Anth Final PDF

“Clifford Geertz: “human beings are compelled to impose meaning on their experiences because without those meanings to help them comprehend experience and impose order on the universe, the world would seem a jumble” Margaret Mead: Studied teen sexual behaviour in Samoan culture. Francis Galton: in...

“Clifford Geertz: “human beings are compelled to impose meaning on their experiences because without those meanings to help them comprehend experience and impose order on the universe, the world would seem a jumble” Margaret Mead: Studied teen sexual behaviour in Samoan culture. Francis Galton: inspired by Darwin, came up with nature/nurture term, support nature, intelligence determined at birth. Hugh Brody: Wrote Inuit baby girl. We are not born knowing who we are, we must learn to be whatever we become. Daniel Miller” devil’s advocate for importance of studying and understanding consumption as a phenomenon. Marcel Mauss: wrote the gift, Gift giving creates reciprocity, makes it obligation for others to give it. Ervin Goffman: identity is intentional performance and agency for expression. Andrew Walsh - Malagasy sapphire miners - Concept of “precious” emerges through chain of processing and marketing. Jane Goodall studied behaviour of Chimpanzees in Tanzania in 1960s Franz Boas: fought against racism in anthropology and promoted historical particularism. "Father of American Anthropology." Salvage Ethnography: Anthropologists document and preserve the culture of indigenous groups that are disappearing or being absorbed into larger, often colonial, societies. They want to do it before they disappear in writing or other forms. Historical Particularism: understand how each indigenous society developed uniquely in its own specific context or environment. Rejects the idea of a single, universal path for all cultures. Edward Tylor: Credited with the most comprehensive early definition of culture. Deborah Tannen: men and women in western societies use language differently Maggie Cummings’ (2008) work in Vanuatu: fieldwork on gender, modernity, and social change in Vanuatu. Explored how local traditions, modern influences, and development projects intersected in shaping the lives of women and their participation in both the public and private spheres. Roxana Ng’s: Work on the Canadian garment industry showed how free trade agreements resulted in longer working hours, lower wages, and job loss for many Canadian. Highlighted how immigrant women, often from marginalized communities, make up a significant portion of the workforce in Canada's garment factories. Wade Davis: Biosphere is being severely eroded, so too is the ethnosphere, and if anything, at a far greater rate.” Page 1 Biosphere: global system that includes all living organisms (plants, animals, humans) and their interactions with each other and the environment (like air, water, and soil). Ethnosphere: total cultural diversity of humanity, including all languages, traditions, beliefs, and ways of life. Sum of all human cultures and their adaptations over time. Important concepts from all notes: Idioverse: People from same backgrounds, families and similar upbringings have their own unique version of culture Cultural Ownership - People of a particular group claim the ownership of an aspect of their culture Explicit Knowledge - Facts, laws, rules etc, information communicated with ease Tacit Knowledge - Aspects of culture that are invisible to us, help us in our everyday lives, outside of our awareness, it's simply what we do Ontology - What is taken to be “real,” to exist Ethnocentric Fallacy: Believing our beliefs are right, and others' are wrong. Ethnocentrism: Judging other cultures by the standards of your own culture. Relativistic Fallacy: Thinking we can't judge other cultures, so nothing is truly wrong. Cultural Relativism: Believing no culture’s beliefs are wrong just because they’re different from ours. Etic Perspective: Viewing a culture from the outside, using universal concepts. After fieldwork is done. Emic Perspective: Viewing a culture from the inside, understanding it based on its own values. Ethnographic empathy: understand and share feelings and experiences of people being studied. Seeing world from their perspective Ritual - Social portrayal of meanings shared by a specific group of people in a way that makes them seem correct and proper Experience-near - Researchers put themselves into the area of the people they are examining to understand the context of why and how they live their lives Participant-observation - Not just seeing what people of other cultures do, but also doing it with them Respondents – Speak based on personal knowledge and experience, “person-centered” Informants - People who speak to broader cultural patterns Intracultural