Beef Cattle Production in the Philippines PDF

Unit 4. BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION  Chapter 1. OVERVIEW OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY I. INVENTORY 2.59 million heads (as of 01 July 2021): estimated total inventory of cattle in Ph. (-0.2 % lower than 2020’s 2.60 M) 0.5%↑ increase (backyard farms),-11.1 % ↓ decrease (commercial fa...

Unit 4. BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION  Chapter 1. OVERVIEW OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY I. INVENTORY 2.59 million heads (as of 01 July 2021): estimated total inventory of cattle in Ph. (-0.2 % lower than 2020’s 2.60 M) 0.5%↑ increase (backyard farms),-11.1 % ↓ decrease (commercial farms) of cattle population. POPULATION Central Visayas: region that has the highest cattle population at 310.90 thousand heads. Ff’d by Ilocos Region and CALABARZON These 3 regions shared 32.2% to the country’s total cattle population. Production 60.99 thousand metric tons, liveweight: total volume of cattle production in April to June 2021. 32.6 % higher than the 2020 output (46.00 TMT, liveweight) CALABARZON: region that is highest producer of cattle at 9.68 thousand metric tons, liveweight. Ff’d by Northern Mindanao (8.89 TMT,lw) and Ilocos Region (7.40 TMT,lw) Prices PhP146.57 per kilogram, liveweight: average farmgate price of cattle for slaughter 14.5 % higher than (PhP128.01 per kg LW) in 2020. 2nd quarter of 2021: highest average farmgate price in May at PhP 147.28 per kg LW lowest in April at PhP 145.48 per kg LW II. Competitive Advantages 1. Increasing demand for beef; income elasticity of demand for beef is higher than other meat; 2. Ability to transform low quality and fibrous feed materials (e.g. grasses and crop residues) into high value protein food product; 3. Abundant supply of crop residues especially in small famers; 4. Favorable climate for fodder production; & 5. Cattle production and meat processing technologies are available for increased productivity. III. Constraints Low breeding base; High financing cost for breeder operations; High cost of inputs; Lack of infrastructures; Competition for use of land; Changing policy guidelines, e.g. pasture lease, tariff; Import substitutes particularly carabeef; & Policy to unify and integrate the beef industry. IV. Interventions (Needed) Build up population base through well- defined breeding program; Increase animal productivity through improved husbandry practices and application of biotechnologies; Promote appropriate feeding and encourage utilization of nonconventional feedstuffs; Effect strict quarantine procedures and efficient disease control/eradication programs; Improve marketing/pricing system; and Review policies on importation and credit system. Chapter 2. BEEF PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN THE PHILIPPINES BEEF PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 1. Ranching or extensive system 2. Feedlot fattening 3. Backyard/small-holder/ semi-subsistence  I. Ranching or Extensive System 1. Cow-calf operation - confined chiefly to those sections that have an abundance of comparatively cheap, low carrying capacity grazing lands. - located in provinces that are sparsely settled or in hilly areas where the land is too rolling to be farmed to advantage - (i.e. Nueva Ecija, Nueva Viscaya, Masbate, Mindoro, Bukidnon, etc.) I. Ranching or Extensive System 1. Cow-calf operation uses grade or Philippine cows and purebred or high- grade bulls, involves selling calves at weaning as stockers; or as feeder stocks after grazing them out on the range; or as fat slaughter cattle after feeding them out; or selling heifers to other ranchers for breeding purposes [depending on the availability feeds/pastures], extensive use of native pastures and minimum outlay for supplemental feed/concentrates and maybe integrated with orchard or coconut plantation. I. Ranching or Extensive System 2. Breeder farm operation highly specialized; uses purebred cows and bulls and requires large capital for animal/equipment, better feeding and salesmanship; skill and sound judgment must be possessed by the manager better suited to men of considerable experience than to beginners; Should be the ultimate goal of a large number of breeders, toward production of highest type of cattle for the open market.  II. Feedlot Fattening Operation important to the livestock industry of the Philippines for three main reasons: 1. it provides farmers with extra income; 2. it gives him year-round work and allow the use of cheap, plentiful farm by-products such as corn stovers, hay, silage, rice straw, copra meal, rice bran, and sugarcane tops which might otherwise be wasted; and most important 3. it helps meet the urgent demand for high-protein foods in the Filipino diet. II. Feedlot Fattening Operation Because of its high nutritional value and appealing flavor, properly fattened cattle is in great demand in the market place. However, feedlot cattle operations have found popular acceptance only in Batangas, Tarlac, and Pangasinan, with few operations found in other parts of the country like Masbate, Bukidnon, Cotobato and Iloilo. While some large fattening operations exist, the majority of farmers work on a small-scale fattening two or three head at a time. III. Backyard Cattle Raising The backyard sector constitute 92% of the total cattle population. The aggregate share of top five regions accounts for 56.9 percent of the total population. These regions are Ilocos, Southern Tagalog, Central Visayas, Northern Mindanao, and Davao Region. The aim is to produce livestock that can be sold to augment farm income. III. Backyard Cattle Raising Characteristics: 1. One or two heads of either fattening or breeding cattle is raised on a farmer’s spare time, 2. Farmer usually tethers animal to gaze around the home lot and then supplements this with farm wastes like rice straw or corn stover/stalks when back in the pen; 3. Others practice soiling and supplementing with ipil- ipil (Leucena Leucocephala), as a source of protein, and rice bran, corn bran, or copra meal at 1-2 kg/animal and, 4. In Batangas, force feeding (supa or supak) of feed mixture is a common practice among backyard cattle raisers.  