Endocrine Disorders ​ Pituitary ○​ Pituitary Dwarfism: Hyposecretion of Human Growth Hormone (hGH) in childhood ○​ Gigantism: Hypersecretion of hGH in childhood ○​ Acromegaly: Hypersecretion of hGH in adulthood ○​ Diabetes Insipidus: Insufficient Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) or nonfunctional ADH receptors ​ Thyroid ○​ Congenital Hypothyroidism (Cretinism): Hyposecretion from birth → stunted growth, mental deficits ○​ Myxedema: Adult hypothyroidism → edema, slow heart rate, cold sensitivity ○​ Grave’s Disease: Hyperthyroidism; possible exophthalmos ○​ Hashimoto’s Disease: Autoimmune hypothyroidism ​ Adrenal ○​ Cushing’s Syndrome: Hypercortisolism; “moon face,” “buffalo hump,” poor wound healing  ○​ Pheochromocytoma: Adrenal medulla tumor → excess epinephrine/norepinephrine ​ Pancreatic ○​ Diabetes Mellitus: High blood glucose ​ Type 1: Low insulin (autoimmune) ​ Type 2: Insulin resistance ○​ Hyperinsulinism: Excess insulin → hypoglycemia Study Tips 1.​ Link Structure & Function: E.g., medulla → vital reflex centers; cerebellum → motor coordination; hypothalamus → Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) and endocrine control. 2.​ Cranial Nerves: Name, number, function, and clinical correlations. 3.​ Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic: Recognize their opposing effects. 4.​ Endocrine: Know glands, hormone actions, and common pathologies. 5.​ Focus on Feedback Loops: Negative feedback is the main mechanism; identify when positive feedback occurs (e.g., oxytocin during labor).