Variability - How culture is differentially understood, negotiated, and contested. Individuals or groups in a culture can have different perspectives based on factors like age, gender, social class, or personal experience. Multi-sited Research: Fieldwork in multiple locations. Connects localized experiences of fieldwork with broader, global processes. Page 2 Induction/Grounded Theory –Gather data, find patterns, and let the interpretation come from the data itself. Culture Shock: Confusion and discomfort when adjusting to a new culture, including its language, beliefs, food, and environment. Happens in the early stages of fieldwork “Act ethically” as an anthropologist? Do no harm, Confidentiality, do good, move from consent to collaboration. Essentialism: Make stereotypes about a group’s behavior or culture, assuming all members are the same. Culture Change: Changes in meanings that a people ascribe to experience and changes in their way of life Why did foraging societies switch to sedentary agriculture? 1. Wild food: They collected wild berries and plants for food. 2. Knowledge of the land: They knew where to find food and how to hunt effectively. 3. Hunting tools: They had the right tools for hunting and gathering. 4. Group hunting: In some areas, resources allowed larger groups to hunt together. 5. Egalitarian society: They had no central leader; everyone was equal. 6. Slash and burn: They cut down forests to clear land for farming. 7. Horticulture: They started planting food for personal or community use, not for sale. 8. Sedentary lifestyle: They began living in more permanent or semi-permanent settlements. 9. Population growth: Farming provided more food, allowing populations to grow. Linear Cultural Evolution Theory: societies evolve from primitive to more advanced stages over time. 1. Savagery: Early, simple societies (hunting and gathering). 2. Barbarism: More complex societies (agriculture, technology). 3. Civilization: Advanced societies with writing, cities, and government. Colonialism: European powers took control of lands around the world, in 1492 and continuing until the mid-20th century. They often exploited resources and dominated local people. Ideology - Organized collection or system of ideas, usually informs political, social, or economic systems Genocide - The destruction of people - Ethnocide - The destruction of people way of life Worldview: How group of people see and understand the world, based on shared beliefs and cultural ideas about how things work. Belief: something people accept as true or real, even if there's no proof to support it. Witchcraft - Belief individual (the witch) has ability to help or to cause harm to others through the manipulation or powerful substances” Magic - Manipulation of words or substances to influence spiritual beings for good or evil purposes Metaphor - words or phrases from one experience are used to describe something else. Page 3 Semantic Domain - Clusters of words and phrases that belong to a common category Key Metaphors: metaphors that dominate the meanings that people in a specific culture attribute to their experience, common ideas in a culture that shape how people understand their world. Symbol: A word or object that represents something else. Example: A flag represents a country. Ritual: Set of actions that express shared meanings in a group, making them feel right or important. Example: A wedding ceremony. Myth: Story that explains the deeper meanings people attach to their experiences. Animism: Belief that animals, plants, and other non-human things have spirits or consciousness. Shamanism: Belief system where shamans (spiritual leaders) enter a trance to communicate with spiritual forces for guidance. Syncretization: Old and new beliefs and religions mix, often blending native religions with those brought by colonizers to form a new worldview. Revitalization Movements: Religious or cultural movements led by a prophet or small group claiming special knowledge or power to renew a community's way of life. AFFINE – Kin connected by marriage. CONSANGUINE – Kin connected through biological/blood ties. FICTIVE – individuals given kin status despite - neither of the above Bilateral – descent through both male and female lines → not have clear lineages Cross-cousins - Children of siblings of opposite sex. Parallel cousins - Children of siblings of same sex Dala Marriage: traced in female line, individuals must marry someone from outside their own dala Incest taboo - “Prohibits sexual relations among kin of certain categories, such as brothers or sisters, parents and children, and sometimes cousins Marriage is made in the name of the parents taking a daughter-in-law, not in the name of the son taking a wife Dowry - Goods and valuables a bride’s family supplies to the groom’s family or to the couple Speech Community: Group of people who share certain norms of language through living and communicating together Human Communication - Transfer of information from one person to another, verbally or nonverbally Language: System of symbols used to encode our experiences of the world and of one another. Speech: Spoken language Human language differs from animal communication system: Signal, Meaning, Motivation, Function Page 4 Design features of language which make it diff from animal communication systems - Charles Hockett 1966: 1. Openness: create, understand new messages. 