Chapter 3. BEEF CATTLE BREEDS, BREEDING AND REPRODUCTION I. Breeds from Great Britain Polled Hereford Horned I. Breeds from Great Britain Hereford Hereford is believed to be the first breed developed in England. It was presumed bred from the white-faced red cattle of the Netherlands to the smaller black Celtic native to England, particularly, Herefordshire. Hence, the name of the breed. It is distinguished by its white-faced white flanks, white tails, and white crest on its neck. The body color ranges from cherry to mahogany-red. It is pf medium size but increase in weight gains and mature weight is attained by breeders. The Polled Hereford is a separate breed brought about by hornless mutations in 1901. They have the same characteristics as the horned Hereford. But it became popular because of its hornless. I. Breeds from Great Britain Black Angus Red I. Breeds from Great Britain Angus The Angus is naturally polled and solid black or red, though the udder may be white. The Aberdeen Angus is solid black with abdominal spot of white underneath. This was developed in Scotland, in the countries of Aberdeenshire and Angus. The breed is noted for its high quality of meat, increased weight gains and smoothness. I. Breeds from Great Britain White Roan Shorthorn Red I. Breeds from Great Britain Shorthorn Dual-purpose, suitable for both dairy and beef production; All Shorthorn cattle are coloured red, white, or roan, although roan cattle are preferred by some, and completely white animals are not common. I. Breeds from Great Britain Red Belted Galloway Black I. Breeds from Great Britain Galloway The Galloway is one of the world's longest established breeds of beef cattle, named after the Galloway region of Scotland, where it originated, during the 17th century. It is now found in many parts of the world, being exported to Canada in 1853, the US in 1882 and Australia in 1951. The breed enjoyed success during the 1950s but this subsided during the foot and mouth crisis. Today, the breed is enjoying a revival due to the demands of the beef market. The breed is considered average size and has a thick coat due to the climate of their native Scotland II. Breed from India Different colors Brown Brahman or Zebu Gray II. Breed from India Brahman 30 or more strains exist; more preferred are Guzerat, Nellore, Gir, and Krisma Valley strains. Characterized by a pronounced hump, excessive skin on dewlap and underline, large droopy ears and horns which tend to cure downward and outward. The color ranges from near white through brown, brownish-red and near black. Heat tolerant, drought resistant and resistant to ticks and other parasites. Its popularity ranges to Central and South America, the gulf coast regions of the US especially Texas and Florida parts of Europe and Asia, especially Philippines and Thailand III. Breeds from France Charolais III. Breeds from France Charolais The Charolais or Charolaise is a French breed of taurine beef cattle. The Charolais is the second-most numerous cattle breed in France after the Holstein and the most common beef breed. Charolais are raised for meat; The breed tends to be large- muscled, with bulls weighing up to 1,100 kg (2,400 lb) and cows up to 900 kg (2,000 lb). They tend to be very high-strung and temperamental. Most Charolais are white with a pink nose. III. Breeds from France Limousin III. Breeds from France Limousin The Limousin, is from the Limousin and Marche regions of France. It was formerly used mainly as a draught animal, but in modern times is reared for beef. It is the second-most numerous beef breed in France after the Charolais. It is a world breed, raised in about eighty countries round the world, many of which have breed associations IV. Breed from Switzerland Purebred black Simmental Traditional IV. Breed from Switzerland Simmental The Simmental or Swiss Fleckvieh is a Swiss breed of dual-purpose cattle. It is named after the Simmental – the valley of the Simme river – in the Bernese Oberland, in the canton of Bern in Switzerland. It is reddish in colour with white markings, and is raised for both milk and meat. No other breed in the world has such a large within- breed-type variation as Simmental-Fleckvieh: 1. Dairy type 2. Dual purpose but major emphasis on milk; 3. Truly dual-purpose (all cows are milked and bulls excel in weight gain); 4. Moderate beef type 5. Extreme beef type V. Breed from Africa Afrikaner V. Breed from Africa Afrikaner The Afrikaner, also known as the Africander, is a breed of taurine-indicine cattle indigenous to South Africa. Huge herds of Sanga type cattle were herded by the Khoikhoi (Hottentots) when the Dutch established the Cape Colony in 1652. Afrikaners are used commercially to produce beef, and are often crossbred with other breeds in order to improve meat quality, particularly in regards to tenderness, as well as their greater ability to add weight on poor quality forage. The South African breed society promotes the use of Afrikaners as a dam line for crossbreeding VI. Philippine Native Cattle VI. Philippine Native Cattle Philippine Cattle Breed are the indigenous cattle breed found throughout the Philippines. It is a small breed with mature bulls weighing about 400 kg and mature cows weighing about 300 kg. The color ranges from grey to brown to fawn, with white spotting on some animals. The females are humpless, while males have a low hump. The breed is used for draught work and milk and beef production, although Carabao are often preferred for draught work. Four breed types have been recognized, the Ilocos in northwestern Luzon, Batangas in southwestern Luzon, Iloilo on Panay island, and Batanes Black on the Batanes Islands between Luzon and Taiwan. The genetic background of Philippine Cattle Breed includes the Banteng, humpless Chinese Yellow cattle, and Iberian cattle coming from both Mexico and Spain. This hybrid background might explain the high fertility[citation needed] of the breed. VII. History of Cattle Domestication Cattle were originally identified as three separate species: 1. Bos taurus, the European or "taurine" cattle (including similar types from