ANPH111.pdf

Natural Science Department THE HUMAN BODY College of Arts and Sciences Our Lady of Fatima Unive...

Natural Science Department THE HUMAN BODY College of Arts and Sciences Our Lady of Fatima University ANPH111 | 1ST Semester | Academic Year 2024-2025 San Fernando, Pampanga DEFINITION OF ANATOMY AND PHYIOLOGY NEUROPHYSIOLOGY ANATOMY (Surface Anatomy and Anatomical Imaging is also concerned with studying disorders VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016) affecting the brain, e.g. meningitis, strokes, Scientific Discipline dementia, encephalitis, etc., as well as the nerve To dissect, or cut apart and separate and the muscle such as myasthenia gravis and The parts of the body for study motor neuron disease. Meningitis and Structure of the Body encephalitis are inflammatory diseases of the The study of the body’s structure membranes that surround the brain and spinal o Gross anatomy (larger structures) cord and are caused by bacterial or viral o Microscopic anatomy (smaller infections. structures) A stroke is your brain’s equivalent of a heart Subcategories attack, happening when there’s an issue with o Regional anatomy, systemic anatomy, blood flow to part of your brain. This can happen histology, cytology, and others when blood vessels are blocked or because of Regional Anatomy bleeding in your brain. Strokes are a life- threatening emergency, and immediate medical attention is critical to prevent permanent damage or death. MYASTHENIA GRAVIS (my-us-THEE-nee-uh GRAY-vis) causes muscles under your voluntary control to feel weak and get tired quickly. This happens when the communication between nerves and muscles breaks down. There's no cure for myasthenia gravis. Treatment can help with symptoms. These symptoms can include weakness of arm or leg muscles, double vision, drooping eyelids, and problems with speaking, chewing, swallowing and breathing. This disease can affect people of any age, but PHYSIOLOGY (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011) it's more common in women younger than 40 Processes or functions of living things and in men older than 60. Therefore, physiology is the science of body functions CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES (CVDs) The study of function of the human body Are the leading cause of death globally. o Helps to understand the chemistry and An estimated 17.9 million people died from CVDs physics of the anatomical structures of in 2019, representing 32% of all global deaths. Of the body and how they work these deaths, 85% were due to heart attack and Categories of physiology stroke. o Neurophysiology Over three quarters of CVD deaths take place in o Cardiovascular physiology low- and middle-income countries. o Renal physiology RENAL PHYSIOLOGY The renal system consists of the kidney, ureters, and the urethra. The overall function of the system filters approximately 200 liters of fluid a DAYRIT, A. B.  day from renal blood flow which allows for toxins, o Ability to form new organism, giving metabolic waste products, and excess ion to be possibility to tissue repairs and excreted while keeping essential substances in continuity. the blood. Homeostasis o Ancient Greek ὅμοιος (hómoios, meaning MOTOR NEURON DISEASE (MND) “similar”), from στημι (hístēmi, “standing is an uncommon condition that affects the still”) and stasis, from στάσις (stásis, brain and nerves. It causes weakness that gets meaning “standing”). worse over time. o is the ability to maintain balance despite changes in the internal and Early symptoms can include: external environment. o weakness in your ankle or leg – you HOMEOSTASIS AND FEEDBACK MECHANISMS might trip, or find it harder to climb stairs. o slurred speech, which may develop into difficulty swallowing some foods. o a weak grip – you might drop things, or find it hard to open jars or do up buttons. o muscle cramps and twitches. STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY What is feedback mechanism? A feedback mechanism is a physiological regulation system in a living body that works to return the body to its normal internal state, or commonly known as homeostasis. in nature, feedback mechanisms can be found in a variety of environments and animal types Variables are parameters that are monitored and controlled or affected by the feedback system. Receptors (sensors) detect changes in the CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, variable. 