2. Displacement: talk about things not in present, such as past/present/imaginary 3. Prevarication: lie/say things that are not true. Ex.) pet unicorn. 4. Arbitrariness: Words have no natural connection to their meanings (e.g., "dog" doesn't look like a dog). 5. Duality of patterning – Language has two levels: sounds (phonemes) and meanings (morphemes). 6. Semanticity: Words have specific meanings, word "cat" refers to specific kind of animal, not something else. 7. Tradition: Language is passed down through generations. 8. Learnability: Humans can learn any language. Rhetoric: language that moves people emotionally or persuades them Language is often paired with non-verbal communication Repetition: Non-verbal cues can repeat or reinforce what’s said. Example: Nodding your head while saying "yes" emphasizes agreement. Contradiction: Non-verbal cues can show a different message than the words. Example: Saying "I'm fine" while frowning or crossing your arms shows you're not really fine. Substitution: Non-verbal cues can replace words entirely. Example: A thumbs-up can mean "good" or "okay" without saying anything. Complementing: Non-verbal cues add meaning or emotion to what’s said. Example: Saying "I’m so happy to see you!" with a big smile makes the greeting feel warmer and more sincere. Accentuation: Non-verbal cues emphasize parts of what’s said. Example: Slamming your fist on the table while making a point shows intensity and stresses the importance of what you’re saying. Regulation: Non-verbal cues help control the flow of conversation. Example: Nodding or making eye contact signals when it's time for the other person to speak. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (also Linguistic relativity principle): Linguistic determinism: Patterns of our thoughts and our culture are determined by patterns of language we speak (“Strong”) Language shapes/influences thought and culture [“Weak”] Ethnopragmatics: how language is used in practice, in specific contexts Heteroglossia: Co-existence of multiple varieties of a specific language Miyupimaatisiiun or "being alive well" (Naomi Adelson) Social Identity: How people see themselves and others in society. Page 5 Cultural Identity: Feeling part of a unique cultural group, Seeing yourself as different from other groups. Stereotyping yourself or others based on cultural traits. Enculturation: The process of learning your cultural identity. Socialization: Learning how to live in a way that is acceptable in your society. Imagined Communities: Feeling of belonging to a community, even without meeting in person. RELATIONALITY: nobody is anybody except in relation to somebody. We only know who we are through our relationships with others. Our identity is shaped by how we connect to people around us. Richard Alford (1988) four aspects of naming: 1. Birth Name: name at birth, given by parents 2. Personal Name: name used in daily life. 3. Name Changes: person changes name for personal reason, or after marriage, 4. Role Changes: name reflects role/position in society, ex.) doctor, teacher. Egocentric: Focus on individual self. Acts independently and takes personal responsibility. Success comes from individual effort. Sociocentric: Focuses on relationships and interdependence. Self is shaped by roles and situations. Success comes from cooperation. Ecocentrism: Human links or relationships to the environment Cosmocentrism: Human links to broader spiritual realm and the universe - “other-than-human beings” Rite of passage as defined by Arnold van Gennep. 1. separation: person leaves their old identity or status. physically leave their home or community, 2. liminality: person is in a transitional phase, not yet part of the new status. “Betwixt and Between Stage” Timeout stage. 