Africa andAsia); 2. Bos indicus, the zebu; and 3. Bos primigenius, the aurochs. The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and taurine cattle. These have been reclassified as one species, Bos taurus, with three subspecies: Bos taurus primigenius, Bos taurus indicus, and Bos taurus taurus. VII. History of Cattle Domestication Complicating the matter is the ability of cattle to interbreed with other closely related species. Hybrid individuals and even breeds exist, not only between taurine cattle and zebu (such as the sanga cattle, Bos taurus africanus), but also between one or both of these and some other members of the genus Bos – yaks (the Yak dzo or yattle), banteng, and gaur. Hybrids such as the beefalo breed can even occur between taurine cattle and either species of bison, leading some authors to consider them part of the genus Bos, as well. The hybrid origin of some types may not be obvious – for example, genetic testing of the Dwarf Lulu breed, the only taurine-type cattle in Nepal, found them to be a mix of taurine cattle, zebu, and yak. However, cattle cannot be successfully hybridized with more distantly related bovines Banteng such as water buffalo or African buffalo. VIII. Etymology The noun cattle (which is treated as a plural and has no singular) encompasses both sexes. The singular, cow, technically means the female, the male being bull. The plural form cows is sometimes used colloquially to refer to both sexes collectively, as e.g. in a herd, but that usage can be misleading. Cattle did not originate as the term for bovine animals. It was borrowed from Anglo-Norman catel, itself from medieval Latin capitale 'principal sum of money, capital', itself derived in turn from Latin caput 'head'. Cattle originally meant movable personal property, especially livestock of any kind, as opposed to real property. The word "cow" came via Anglo-Saxon cū (plural cȳ). IX. BEEF BREEDING Beef breeding is the controlled propagation of cattle to improve qualities desirable to man. Modern Goal: 1. To develop types that will meet market demand 2. Be productive under adverse climatic conditions 3. Efficient in converting feeds to animal products IX. BEEF BREEDING Qualitative Traits Dominant and recessive traits are traits controlled by 1 pair of genes, and are referred to as QUALITATIVE TRAITS. Some examples include: 1) coat color in Angus cattle 2) polled or horned trait in cattle 3) white color in swine 4 ) white wool in sheep IX. BEEF BREEDING Variation in Traits DOMINANT : when one gene completely masks the effect of the other. For example: The black coat color is dominant over red coat color in Angus cattle. The dominant trait is indicated by a capital letter, such as "B" for the black coat color. The degree of dominance depends upon the animal's entire genetic makeup together with the environment to which it is exposed. IX. BEEF BREEDING Variation in Traits RECESSIVE: when a gene will not show its effects if there is a dominant gene present. For example: The red coat color is recessive in Angus cattle. Recessive is Represented with: a lower case letter, such as "b" for red coat color. Sample Problem: Monohybrid Cross A black cow with the genotype "Bb" is bred to a black bull with the genotype "Bb". What will be the percentage of calves having each possible genotype? The bull produces sperm carrying 50 percent "B" genes and 50 percent "b" genes, the cow has the same percent of eggs - 50 percent "b" and 50 percent "B" genes. So in the problem, each animal is represented with Bb. 49 Punnett Square: Monohybrid Cross B b B BB Bb GENOTYPE: 25 percent "BB" b Bb bb 25 percent "bb" 50 percent "Bb". PHENOTYPE: 25 % red 75 % black since "Bb" and "BB" have the same 50 phenotype. Sample Problem: Dihybrid Cross This refers to crosses using two separate traits. For example: The polled trait "P" and black coat color "B" will be used to demonstrate the dihybrid cross. Remember that GENES DETERMINING THESE DIFFERENT TRAITS ARE TRANSMITTED INDEPENDENTLY. Let's say a cow has the genotype "BbPp" ("B" = black, "b"= red, "P" = polled, and "p" = horned). The bull has the genotype "BbPp" also. If we breed these two, what are the genotypic percentages of the offspring? 51 Punnett Square: Dihybrid Cross GENOTYPES Bp BP bp bP "BBpp" = 1/16 "bbPp" = 2/16 (1/8) Bp BBpp BBPp Bbpp BbPp "BBPp" = 2/16 (1/8) "BBPP" = 1/16 BP BBPp BBPP BbPp BbPP "Bbpp" = 2/16 (1/8) "BbPP" = 2/16 (1/8) "BbPp" = 4/16 (1/4) bp Bbpp BbPp bbpp bbPp "bbpp" = 1/16 "bbPP" = 1/16 bP BbPp BbPP bbPp bbPP PHENOTYPES: Black and polled = 9/16 Red and horned = 1/16 Red and polled = 3/16 Black and horned = 3/16 52 IX. BEEF BREEDING Quantitative Traits Also called Quantitative characters Polygenic traits Complex traits Influenced by many genes and by the eivironment Large number of gene system is involved May include several allelles Mutations Multiple copies of a gene with quantitative effects in proportion to the number of copies 53 IX. BEEF BREEDING Quantitative Traits Continuously variable, expressed as a quantity (e.g. cm, m, %, kg, mL, g/dL, g/d, etc.) Generally show a bell-shaped (normal) distribution (e.g. height) 5 4  Heritability Heritability estimates are needed for predicting breeding values and response to selection from various selection schemes, multiple trait selection, and in understanding genotype x environment interactions. Heritability can take values between 0 and 1. 