2016) Control centers (Set point) compare the Organization variable in relation to a set point and signal the o specific interrelationships for it to Effectors to generate a response. perform functions essential for the For example, body temperature homeostasis: living organism to thrive. o Sensors in the skin detect increase in Metabolism temperature o Chemical reactions taking place in an o Control center receives organism. sensory information to maintain Responsiveness body temperature setpoint (37°C) o Capability to react or adjust whether a o Control center communicates with stimulus or a change. effector to change body temperature o Ex. Body respiration process (e.g., sweating) Growth o An increase in number or length Development o Organism changes through time (functional capability) Reproduction DAYRIT, A. B.  Negative feedback is explained by an air conditioner to set a specific temperature: once it has been running for a while, it turns itself off once the setpoint is reachieved! POSITIVE FEEDBACK LOOP INVOLVED IN CHILDBIRTH Childbirth involves a positive feedback loop Stretching of the cervix leads to release of oxytocin Oxytocin strengthens contractions of the uterus Cervix stretches more as labor continues FEEDBACK LOOPS The method of control for many variables of the human body Most variables are controlled through negative feedback o The body’s response is to decrease the original stimulus Positive feedback occurs when the original stimulus is enhanced or increased NEGATIVE FEEDBACK occurs to reduce the change or output Help to maintain stable environment. 1. COLD High Temperature o Sweat -> reduce temp -> Normal Low Temperature o Shiver -> Produce Heat -> Normal 2. Glucose High Glucose -> Insulin Low Glucose -> Glucagon POSITIVE FEEDBACK Occurs to increase the change or output: the result of a reaction is amplified to make it occur more quickly. 1. Bacteria Infection -> Immune (Brain) -> increase Body temp (fever) -> Normal 2. Wound *Beneficial -> Cut -> H Platelets -> Stop blood 3. Birth *Cervix contraction -> Increase hormone -> birth TERMINOLOGY AND THE BODY PLANE ANATOMICAL POSITION The body is standing upright Feet are parallel and shoulder-width apart DAYRIT, A. B.  Toes pointed forward Directional terms describe parts of the body Upper limbs are held out to each side with palms facing forward DIRECTIONAL TERMS relative to each other. Directional terms are generally grouped in pairs of opposites (Thompson, 2015). o Medial o Lateral o Proximal o Distal o Posterior o Anterior DAYRIT, A. B.  o Superficial o Deep BODY PARTS AND REGIONS This will help to properly identify specific area/s of a patient body to be evaluated upon. CENTRAL BODY REGION 1. Head 2. Neck 3. Trunk DAYRIT, A. B.  ABDOMINAL REGIONS AND QUADRANTS Determining exact location of possible problems concurrent to different organ/s can be difficult. For this reason, it was subdivided further into PLANES regions and quadrants. Body planes divide the body, even organs, into sections. 1. Sagittal Plane 2. Frontal Plane 3. Transverse Plane DAYRIT, A. B.  ANPH111 | 1ST Semester | Academic Year 2024-2025 HOMEOSTATIC Natural Science Department College of Arts and Sciences IMBALANCE Our Lady of Fatima University San Fernando, Pampanga ANALYZE DISEASE AS A RESULT OF HOMEOSTATIC Diabetes, a metabolic disorder caused by IMBALANCE excess blood glucose levels, is a key example of Many diseases are a result of homeostatic disease caused by failed homeostasis. imbalance, an inability of the body to restore a In ideal circumstances, homeostatic control functional, stable internal environment. mechanisms should prevent this imbalance Aging is a source of homeostatic imbalance as from occurring. However, in some people, the the control mechanisms of the feedback loops mechanisms do not work efficiently enough or lose their efficiency, which can cause heart the amount of blood glucose is too great to be failure. effectively managed. In these cases, medical Diseases that result from a homeostatic intervention is necessary to restore homeostasis imbalance include heart failure and diabetes, and prevent permanent organ damage. but many more examples exist. Diabetes occurs when the control mechanism for insulin becomes imbalanced, either because Causes of Homeostatic Disruption there is a deficiency of insulin or because cells People with type 1 diabetes do not produce have become resistant to insulin. insulin due to auto-immune destruction of the Homeostasis is the ability of a system to insulin producing cells, while people with regulate its internal environment through type 2 diabetes have chronic high blood glucose maintaining a stable, relatively constant set of levels that cause insulin resistance. properties such as temperature and pH. In diabetes, reduced beta cell mass occurs