3. reincorporation: person returns with new identity or role, fully integrated into the group. Material Cultures - Public Markings of identity, reveal who we are (cultures, dress, and food) Rite - Ceremony, ritual or customary practice that leads to new phase of life Food: Individuals communicate their identities by food they eat, drinks consumed. Both formal and informal cultural rules regarding the consumption of food and drink Reciprocity - Gift giving creates a feeling of obligation: gift must be repaid. Commodities: Carry no special meaning tying them to people - Can be seen as a transaction, as they hold no reciprocal relationships. James Carrier, Commodities can become gifts through appropriation, taking the cultural meanings from valued items and imposing them on commodities. Potlatch: Celebration, usually involving elaborate feasting and the redistribution of gifts, create a new identity or reinforce social status within a group. Page 6 Kula ring: System of inter-island gift exchange, Exchange of shell necklaces and armbands. Kula rings create alliances and social ties among individuals living on different islands. Social stratification / Social hierarchy – Rank individuals in society based on race, gender, class, caste, ethnicity, national affiliation. Egalitarianism: Society where everyone of same age and gender has equal access to resources, power, and respect. Power: Ability to make others do what they do not want to do based on threat or force Dimensions explain cross-societal variation: Criteria to differentiate people: How different groups are defined, like age, gender, or class (intersectionality). Stratification: The level of social ranking or inequality in a society. Privileges and rights: Advantages or rights people have at different social levels. Social boundaries: How strong or flexible the divisions are between social levels. Ascribed Status: identity is fixed, not change, given at birth. EX.) caste system in India. Achieved Status: Identity believed to be changing, based on actions and achievements of person. Polycephalous: "Many heads," Class: Social identity based on economic status. Meritocracy: People are rewarded based on their achievements, effort, and ability. eg of egocentrism Class in North America (top to bottom): Upper class, middle class, lower middle class, working class, working poor, underclass. Caste: Social identity assigned at birth, based on family rank. Caste in India (top to bottom): Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra, Dalit. Race: Social identity based on physical traits, wrongly linked to behavior. Phenotype: Observable traits (e.g., eye color). Genotype: Genetic makeup. Morphology: Form and structure of an organism. Racism: Discrimination and mistreatment based on race or physical traits. Structural Racism: Systemic inequality built into social and political systems. Samuel George Morton: Engaged in Phrenology: study of skull as proxy for brain size/intelligence Attempted to prove in the 1800s that there was a scientific basis for racial discrimination using cranial measurements. →claimed European has greater skull, than Asian, than native Americans than Africans, so they are more intelligent. Page 7 Stephen Jay Gould: found bias in Samuel Morton’s work showed he used smaller skulls for non- Europeans and big ones for Europeans. →highlights racial prejudices. Frances Galton’s (1876) study on “inherited genius”; wanted to prove that intelligence was inherited, it was like a social class o The more intelligent people achieved more, they could be found in British upper class, selected noble, titled individuals of English society as research subjects Karl Pearson’s (1901) study on intelligence levels among brothers; Wanted to prove that intelligence is inherited, brothers who most closely resembled each other would have similar level of intelligence Asked teachers to assess/rank brothers on temperament, popularity, which brother was more popular, no systematic measure, these measures do not measure intelligence Charles Spearman’s (1904) study on general intelligence; g: Assessed present efficiency – how well students did in school (Greek, Latin, and Math); Native capacity – a child’s age and ranking in school (keeping in mind the time period); Children in working class are assessed in a manner that send them in vocational capacity General Impression – Asking teachers to rank the students in terms of “brightness” Common sense – asking the oldest student in the class to rank others on the basis of sharpness and common sense outside of school Phillipe Rushton (1995): “Asians/whites/blacks” o Most intelligence race were Asians, followed by whites, then blacks Howard Gardner (1983): multiple intelligences, Variety of intelligence function together to create competent individuals. Ex.) surgeons needs to recall specific info and adapt it in operation, need to have physically capacity to engage using their hands that will allow them to execute the surgery Pamela Stern (1999) Inuit of Holman/Ulukhaqtuuq (central Canadian arctic) Spatial intelligence: ability to know landscape, navigate, assess weather conditions, Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: physical skills (travel