0 indicates that trait is not heritable; 1 indicates that additive gene effects explain all variation. Not a biological constant. Higher in animals that are kept in a constant, well-controlled environment Generally, it is: ✓ Highest in body measurement ✓ Intermediate in quantitative production traits ✓ Lowest in fertility and health traits 55 Beef cattle h2 birth weight.35 weaning weight.30 weaning score.25 feedlot gain.45 Dairy cattle h2 carcass grade.40 fat thickness.33 milk yield.25 rib eye area.58 fat yield.25 marbling.42 solids-not-fat yield.25 retail product %.30 protein yield.25 calving interval.08 conception rate fat %.50.05 solids-not-fat %.50 protein %.50 type score.30 56 X. BREEDING SYSTEMS Breeding systems or mating systems are defined as several types of mating to combine desirable qualitative and quantitative characteristics through mating systems which are planned or non-random. Random mating (or unplanned) – this means each possible mating in a population has the same probability or occurrence. Normally used in breeding experiments to minimize genetic changes in a control population wherein selected populations are controlled. X. BREEDING SYSTEMS Non-random mating - This occurs when rules dictating the mating strategy are imposed - E.g. assortative mating - either individuals of the same phenotype (positive assortative mating) or different phenotypes (negative assortative mating) X. BREEDING SYSTEMS Inbreeding Inbreeding results from the mating of related individuals. Inbreeding occurs in the progeny of related parents (if parents are inbred but unrelated, progeny is not inbred). The intensity of inbreeding depends on how closely the parents are related. Inbreeding increases homozygosity and reduces genetic variation within an inbred line. Inbreeding also occurs in small, closed populations. 59 X. BREEDING SYSTEMS Inbreeding Close breeding – matings of close relatives e.g., father – daughter : son – mother; brother – sister When the male matures and breeds the dam or mother, then this is close breeding. Or if the F1 is a female and once mature is bred to the sire, then this is close breeding. Line breeding – breeding of not so close relatives, e.g., cousins. This is a form of mild inbreeding designed to concentrate the genes of a certain ancestor of the genetic constitution of the progeny. Strain breeding – a very mild form of inbreeding which 60 leads to increase homozygousity within the strain in the long term. X. BREEDING SYSTEMS Inbreeding Effects of Inbreeding 1. Marked decrease in fertility 2. Reduces vigor 3. Decrease in growth rate of offspring 4. Reduces viability of the offspring 62 X. BREEDING SYSTEMS Crossbreeding – mating of individuals from two or more established purebreeds. To increase heterozygousity To take advantage of hybrid vigor or heterosis. Hybrid vigor is defined as the average quality of the first generation exceeding the average of the two parental breeds. Heterosis is displayed mainly in the fitness traits, fertility and viability. 63 X. BREEDING SYSTEMS Crossbreeding Systematic crossbreeding – two or more breeds are involved in a breeding program lasting several years. This way, a crossbred which may eventually stabilized into a breed e.g., Brangus (Brahman x Angus), Charbray (Charolais x Brahman) may occur. Or a crisscross or triple cross can be developed with the best desired characteristics such as daily gain, carcass weights, etc. 63 X. BREEDING SYSTEMS Crossbreeding Upgrading – the mating of purebred sires to nondescript or native females and their offspring generation after generation. 100% B (Brahman) x 100% BC (Batangas Cattle) Sire ↓ Dam (select the female, F1 50% B 50% BC then ↓ Bred later to 100% B) (select the female, F2 75% B 25% BC then ↓ Bred later to 100%B) F3 87.5% B 12.5% BC (and so on and so forth) 65 XI. REPRODUCTION Reproductive Phenomena Sexual maturity (bulls/heifers) = 6-8 months Estrus cycle = 18-24 days (21 days average) Estrus duration - Exotic/ European breeds = 14-18 hours - Indigenous/Zebu = 10-12 hours Ovulation = 10-14 hours after end of estrus Parturition = average 283 days 66 XI. REPRODUCTION Reproductive Phenomena A bull ejaculates about 2-12 ml of 500 or more sperm cells per ml The sperm cells survive the oviduct up to a maximum of 48 hours Many sperm cells reach the oviduct in 6 to 7 hours after deposition in the vagina There are many thousand egg cells produced by the female but those released are very few. One mature egg cell is released at any time. One egg cell is fertilized by one sperm cell at 6t6 he oviduct (fallopian tube) XI. REPRODUCTION Signs of Estrus 1. Mount others 2. Reddening and swelling of the vulva 3. Mucous discharge 4. Isolates herself 5. Seem sickly and has no appetite 6. Frequent urination, restlessness and sometimes bellowing or mooing, and 7. Standing still when mounted (the only reliable or true sign of estrus; estrus is defined as the period of sexual receptivity of sexual receptivity of the female to the male). 67 Interaction of factors that regulate sexual behavior in bulls and other species. XI. REPRODUCTION Timing of Insemination/ Breeding Simple guideline is adopted when artificial insemination (AI) is practiced, thus: “Females observed in estrus in the morning, are inseminated late afternoon of the same day. Those observed in the afternoon, are inseminated not later than noon time the next day.” The estrus of females can also be manipulated or synchronized using drugs such as Prostaglandin F2 alpha. Estrus are then predetermined and a large number of females are inseminated almost at the same time. 69 XI. REPRODUCTION Artificial Insemination Through a dilution technique for example, a IB ejaculate can be diluted up to 20% with a standard motility concentration. This technique multiplies the number of times that can be serviced by the bull as against one service through natural breeding. The diluted sperm cells can then be preserved indefinitely by freezing it then put in liquid nitrogen tank. 7 0 Speculum method for inseminating Recto-vaginal method for inseminating XI. REPRODUCTION Embryo Transfer Embryo Transfer involves superovulation of superior females. Several follicles can develop and multiple ovulations can occur. Insemination can be done and the embryos are collected non-surgically. The collected embryos can be frozen and stored in liquid nitrogen tanks for future transfer to surrogated dams. Or transfers can be done to surrogate dams treated to synchronize estrus and physiologically ready to receive and implant the embryos. This is also done non-surgically. 73 Embryo transfer in XII. INDICATORS OF GOOD BREEDING MNGT. Conception rate (Pregnancy) – percent of breeding females that conceived versus the total exposed females. A 65% AI rate is very high, an 85-90% natural rate is exceptional. CR = cows pregnant at end of breeding season X 100 Cows exposed during breeding season 76 XII. INDICATORS OF GOOD BREEDING MNGT. Percentage (90 or 120 day) non-returns = percent of breeding females confirmed pregnant at 90 or 120 days, by pregnancy diagnosis, versus the total exposed females. This is similar to conception rate. Calving Rate – percent of breeding females that give birth versus the total exposed females. 