A&P Exam 1 Study Guide PDF

1. Define anatomy and physiology. -​ Anatomy: the study of the human body. -​ Physiology: the study of the various functions of the human body. 2. Microscopic vs gross anatomy. -​ Microscopic: the study of the body using a microscope (can’t be seen by The human eye) -​ Gross:...

1. Define anatomy and physiology. -​ Anatomy: the study of the human body. -​ Physiology: the study of the various functions of the human body. 2. Microscopic vs gross anatomy. -​ Microscopic: the study of the body using a microscope (can’t be seen by The human eye) -​ Gross: the study of the body without a microscope. 3. What are the two types of microscopic anatomy? -​ Histology: study of the tissues. -​ Cytology: study of the body cells and their structures. 4. What are the five divisions of gross anatomy? -​ Systematic: studies various systems. -​ Regional: studies various regions. -​ Surface: studies anatomic markings. -​ Embryology: studies development from conception to birth. -​ Comparative: examines anatomical similarities and differences. 5. What are the five subdivisions of human physiology? -​ Cell: study of cells. -​ System: study of body system function. -​ Neurophysiology: nervous system function. -​ Endocrinology: endocrine system function. -​ Pathophysiology: physiology of disease states. 6. What are the 5 levels of organization in the body? In order. -​ Chemical→cellular→tissue→organ→organ system -​ Molecules→cells→tissues→organ→organ system→organism 7. What is the smallest living unit? -​ A cell 8. What is a molecule? -​ A molecule is two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. 9. Define metabolism, catabolism, and anabolism. -​ Metabolism: sum of all chemical reactions. -​ Anabolism: sum of all synthesis reactions. -​ Catabolism: sum of all decomposition reactions. 10. Label chart 1 and define each plane: 1.​ Transverse 2.​ Coronal 3.​ Midsagittal 11. What is the anatomic position? -​ Feet pointing forward with arms out to the side, palms forward 12. Match term to direction from chart 2: -​ Distal (I) -​ Inferior (B) -​ Lateral (F) -​ Medial (E) -​ Proximal (H) -​ Superficial (J) -​ Deep (K) -​ Superior (A) -​ Posterior (C) -​ Anterior (D) 13. What are the two main regions of the body? -​ Axial -​ Appendicular 15. What are the visceral and parietal membranes? -​ Parietal: outermost membrane -​ Visceral: innermost membrane 16. What is the function of the serous fluid? -​ Acts as a lubricant. 17. The cavity between the visceral and parietal layers of the lungs is called what? -​ Serous: cavity between membranes 18. The two layered serous membrane covering the abdominopelvic cavity is called? -​ Peritoneum 19. Why do organisms have such a diverse array of cells? -​ The body needs various cells because it performs a specific function. 20. Know the components of homeostasis (receptor, control center, effector) and what they each do. -​ Receptor: detects changes -​ Control Center: nervous and endocrine systems that interpret messages from receptor and initiates change through effector. -​ Effector: structure that carries out that change -​ Stimulus→receptor→cc→effector→homeostasis restored 21. What is positive and negative feedback? Provide examples. -​ Positive Feedback: resulting action in the same direction (breast feeding) -​ Negative Feedback: resulting action in the opposite direction (body temp. regulation) 22.Ultimately, what is a disease? -​ A disease is homeostasis imbalance. 23. What are the properties common to all organisms? -​ Organization -​ Metabolism  -​ Growth & development -​ Reproduction -​ Responsiveness -​ Regulation 24. What are the constituents and relative masses of an atom? What are their charges? -​ Proton (1 amu), positive -​ Neutron (1 amu), neutral -​ Electron (.0005 amu), negative 25. What is atomic number and atomic mass? -​ Atomic number is the number of protons. -​ Atomic mass is protons plus neutrons. 26. What is a biological half life? -​ The time it takes for the concentration of a stable isotope to be reduced by one-half in a tissue or organ. 27. What is an ion? What are the two types of ions? -​ Has a charge -​ Anion: negatively charged -​ Cation: positively charged 28. Common ions in the body and the bonds they form. -​ Sodium: ionic bond -​ Potassium: ionic bond -​ Calcium: ionic bond -​ Magnesium: ionic bond -​ Chloride: ionic bond -​ Bicarbonate: ionic bond -​ Phosphate: covalent 29. Common ions in the body and their physiologic significance? -​ Sodium: most common extracellular cation -​ Potassium: most common intracellular -​ Calcium: bone strength -​ Magnesium: required for ATP production -​ Hydrogen: determines pH -​ Chloride: alters nerve cell responses, component of stomach acid -​ Bicarbonate: pH buffer -​ Phosphate: phospholipid, most common intracellular anion 29. What is an isomer? -​ Same formula, different structures. 