long distances in winter, move quickly when needed, sit motionless but alert over seal hole,) Creative intelligence: garments they wear, artistic design, elaborate beadwork, ability to fashion tools made on fish bones, antlers, Personal intelligence: how people behave, exhibit interpersonal traits (act responsibly, control emotions, among young people (academic ability), Allan Hanson: Five erroneous assumptions about intelligence; 1. Intelligence is one single thing. Truth: Intelligence is made up of many different abilities (like math, language, or social skills), and you can improve them over time. 2. Intelligence Measurable and unequally distributed. Truth: IQ tests only measure certain skills and miss other important aspects, like creativity or emotional understanding. 3. Individual’s measured level of intelligence is fixed throughout a lifetime. Research shows that intelligence isn’t set in stone. It can develop and improve over time, based on factors like education, experiences, and effort. This is especially true with skills like problem-solving, learning new things, and creative thinking. Page 8  4. Measured intelligence determines an individual’s level of success. Truth: Success depends on many factors, like hard work, social skills, and luck, not just intelligence. 5. Largely, if not entirely, inherited. Truth: While genes matter, your environment, education, and experiences also play a big role in how smart you are. Ihuma: Ability to understand and respond to your environment, and to follow social rules and expectations. It helps you be a responsible member of your community. Sex: biological differences between males and females (like chromosomes, hormones, and reproductive organs). Gender: social and cultural roles, behaviors, and identities that society associates with being male or female, third genders. Berdache/ two spirit: person who is biological male and is engaged in feminine activity Brazil: Whitening the Body Successful people have specific physical traits (not just skin color). Whiteness is defined physically, people change their appearance (e.g., through cosmetic surgery) to fit this ideal. Race is linked to social class, and adopting a "whiter" look can help improve social status. Pakistan: Sanitizing the Body In multicultural societies like Canada, people are expected to fit in and not show too much difference. During festivals, it's okay to show cultural identity, but at work, people are expected to "sanitize" their appearance (e.g., changing clothes or hiding cultural traits) to blend in. This is a form of "new racism," where cultural differences are treated like racial categories Structural Violence: Ways social systems, institutions, or structures cause harm or disadvantage to certain people. It happens b/c of how society, government, and organizations are set up, making life harder for some groups. Globalization: Intense worldwide social relations, where distant places are connected, and events in one place affect others far away. Nation-State: Country with clear borders and a central government (authority). Nation: Group of people who share language, worldview, and ancestry. Neoliberalism: Economic idea that promotes little government control and focuses on free markets, private property, and individual business growth. Strong property rights, free markets, and free trade Economic Systems: How goods and services are distributed in a society. Ethnography of Neoliberalism: Anthropology studies neoliberalism through political analysis and field research. Citizenship: Rights and responsibilities of being a member of a nation-state, often linked to national identity. Page 9 Multiculturalism: Different cultures are encouraged to keep their heritage while adapting to national culture (e.g., Canada). Tradition: Cultural practices or items seen as ancient but still meaningful today. Invented Tradition: New cultural practices that are presented as old to seem authentic. Tourism: Traveling for leisure, often involving cultural exploration. Cultural Authenticity: The idea that cultural practices are "genuine" and rooted in history. Conflict: Disagreement based on underlying principles that transcend a single issue. Violence: The use of force that causes harm or damage. War: A collective decision by a group to use violence against another group. Ingo Schröder and Bettina Schmidt anthropological research on violence 1. Violence is never idiosyncratic; Violence is not random or unique to one person; it usually follows a pattern. 