77 XII. INDICATORS OF GOOD BREEDING MNGT. Calving Interval –the average length of time (in days) between successive calving - can be calculated for each cow or the entire herd One year is ideal. Eighteen (18) months is common. First heat after parturition – the occurrence of estrus after giving birth to a young. First heat is related to calving interval. 78 Chapter 4. BEEF CATTLE NUTRITION I. DIGESTIVE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Unlike the monogastric animals ruminants can totally subsist on highly fibrous diets, like grasses, legumes, tree leaves and can be efficiently utilize farm by-products concentrates. This is due to the unique digestive anatomy of the ruminant, a foregut fermenter with a four- compartment compound stomach namely: 1. rumen, 2. reticulum, 3. omasum, and 4. abomasum. 79 “ ” I. DIGESTIVE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Rumen (“paunch,” “blanket”) Gases Today’s hay The rumen is about 70% of the compound stomach and is non-glandular, but can Grains & transport volatile fatty acids (VFA) yesterday’s through the villi. hay It is the digestion and fermentation vat; can hold 40-50 gallons. In the rumen, the ingesta is ruminated and masticated several times to reduce particles size for more efficient digestion by the microorganisms. Rumen papillae It has no secretions. 82 I. DIGESTIVE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY The rumen fluid abounds with bacteria, protozoa, and fungi, which are responsible for the continuous degradation of nutrients contained in the feed into fermentation end- products. Carbohydrates are acted upon by enzymes (cellulose, etc) released by the microorganisms to yield VFA, CO2 (carbon dioxide) and CH4(methane). The VFA consists mainly acetic, butyric, and propionic acids, which produce major energy sources for the animal. The fermentation gases are continuously eructated. If not, the 83 animal suffers from bloat. I. DIGESTIVE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Feed protein in the rumen are likewise broken down by the microorganisms into ammonia (NH3) and CO2. Ammonia (NH3) is absorbed across the rumen all, enters the circulatory system, is converted into urea (CH4N2O) in the liver and filtered out in the kidney via the urine or recirculated into the digestive system via the salivary glands. The efficiency of rumen microbial digestion is dependent on particle size of the feed, chemical structure of the cell wall, nutrient deficiency and many other dietary factors. Particularly, the saliva plays important role of maintaining the neutral pH inside the rumen, where acids are constantly produced. 84 I. DIGESTIVE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Reticulum (“honeycomb”) It has honeycomb lining. Specifically, the reticulum is the receiving area for the feed from the esophagus where it forms food bolus, and initiates regurgitation (movement of the ingesta from the rumen back to the mouth during rumination). The reticulum traps foreign materials (nails, wire, stones, etc), which accumulate in this compartment that eventually punctures the small intestines, heart or peritoneum (hardware disease). As a preventive, a magnet is administered orally to trap and hold metallic objects. 86 I. DIGESTIVE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Reticulum (“honeycomb”) In calves, the esophageal grooves allows milk to bypass the rumen and directly enter the abomasum through the reticulum. Rumen development occurs following a change in diet and microbial growth. 87 I. DIGESTIVE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Omasum (“book,” “many-plies) The omasum is filled with lamella, which increase the surface area for absorption for water, VFA and bicarbonate. It regulates flow of ingesta by acting as a sieve through its membranous leaves. Ingested feeds must be thoroughly degraded to smaller particles to pass through the omasal leaves, thereby promoting maximum fermentation efficiency. As food, the rumen up to the 8 8 omasum are termed as “tripe.” I. DIGESTIVE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Abomasum (true stomach) The unabsorbed nutrient then flow into the abomasum, which is a glandular compartment capable of secreting pepsin and HCl. This is the site for initial digestion of proteins into polypeptides. Compared with the neutral pH of the rumen, the abomasum is highly acidic, allowing digestion of microbial protein which serves as source of amino acids for ruminants. 89 I. DIGESTIVE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Small Intestine The small intestine consists of three sections: the duodenum, jejunum and ileum. It measures about 20 times the length of the animal. Chime from abomasum enters the duodenum. Secretions from the pancreas and gallbladder aid in digestion within the small intestine. The small intestine completes most of the digestive process and absorbs many nutrients through villi (small finger-like projections). From the villi the nutrients enter into the blood and lymphatic systems. 9 0 I. DIGESTIVE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Large Intestine (Cecum and colon) The cecum is the large area where the small and large intestine meet. The cecum breaks down some previously undigested fiber, but the exact importance of the cecum remains unknown. The large intestine is the last section of the tract that undigested feedstuffs pass through. Microbes digest some undigested feed here, but the main digestive function of the large intestine is to absorb water. 9 1 II. NUTRIENTS WATER. The main components of feed are water and dry water. The dry matter contains the organic material and inorganic elements. Water is essential in the transport of metabolic products and wastes and in most chemical reactions in the body. The amount of water consumed by cattle (7-12 gal per day) depends on the water content of the feed, body size and environmental temperature. A deficiency in water intake depresses feed intake. 