through apoptosis, necrosis, autophagy, and WHAT IS DISEASE? potentially ferroptosis. Disease is any failure of normal physiological In human type 2 diabetes, both increased function that leads to negative symptoms. While apoptosis and reduced replication may disease is often a result of infection or injury, contribute to beta cell loss and reduced beta most diseases involve the disruption of normal cell mass (Karaca et al., 2009). homeostasis. Anything that prevents positive or With diabetes, blood glucose is increased by negative feedback from working correctly could normal glucagon activity, but the lack of or lead to disease if the mechanisms of disruption resistance to insulin means that blood sugar become strong enough. levels are unable to return to normal. This causes metabolic changes that result in diabetes DIABETES: A DISEASE OF FAILED HOMEOSTASIS DAYRIT, A. B.  symptoms like weakened blood vessels and 2. The conversion of food/fuel to building frequent urination. Diabetes is normally treated blocks for proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, with insulin injections, which replaces the and some carbohydrates, missing negative feedback of normal insulin 3. Elimination of nitrogenous wastes. secretions. These enzyme-catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain ETIMOLOGY OF DISEASE their structures, and respond to their Type 1 diabetes environments. is an autoimmune condition that can develop suddenly and may be caused by genetics and CELL other unknown factors. A Cell consists of three parts: Type 2 diabetes o Cell membrane, often develops over time, with obesity and a lack o Nucleus, and, between the two, of exercise as big risk factors. You can be o Cytoplasm. diagnosed with either at any age. Within the cytoplasm lie intricate arrangements of fine fibers and hundreds or even thousands of Pathogenesis miniscule but distinct structures called refers to the sequence of events during the Organelles. course of an infection within the host, and the mechanisms giving rise to these events. It Mycoplasma genitalium includes entry of the virus into the body, a parasitic bacterium which lives in the primate bladder, multiplication and spread, the development of waste disposal organs, genital, and respiratory tracts, is tissue damage, and the production of an thought to be the smallest known organism capable of immune response. independent growth and reproduction. With a size of approximately 200 to 300 nm, M. Types of Pathogenesis 1. microbial infection, 2. inflammation, 3. Smallest/basic unit of life malignancy and 4. tissue breakdown. Basic, structural, functional, and biological unit For example, bacterial pathogenesis is the of all known organisms. process by which bacteria cause infectious Contains many biomolecules such as proteins illness. Most diseases are caused by multiple and nucleic acids. processes. THE CELL, CELLULAR Do cells synthesize molecules? Because many identical RNA copies can be made from METABOLISM, AND the same gene, and each RNA molecule can direct the synthesis of many identical protein molecules, cells can REPRODUCTION synthesize a large amount of protein rapidly when ANPH111 | 1ST Semester | Academic Year 2024-2025 necessary. Natural Science Department College of Arts and Sciences How do Cells communicate? Our Lady of Fatima University San Fernando, Pampanga The cells can communicate with each other with the help of chemical molecules of messenger molecules. These METABOLISM molecules can be neurotransmitters, hormones, or is the set of life-sustaining chemical other types of secretions. The one most common way of transformations within the cells of living cell communication occurs with the help of hormones. organisms. The three main purposes of metabolism are the: What is the cellular basis of reproduction and 1. Conversion of food/fuel to energy to run inheritance? cellular processes, Sexual reproduction requires that diploid organisms produce haploid cells that can fuse during fertilization to DAYRIT, A. B. form diploid offspring. The process that results in haploid Meiosis: A special type of cell division that cells is called meiosis. produces gametes (sperm and eggs) with half the number of chromosomes, which is essential Meiosis is a series of events that arrange and separate for sexual reproduction. chromosomes into daughter cells 2 Types of Animal Cell 1. Cell metabolism and energy use 1. Somatic cell – body cells Cell metabolism encompasses all the chemical Ex. Cell, bone cell, neuron reactions that occur within a cell to maintain life. These reactions can be divided into two categories: Catabolism: The breakdown of molecules to produce energy. For example, glucose is broken down during cellular respiration to produce ATP, the energy currency of the cell. Anabolism: The synthesis of all compounds needed by the cells. This includes the formation of proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. 