2. Violence is never senseless or meaningless to the perpetrator; instrumental rationality. Person committing violence always has a reason 3. Violence is never a totally isolated act. Violence is never completely separate; it connects to other events or influences. Linda green work in Xe’caj Guatemala (pg 263) ▪ Rumors about her circulated: she was informant of government, helping steal indigenous children, helping organized indigenous resistance Bias in Collective Violence: Violence is rewarded or seen necessary (e.g., Kiowa Society, Yanomamö). Religious beliefs encourage violence (e.g., the "cosmic struggle"). Tokyo subway Sarin attack in 1995. Peaceful Societies: No internal violence (e.g., Ju/’hoansi). Little interpersonal violence; Ju/’hoansi Mutual reliance, among groups (e.g., Semai of Malaysia; Xinguano of Amazon) No special respect for warriors (e.g., Xinguano). Value of non-violence, with rituals to ease conflict (e.g., Ju/’hoansi). Peaceful ways to resolve disputes, without threats (e.g., Inuit). For the Yanomamö, violence increased because of: 1. New settlers (government agents, missionaries, researchers). 2. Competition for goods, like steel tools. 3. Social breakdown caused by disease and lack of food. Cultural Genocide: Ethnic cleansing: Eliminating a group through expulsion, violence, or changing their identity. Page 10  Deliberate efforts to stop a population from reproducing or to treat them as "contaminants." The goal is to erase culture by destroying the people. Women are targeted, often through rape, as part of this violence. Indonesian Takeover of East Timor (1975-1999): Violence included forced contraception, rape, and economic destruction to starve people. Led to refugees and a diaspora as people fled from genocide and ethnocide. Yanomamö: Collective violence is used to protect resources and families. They value fierceness and form alliances against other villages. Men must build reputation on axe fights, raids Vice Lords (Gangs): Young men join gangs for protection and to protect their interests in girls. Reputation is built through axe fights and gang battles, forming alliances with other gangs. State: Defines what violence is and who can use it legally. Ranks violent acts through laws. Controls violence with law enforcement and punishment. Allows violence against civilians in some cases. Regulates weapons and justifies violence with nationalism (importance of one’s nation, focus on pride, unity, superiority) or fascism (authoritarian rule with a dictator). Supporters of Nuclear Weapons: Anarchy characterizes international relations, countries must protect themselves. Think nuclear weapons are the best defense, and believe they won’t be used. Critics of Nuclear Weapons: Anarchy doesn’t characterize international relations Believe international rules control aggression, not anarchy. Think the nuclear arms race is dangerous and believe weapons will be used. Marcus Griffon's work with US Military Terrain Systems (pg 264-65) ▪ Lots of debate about this work ▪ Military recognizes value of anthropology, they were tapping into ethnographic work to learn about Iran, and Afghanistan Anne Irwin’s work with the Canadian military in Afghanistan (pg 266-267) ▪ Recruited anthropologists for this, created huge uproar, reminds us that all of our work that there are consequences ▪ Was in Canadian military, and went to study anthropology and wanted to understand how Canadian military in Afghanistan made sense of being Afghanistan, engaging in conflict with these people and what meaning they give to these activities Quotes from anthropologists Page 11  Thomas Hylland Eriksen: “Anthropology may not provide the answer to the question of the meaning of life, but at least it can tell us that there are many ways in which to make life meaningful.” Clifford Geertz: “human beings are compelled to impose meaning on their experiences because without those meanings to help them comprehend experience and impose order on the universe, the world would seem a jumble” Ralph Linton: “The last thing a fish would ever notice would be water” Ethnography - “Anthropology demands the open mindedness with which one must look and listen record in astonishment and wonder which one would not have been able to guess (Margaret Mead) Category Ju/’hoansi Trobriand Islanders Rural Chinese Kinship Bilateral (both parents’ sides). Matrilineal (mother’s line). Patrilineal (father’s line). System Live in small groups of less than 10 people Marriage Arranged; brideservice required. Arranged or chosen; Arranged; dowry. bridewealth. -males benefit more, sex partner, status as adult. -female: male must work for bride parents. Key Bond Husband and wife. Brother and sister. must Father and son. marry someone outside your matrilineage Sexuality Women have freedom and Youth sexuality emphasized. Strictly controlled; virginity valued. agency. Wealth Minimal; shared resources. Yams and banana leaves as Dowries and economic value of wealth. sons. conflict Infidelity, polygamy Divorce common, clan Women low status, strict family obligations roles Page 12