93 II. NUTRIENTS ENERGY. All animals require energy for maintenance, growth, work, and production. The amount of energy required for each of the above function varies with body size, level of production and physiological state. The most common source of energy for ruminants are carbohydrates, namely the soluble (starch and sugars) and structural (cellulose and hemicellulose), carbohydrates. Lipids are the other source of energy from plants. 94 II. NUTRIENTS ENERGY. The unit of measure of energy us digestible energy or TDN. DE is the gross energy of the feed intake the energy contained in the feces, TDN is the sum digestible carbohydrate, protein, fiber and fat. One kilogram of TDN is equal to 4.2kcal of DE. 95 II. NUTRIENTS PROTEINS. Proteins are large chemical units made up of amino acids. In ruminants, proteins are utilized by the microorganisms in the rumen for their own growth & reproduction. Microbial fermentation of proteins produces ammonia and CO2 as main end-products. Undigested feed proteins and the microorganisms from the rumen are passed on to the lower gastrointestinal tract, where these are then enzymatically digested and absorbed as amino acids. 96 II. NUTRIENTS PROTEINS. Thus, microbial protein becomes an excellent source of amino acids for ruminants. It is therefore clear that protein requirement of the ruminant is influenced by the requirement of the rumen microorganisms. Thus suggests that feed proteins must contain rumen- soluble protein for use by the microorganisms and rumen- insoluble protein as source of amino acids by the host animal. 97 II. NUTRIENTS MINERALS. The mineral nutrition of ruminants is largely influenced by the mineral status of the soil where the animals are grazed in the country. Phosphorus (P) is the single most limiting mineral since the soil and therefore the grasses are deficient in this element. Deficiency in P results in low feed intake, low production levels and in severe cases osteoporosis. Salt (NaCl) is likewise deficient in the normal diet or ruminant and is best provided ad libilum in the form of blocks or loose form. 98 II. NUTRIENTS MINERALS. Calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and potassium (K) are normally sufficient in grasses to satisfy the requirements of the animals. Feeding large amounts of concentrates and grains may lead to deficiencies in these minerals and should be supplemented. The trace elements cobalt (Co), iron (Fe), iodine (I), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn) and selenium (Se) are best provided for ruminants in small amounts in area where soil deficiency for these elements are known. 99 II. NUTRIENTS VITAMINS. The water-soluble vitamins (B complex, C) are synthesized by the rumen microorganisms. The fat-soluble Vitamin K is likewise synthesized in the rumen by the bacteria. Vitamin E is found in most feeds, while Vitamin D is synthesized in the skin when the animals are exposed to sunlight. Vitamin A is synthesized from carotene which is abundant in young, fresh grass, but devoid in mature grasses, most crop residues and some grains. Animals may tolerate low dietary intake of Vitamin Afor as long as sufficient Vitamin A has been stored in theliver. 99 III. FEEDS FOR RUMINANTS FORAGES Forage is the natural and cheapest feed for ruminants and includes not only grasses but also legumes. A number of grass species are available in the country consisting of native and introduced species. Leguminous vines and trees also abound. 101 III. FEEDS FOR RUMINANTS FORAGES Grasses at pre-flowing stage average 8% CP while legumes average about 20%. In grasses, CP level drastically goes down to 4% at maturity which is way below the requirement of the animals. Hence, a grass-legume pasture is in ideal ration for ruminants. Season of the year, amount of rainfall, fertilization, grazing management are other factors affecting the nutritive value of grasses. 102 III. FEEDS FOR RUMINANTS BY-PRODUCTS ROUGHAGES As an agricultural country, farm by-product roughages constitute a potential source of feed for ruminants. Most of these are highly fibrous (rice straw, corn stover, corn cobs, sugar cane tops), low in CP and TDN and have poor digestibility. The amounts of these voluntarily consumed by the animals are limited. As such concentrate supplementation is a must for more efficient utilization of by-product roughages. A few agro-industrial by-products have high nutritive value close to that concentrates, such as spent brewer grains and pineapple pulps. 103 III. FEEDS FOR RUMINANTS CONCENTRATE Unlike in developed countries, little amount of grain is fed to ruminants locally. Instead, agro-industrial by-product concentrates constitute the bulk of supplements to roughages. Copra meal, rice bran, wheat pollard are commonly used by-product concentrates, contain on the average 75% TDN and vary widely in their CP content from 0% as in case of molasses to 21% in copra meal. 104 III. FEEDS FOR RUMINANTS Use of urea in ruminant ration Urea has long been used as partial protein source of ruminants in other countries. The capacity of microorganisms to utilize nitrogen into microbial protein makes it possible to incorporate small amount urea in the ration of ruminants. Urea is instantaneously degraded by microbial urease into ammonia, which is utilized by the microorganisms and the excess is absorbed across the rumen wall and circulated in the blood, high concentration of ammonia in the blood is toxic and fatal to ruminants. Hence, urea as supplement for ruminants must be used with caution. 105 III. FEEDS FOR RUMINANTS Use of Urea in ruminant ration The following guidelines are recommended for safe use of urea: 1. Add fertilizer grade urea at not more than: a. 1% of the ration (DM basis) b. 2-3% of the concentrate mixture, (air-dry basis) c. 25-30% of the total dietary protein 2. Adequate source of energy (molasses, corn, etc.) must be fed with urea 3. Sufficient amounts of minerals, particularly S in case molasses is used, must be available. 4. If possible, daily allowance of urea should be consumed in small amounts throughout the day rather than in just one feeding. 