2. Synthesis of molecules Cells synthesize a variety of molecules necessary for their structure and function: Proteins: Made from amino acids, they perform a wide range of functions including catalyzing metabolic reactions (enzymes), providing structural support, and regulating cellular processes. Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA are synthesized to store and transmit genetic information. Lipids: Essential for building cellular membranes and storing energy. 3. Communication Cells communicate with each other through chemical and electrical signals: Chemical Signals: Hormones and neurotransmitters are examples of molecules that cells release to send messages to other cells. Electrical Signals: Neurons use electrical impulses to transmit information rapidly across long distances within the body 4. Reproduction and inheritance Cells reproduce to ensure the continuation of life and to pass on genetic information: Mitosis: A process where a single cell divides to produce two identical daughter cells, ensuring that each new cell has the same genetic material. DAYRIT, A. B. 2. Germ cell – sex cells Ex. Egg cells and sperm cell Cell Membrane Structure Selectively permeable barrier Composed mainly of phospholipid bilayer Intracellular fluid (ICF) inside of cell Also called cytosol Extracellular fluid (ECF) outside of cell Proteins also associate with cell membrane CELL STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS A MODEL HUMAN CELL Phospholipid Structure Amphipathic molecule Hydrophilic head contains a phosphate group and is attracted to water Hydrophobic tails are nonpolar and repelled by water Organized into a bilayer to form biological membranes 1. Cell Membrane Barrier Control Signaling DAYRIT, A. B.  Smooth ER—lacks ribosomes Involved in lipid synthesis Golgi Apparatus The Golgi Apparatus—series of flattened sacs Sorts and modifies products from rough ER for transport 2. Cytoplasm and Organelles Cis-face receives products for modification Viscous fluid containing organelles Trans-face releases products after components of cytoplasm modification Interconnected filaments & fibers Fluid = cytosol Organelles (not nucleus) storage substances Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)—series of channels Mitochondria continuous with the nuclear membrane; “Energy transformer” of the cell provides passages for synthesis, transportation Lined by 2 bilayers and storage Outer membrane Rough ER—contains ribosomes Inner membrane is folded into cristae Involved in protein synthesis More numerous in muscle and nerves DAYRIT, A. B.  4. recombination, 5. transposition, 6. transcription DNA Recombination is a process by which pieces of DNA are broken and recombined to produce new combinations of alleles. This recombination process creates genetic diversity at the level of genes that reflects differences in the DNA sequences of different organisms. What is DNA restriction? Restriction Enzyme A restriction enzyme is a protein isolated from bacteria that cleaves DNA sequences at sequence-specific sites, producing DNA fragments with a known sequence at each end. The use of restriction enzymes is critical to certain laboratory methods, including recombinant DNA technology and genetic engineering. DNA replication is the process by which the genome's DNA is copied in cells. Before a cell divides, it must first copy (or replicate) its entire genome so that each resulting daughter cell ends up with its own complete genome. What is the meaning of DNA transposition? M6P-dependent transport routes Transposition of DNA is the process of a DNA sequence are essential for B cell functions in vivo and that can change its position within the genome, which humoral immunity in mouse and human. will create or reverse mutations and alter genome size. Transcription is the process in which a gene's DNA sequence is copied (transcribed) to make an RNA molecule. RNA polymerase is the main transcription enzyme. Transcription begins when RNA polymerase binds to a promoter sequence near the beginning of a gene (directly or through helper proteins) Most damage to DNA is repaired by removal of the damaged bases followed by resynthesis of the excised region. It is now known that nucleases, including ribonucleases (RNases) and Some lesions in DNA, however, can be repaired by direct deoxyribonucleases (DNases), reversal of the damage, which may be a more efficient are not only involved in nucleic acid way of dealing with specific types of DNA damage that metabolism, occur frequently. but also play important roles in all kinds of cellular processes, THE CYTOSKELETON 1. DNA restriction, Helps maintain the structure of the cell 2. replication, Organizes cytoplasm 3. repair, Aids in separation during cellular division DAYRIT, A. B.  