30. Single, double, and triple bonds share how many pairs of electrons each? -​ Single: shares one pair -​ Double: shares two pair  -​ Triple: shares three pair 31. Covalent vs ionic bonds. -​ Covalent: shares electrons -​ Ionin: steals or donates electrons 32. Polar vs nonpolar covalent bonds. -​ Polar: atoms share electrons unequally -​ Covalent: atoms share electrons equally 33. What is electronegativity? -​ Electronegativity is how strongly an atom pulls electrons toward itself in a bond. -​ If two atoms have very different electronegativities, the bond is polar (unequal sharing). If they have similar electronegativities, the bond is nonpolar (equal sharing). 34. What is the structure of a phospholipid? -​ Hydrophilic head with phosphate and glycerol -​ Hydrophobic tail with saturated and unsaturated acids 35. The definition of an acid and base. -​ Acid: high H level, low pH -​ Base: high OH level, high pH 36. As H+ decreases, what happens to the pH? Vice versa. -​ As H decreases, pH levels increase -​ As H increases, pH levels decrease 37. What is a buffer? -​ Regulates pH levels 38. Examples of organic and inorganic molecules. -​ Organic molecules contain C and H, inorganic molecules are Everything else. 39. Monomers and polymers definitions. -​ Monomer: one molecule -​ Polymer: multiple molecules 40. What are polysaccharides and their example? -​ Complex carbohydrate, such as starch or glycogen 41. What is protein made of? -​ Amino acids 42. Differences between RNA and DNA? -​ RNA is single stranded, DNA is double stranded -​ Nitrogenous bases differ 43. Know primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure of proteins on chart 3: -​ Primary: chain sequence -​ Secondary: folding -​ Tertiary: 3D structure of chain sequence -​ Quaternary: multiple protein chains coming together 44. What is stored energy vs energy of motion? -​ Kinetic: energy in motion -​ Potential: stored energy 45. What are the first two laws of thermodynamics? 1.​ Energy cannot be created nor destroyed 2.​ Transformation of energy releases heat 46. Exergonic vs endergonic? -​ Exergonic: releases energy -​ Endergonic: requires energy 48. Reduction vs oxidation? -​ Reduction: reduces charge, gains electrons -​ Oxidation: gains charge, reduces electrons 49. What is an enzyme? And its parts? -​ An enzyme is a catalyst that increases reaction rates 50. What is energy of activation (Ea)? How do enzymes affect it? -​ Minimum amount of energy needed for a reaction to start. -​ Enzymes decrease activation energy. 51. Know the steps in the induced fit model. -​ When the enzyme binds to the substrate and undergoes a shape change, the substrate is held closer to the enzyme. -​ Causes stress on the bonds in the substrate, reducing energy required to break the substrate's bond. 52. How are enzymes named? -​ Enzymes are named for their substrate; an -ase is added to the end. -​ Ex: maltose is the substrate of maltose 53. What about enzyme saturation? -​ As you increase substrate, reaction rate increases up to a point 54. What is happening at that point? -​ 55. How do pH and temperature influence enzyme structure? 56. Competitive vs noncompetitive inhibitors. -​ Competitive: competes with the substrate for active sight. -​ Noncompetitive: does not resemble substrate. 57. What are the stages of cellular respiration in order of which they occur? -​ Glycolysis -​ Intermediate stage -​ Citric acid cycle -​ Electron transport stage 58. Where does each stage occur? -​ Glycolysis: cytosol  -​ Intermediate stage: -​ Citric acid cycle: mitochondria -​ Electron transport stage: mitochondria 59. Which stages are anaerobic vs aerobic? -​ Glycolysis: anaerobic -​ Intermediate stage: aerobic -​ Citric acid cycle: aerobic -​ Electron transport chain: aerobic 60. Where is the majority of ATP made and what is this process called? -​ ATP is made in the mitochondria -​ Cellular respiration is the process that makes ATP 61. What is the lactic acid cycle? -​ The lactic acid cycle converts lactate from muscles to glucose in the liver, supporting energy production during anaerobic conditions.