5. Urea whether fed in granules or dissolved in water should 105 be well mixed. Chapter 5. HERD MANAGEMENT GOAL OF HERD MNGT. The goal of herd management is to produce a crop of high quality, heavyweight calves. The factors that contribute to the accomplishment of this goal are: 1. Early sexual maturity of females, 2. High conception rate, 3. High calf crop, 4. Early rebreeding after calving 5. Excellent milk production of the cows, 6. Availability of a year-round feed supply, and 7. others. 8. Quality of management, profile of nutrition, and farm infrastructures are important determinants of profit or loss. 108 I. HERD DIVISION 1. Pregnant herd- composed of pregnant females. Cows are grouped with the breeding herd during the breeding season. 2. Breeding herd- consists of dry cows and heifers ready for breeding. After the breeding season, pregnant animals are transferred to the pregnant herd. 3. Heifer herd- composed of heifer not yet ready for breeding. Heifer calves are included in this herd after weaning. 4. Steers, feeders, or fattening herd- consists of growing cattle and those to be fattened for the market. 5. Bull herd- consists of mature males kept mainly for servicing the breeder cows. 109 II. MNGT. Of BREEDING FEMALES A. Lactating and pregnant cows Once the cows are determined pregnant, they should be separated from the herd to prevent injury and possible abortion due to riding, butting and fighting with other animals. The signs of pregnancy are the cessation of estrus or heat and the enlargement of the abdomen and udder. 110 II. MNGT. Of BREEDING FEMALES A. Lactating and pregnant cows However, a more reliable pregnancy test is through palpation 60-90 days after breeding. Palpation is the manual examination of the reproductive tract by way of the rectum and colon to verify pregnancy in cattle. This method needs training and experience. 111 II. MNGT. Of BREEDING FEMALES B. Open cows and replacement heifers Open or non-pregnant cows and replacement heifers should be given the right amount of feed daily to ensure that they are in the right physiological status. Animals with reproductive problems and those which fail to settle after the clean- up breeding period should be culled. 112 II. MNGT. of CALVES, GROWERS, FATTENERS A. Calves Calves should suckle colostrum milk from their mother within three hours. B. Growers Growers are usually maintained in the pasture with very little attention. They are given salt and mineral supplement. 113 II. MNGT. of BREEDING BULLS Breeding bull should be selected purebred because it contributes 50% of the genetic makeup of the offspring. They should be in good condition at the start of the breeding season. Selected bulls should be given supplemental feeding of grains or concentrates 60-90 days before and after breeding period depending on their condition. A breeding bull should be kept in the herd as long as he is aggressive to mate. However, to avoid inbreeding, a bull should be kept out of the herd after two and a half to three years when 113 the offspring reach the breeding age. Chapter 6. GENERAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES I. CATTLE IDENTIFICATION This practice is necessary for management purpose and to denote ownership. o Branding with hot iron o Putting ear t11a5 gs or ear notches II. DEHORNING Dehorning: less spaces in feedlots, in transit or shipment; uniformity Calves w/ horn buttons, 1.5- 2.0 cm long: dehorning irons Very young calves: caustic soda or dehorning paste Older animals: metal spoon, Bames dehorner, 11 clipper, or hand or 6 electric saws III. CASTRATION Bull calves can be castrated any time, but perfectly when they are a few weeks to 7 months of age. The slit and the cap methods are both effective ways of surgically removing testicles. Bloodless castration can also be done with Burdizzo pinchers or emasculator. 118 III. RECORD KEEPING Records last genetically-superior cattle that may be used for breading. Moreover, slow-gaining heifers, bulls that produce undesirable hereditary traits, and those that do not perform satisfactory despite good feeding and management can be identified, too. These animals are culled or removed to improve the herd quality and to increase in beef production. 119 IV. SELECTION AND CULLING Breeding stock with poor performance should be culled for slaughter. These are as follows: o A cow that calves every one and a half to two years o A cow that produces a little amount of milk and raises a small calf despite good feeding and management. o Small, weak and unhealthy animals which are susceptible to diseases and may become the source of infection of the herd if not removed on time. 120 IV. SELECTION AND CULLING o Heifers that do not come in heat is spite of proper age, good size, healthy condition, vigor and strength. o Heifers that fail to meet the standard set for the breeding herd. o Bulls and cows which have undesirable hereditary defects such as inverted teats, hernia, dwarfism, cryptorchidism (failure of one or both teats to descend normally), and the like. 121  Chapter 7. ANIMAL HEALTH PROGRAM I. HERD HEALTH MANAGEMENT The responsibility of a programmed health and care and disease control is equally divided between the veterinarian and the livestock raiser. The veterinarian devices such a program with due consideration to the local conditions and resources while the livestock raisers implements it with optimal supervision. The slow growth of the cattle industry in the country in spite of the efforts to increase the number of the species may be partly attributed to low conception rate (10%) and annual death losses in mature cattle (>2%). 122 I. HERD HEALTH MANAGEMENT Disease Prevention Measures 1. Start with healthy stocks. Purchase animals must be rigidly examined for abnormalities, defects or signs of illness, must come from reliable sources of known sturdy parental stocks and must be under isolation for a minimum of 30 days after purchase. 2. Work-ups for parasite and disease control as deworming, deticking and immunizations must be done during the isolation period. 