Composed of protein filaments that provide They produce spindle fibers which attach to support chromosomes. The fibers pull a copy of each 1. Microtubules—made of tubulin chromosome to opposite sides of the cell so that 2. Intermediate filaments—made of when it splits, each new daughter cell has all the keratin DNA it needs. 3. Microfilaments—made of actin Organelles and Their Locations and Functions Organelles Location Function(s) Ribosomes In cytoplasm Site of protein synthesis Rough In cytoplasm Has many endoplasmic ribosomes reticulum attached; site of protein synthesis (rough er) Smooth In cytoplasm Site of lipid endoplasmic synthesis; reticulum participates in detoxification (smooth ER) Golgi apparatus In cytoplasm Modifies protein structure and packages Dynamic Nature of the Cytoskeleton proteins in Cytoskeleton is not fixed secretory Cytoskeletal components form and can move vesicles depending on needs of the cell Secretory In cytoplasm Contains Helps move molecules and structures around vesicles materials interior of cell produced in the cell; formed by the golgi apparatus; secreted by exocytosis. Lysosome In cytoplasm Contains enzymes that digest material taken into the cell Mitochondrion In cytoplasm Site of aerobic respiration and the major site of Parts of the Cell: Centrioles ATP synthesis Centrioles are organelles which are only active Microtubule In cytoplasm Supports during cell division. cytoplasm; DAYRIT, A. B.  assists in cell two-membranous layered which surrounded division and the entire nucleus and serve as a boundary to forms separates the nuclear material from the components of cytoplasm cilia and the nuclear membrane controls the continuous flagella flow of materials inside and outside the nucleus Centrioles In cytoplasm Facilitate the movement of chromosomes during cell division Cilia On cell surface Move with many on substances each cell over surfaces of certain cells Flagella On sperm cell Propel sperm surface with cells one per cell Microvilli Extensions of Increase cell surface with surface area of many on each certain cells cell Microvilli – Function & Structure Function: Increase surface area of plasma membrane for absorption and secretion; modified form of sensory receptors Structure: extensions of plasma membrane containing microfilaments. 3. Nucleus Cell Transport Three distinct parts: Solute: A substance that is being dissolved in 1. Nuclear envelope, various fluids. 2.Nucleolus Solvent: A fluid or gas in which the solute is being 3.Chromatin dissolved. Carries the genetic material that contains information Concentration: The amount of solute dissolved for cell activities and cell. in a given volume of solvent. Concentration Gradient: The difference in concentration of a substance between two areas. A. Passive Transport Molecules move to equalize concentration 1. Diffusion process where insolutes moves from an area of high concentration to areas of low concentration. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011) DAYRIT, A. B.  o Description: The solution outside the cell Example: has a lower solute concentration than 1. Initial Stage: inside the cell. o Beaker 1: A lump of sugar is placed in o Effect on Cell: Water enters the cell, water. The sugar molecules are causing it to swell and potentially burst concentrated in one spot. (lyse). o Text: “Lump of sugar” o Text: “When a red blood cell is placed in 2. Intermediate Stage: a hypotonic solution (one having a low o Beaker 2: The sugar begins to dissolve, solute concentration), water enters the and the molecules start to spread out cell by osmosis (black arrows), causing from the area of high concentration the cell to swell or even burst (lyse).” (where the lump was) to areas of lower 2. Isotonic Solution: concentration. o Description: The solute concentration is o Text: “Molecules move to equalize equal inside and outside the cell. concentrations” o Effect on Cell: Water moves in and out of 3. Final Stage: the cell at the same rate, maintaining o Beaker 3: The sugar molecules are normal cell shape. evenly distributed throughout the water, o Text: “When a red blood cell is placed in achieving equilibrium. This means the an isotonic solution (one having a concentration of sugar is the same concentration of solutes equal to that throughout the solution. inside the cell), water moves into and Everyday examples of diffusion: out of the cell at the same rate (black Perfume diffuses across a room arrows). No net water movement occurs, Sugar molecules dissolve in coffee and the cell shape remains normal.” Dye diffuses through water 3. Hypertonic Solution: o Description: The solution outside the cell Simple Diffusion Across a Cell Membrane has a higher solute concentration than Small, nonpolar molecules can pass through inside the cell. the cell membrane o Effect on Cell: Water leaves the cell, Diffusion continues until a net equilibrium is causing it to shrink (crenate). reached o Text: “When a red blood cell is placed in Diffusion occurs faster at higher temperatures a hypertonic solution (one having a high solute concentration), water moves by osmosis out of the cell and into the solution (black arrows), resulting in shrinkage (crenation).” Key Points Passive Transport: Osmosis does not require energy from the cell. Tonicity: Refers to the relative concentration of solutes in the solution outside the cell compared 2. Osmosis to inside the cell, affecting the direction of water Fluid flows from lower solute concentration -Often movement. involves movement of water-Into cell -Out of cell Example: Osmosis and Tonicity Osmosis is the movement of water across a semi- permeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration. The image shows three scenarios: 1. Hypotonic Solution: DAYRIT, A. B.  Tonicity: Refers to the relative concentration of The movement of water across the cell solutes in the solution outside the cell compared membrane to inside the cell, affecting the direction of water Water moves from areas of lower solute to movement. higher solute concentration Hypotonic solution—less solute outside of cell Water enters cells when they are in hypotonic solutions Hypertonic solution—more solute outside of cell Water will leave cells in hypertonic solutions Effect of Tonicity on Cells An isotonic solution has equal water concentration across the cell membrane Cell functions normally A hypertonic solution contains more solutes in the environment Cell shrinks A hypotonic solution contains fewer solutes in Facilitated Diffusion the environment Protein binds with molecule Cell swells and may burst Shape of protein changes Types of Solutions and Their Effects on Cells Molecule moves across membrane 1. Isotonic Solution (A): Facilitated Diffusion Process o Description: The solute concentration is 1. Initial Stage (Left Panel): equal inside and outside the cell. o Description: A solute molecule is outside o Effect on Cell: There is no net movement the cell, near a transport protein of water into or out of the cell. The cell embedded in the cell membrane. maintains its normal shape. o Text: “High concentration” and “OUTSIDE o Electron Microscope Image: Shows a OF CELL” normal red blood cell. 2. Middle Stage (Middle Panel): 2. Hypotonic Solution (B): o Description: The solute molecule binds o Description: The solute concentration is to the transport protein at the binding lower outside the cell than inside. site. The transport protein undergoes a o Effect on Cell: Water moves into the cell, conformational change to allow the causing it to swell. If too much water solute to pass through. enters, the cell may burst (lyse). o Text: “Binding site” and “Transport o Electron Microscope Image: Shows a protein” swollen red blood cell. 3. Final Stage (Right Panel): 3. Hypertonic Solution ©: o Description: The solute molecule is o Description: The solute concentration is released inside the cell, demonstrating higher outside the cell than inside. the movement from an area of high o Effect on Cell: Water moves out of the concentration to an area of low cell, causing it to shrink and become concentration. crenated (spiky). o Text: “Low concentration” and “INSIDE OF o Electron Microscope Image: Shows a CELL” shrunken red blood cell with spikes. Key Points Key Points Passive Transport: Facilitated diffusion does not Osmosis: The movement of water across a require energy from the cell. It relies on transport semi-permeable membrane from an area of proteins to move molecules across the cell lower solute concentration to an area of higher membrane. solute concentration. DAYRIT, A. B.  