3. For the unconfined stock or pastured herds, maintain a similar program with emphasis on their proper application on a continuing basis. In areas where there is high incidence of liverfluke, deworming with effective flukecides every 3-4 months will help 123 control this parasite. I. HERD HEALTH MANAGEMENT Disease Prevention Measures 4. Provide adequate quality ration since well-nourished cattle do not only perform better but are more resistant to infectious and parasitic agents. 5. Give optimum protection from environment stress by providing proper housing and clean water supply. 6. When individually confined or herd quartered, practice sanitation in the pens. Prompt waste disposal should be due to rid houses and pens of pests and insects which thrive on manure and other wastes. 125 I. HERD HEALTH MANAGEMENT Disease Prevention Measures 7. Graze in pasture relatively safe from infective stages of internal parasites particularly liverfluke. For the latter, snail control and pasture management should complement regular deworming with an effective flukecide. 8. Deworm regularly for other internal or gastro enteric parasites. Mature stocks may serve as carriers of parasites. Where parasitisms with nematodes is high, deworm 3 to 4 times a year or as recommended. 9. Detick with effective chemicals with due consideration on proper concentration and frequency as recommended by the manufacturers. 126 I. HERD HEALTH MANAGEMENT Disease Prevention Measures 10. Unproductive breeding stocks must be culled out of the herd and replaced with tested or potentially good breeders. 11. Conduct regular checks for the presence of parasitic diseases. Random fecal examination conducted at regular intervals may help check the increase in the incidence and severity of parasitism. 12. During disease outbreaks or when the animal is visibly ill, segregate it immediately and seek immediate veterinary assistance. Intensify efforts of environmental control through sanitation and disinfection on contaminated quarter and utensils. 127 I. HERD HEALTH MANAGEMENT Disease Prevention Measures 13.Immunize regularly against diseases prevalent in the area; community vaccination may be arranged with the proper authorities way ahead of expected disease outbreaks. 14.Segregate the cattle from other animals like carabaos, goats and sheep to avoid intertransmission of the disease among these species. 128 II. CATTLE HERD HEALTH PROGRAM Before Breeding 1. Breeders to be selected must be potentially good ones based on physical characteristics, temperament or previous reproductive performance and pedigree if known. 2. Blood test the animals for diseases such as brucellosis and leptospirosis, upon consultation with a veterinarian. 3. Deworm animals with wide spectrum anthelmintics, and flukecides. 4. Inject with Vitamin ADE to improve the reproductive performance. 5. Vaccinate against diseases prevalent in the area, i.e. FMD, hemorrhagic septicemia, blackleg, brucellosis, anthrax. All vaccination must be spaced out and accomplished preferably before breeding or pregnancy. 129 II. CATTLE HERD HEALTH PROGRAM Pregnancy Period 1. Maintain animal on high plane of nutrition. Provide nutritional supplements such as minerals and vitamins, if necessary. Deficiencies of energy, protein, vitamins and minerals during gestation have been linked to increased mortality and poor livability of calves. Inject Vitamin ADE in the second or third trimester of pregnancy. 2. Where immunization of bacterial diseases are indicated (Salmonella. Pasteurelia, Leptospira) bacterins may be given at 7- 8 months of pregnancy. The protection conferred is not only for the dam but also for the calf by way of passive immunity trough the colostrum. 3. At about the last 2 to 3 weeks of pregnancy, deworm against common intestinal roundworm using wide spectrum dewormers. 130 II. CATTLE HERD HEALTH PROGRAM Calving and Post-Calving 1. Segregate expectant cows from the herd at least one week before calving. Provide adequate and comfortable quarters. Avoid unnecessary stresses caused by excitement, transport, unsanitary environment, adverse climatic conditions etc. 131 II. CATTLE HERD HEALTH PROGRAM Calving and Post-Calving 2. Prepare calving area. An ideal calving pen should be a small, clean and dry area preferably free from build-up of filth and manure. Clean straw as bedding in the maternity area is a practical material to reduce gross contamination and subsequent infection of the calf. Before calving, the genital area and the udder should be washed thoroughly to reduce gross contamination and infection of the calf during suckling time. 132 II. CATTLE HERD HEALTH PROGRAM Calving and Post-Calving 3. For day old calf, cut the umbilical cord and paint the remaining stump with strong tincture of iodine. It must suckle after parturition to receive the colostrum. If the calf is unable to suckle, assist or train it to nurse on the dam. 133 II. CATTLE HERD HEALTH PROGRAM Calving and Post-Calving 4. To prevent uterine infection in the dam, antibiotic boluses may be inserted through up into the vagina. Retained placenta (unexpectedly beyond 24 hours) must be removed by gentle traction and when unsuccessful, inject Pitocin or oxytocin as indicated. Flush genitalia with mild antiseptics like diluted Lysol or potassium permanganate solution. 134 II. CATTLE HERD HEALTH PROGRAM Calving and Post-Calving 5. Repeat deworming against gastro-intestinal parasites at 2-3 months, and again immediately before weaning. 6. To reduce the stressful effect of weaning the calf from the dam, allow it to creep feed a few weeks in advance of their weaning. Leave the calf in the pasture or corral where creep is located until final weaning is done. 135 II. CATTLE HERD HEALTH PROGRAM Yearling-Growing Period 1. When immunity due to previous vaccination has lapsed, repeat the vaccination. 2. Repeat tick control. 3. Treat against liverfluke. Repeat flukecide treatment every 3 months especially in areas where this parasite is very common. Where such treatment has considerably reduced the infection, dosing may be repeated twice a year thereafter. 4. For sporadic incidence of specific diseases, consult a veterinarian for proper treatment. 136 CREDITS TO: HONEYLET J. NICOLAS, DVM, MPH, Ph.D. Associate Professor III, BASC