Transport Proteins: These proteins help specific Diagram C: Carrier Protein Reset molecules, such as glucose or ions, to cross the Description: After releasing the transported cell membrane more efficiently than they would molecule into the cytosol, the carrier protein by simple diffusion. returns to its original shape. Concentration Gradient: Molecules move from Process: The carrier protein is now ready to bind an area of higher concentration to an area of to another molecule and repeat the transport lower concentration, following the concentration cycle. gradient. Key Points: This resetting is crucial for the continuous transport of molecules. Key Terms Extracellular Fluid: The fluid outside the cell. Cytosol: The fluid inside the cell. Channel Proteins: Proteins that provide a passageway for molecules to move across the cell membrane. Carrier Proteins: Proteins that bind to specific Facilitated Diffusion Across a Cell Membrane molecules and change shape to transport them Requires assistance of transmembrane across the cell membrane. proteins Plasma Membrane: The cell membrane that Molecules still move down concentration separates the interior of the cell from the gradient extracellular fluid. Used for molecules that cannot diffuse through the cell membrane Endo and Exo Citosis Such as polar or ionic molecules Molecular movement Requires energy (against gradient) o Example is sodium-potassium pump Diagram A: Facilitated Diffusion through Channel Proteins Description: Channel proteins provide a Sodium-Potassium Pump Process passageway for certain molecules to move from Common example of primary active transport the extracellular fluid into the cytosol. Uses ATP to move 3 sodium ions out of the cell Process: Molecules move through the channel and 2 potassium ions into the cell, against their protein from an area of high concentration to an concentration gradients area of low concentration without the use of 1. Initial Stage (Left Panel): energy. o Description: Sodium ions (Na+) are Key Points: This is a type of passive transport, bound inside the pump on the meaning it does not require energy from the cell. intracellular side, while potassium ions Diagram B: Active Transport via Carrier Proteins (K+) are ready to be released outside Description: Carrier proteins bind to specific the cell. molecules in the extracellular fluid. o Text: “OUTSIDE OF CELL” and “Na+” Process: The binding causes a change in the 2. Middle Stage (Middle Panel): shape of the carrier protein, which transports the o Description: An ATP molecule provides molecules into the cytosol. energy by transferring a phosphate Key Points: This process requires energy, usually group to the pump. This phosphorylation in the form of ATP, because it moves molecules causes a conformational change in the against their concentration gradient (from low protein structure of the pump. to high concentration). o Text: “ATP” and “P” DAYRIT, A. B.  3. Final Stage (Right Panel): o Description: After phosphorylation, sodium ions are released outside the cell, and potassium ions are bound inside the pump. The pump then returns to its original shape, ready to start another cycle. o Text: “ADP” and “K+” Key Points Active Transport: The sodium-potassium pump is an example of active transport, meaning it requires energy (ATP) to function. Exocytosis Ion Exchange: For every cycle, the pump moves Definition: This is the process by which cells three sodium ions out of the cell and two expel materials. potassium ions into the cell. Mechanism: Electrochemical Gradient: This process helps 1. Vesicles containing substances (like maintain the electrochemical gradient, which is proteins or waste products) move essential for various cellular functions, including towards the plasma membrane. nerve impulse transmission and muscle 2. The vesicle membrane fuses with the contraction. plasma membrane. 3. The contents of the vesicle are released into the extracellular fluid. Endocytosis Definition: This is the process by which cells take in materials. Mechanism: 1. The plasma membrane folds inward to Sodium-Potassium Pump mechanism, which is crucial form a pocket around the material to be for maintaining the proper balance of sodium (Na+) and ingested. potassium (K+) ions inside and outside of cells. Here’s a 2. The pocket deepens and pinches off, simplified explanation: forming a vesicle inside the cell. 1. Binding of Sodium Ions: Three sodium ions 3. The vesicle containing the ingested (Na+) from inside the cell bind to the pump. material moves into the cytoplasm. 2. Phosphorylation: ATP (adenosine triphosphate) provides energy by transferring a phosphate Endocytosis group to the pump, causing it to change shape. Plasma membrane surrounds material 3. Release of Sodium Ions: The shape change Edges of membrane meet releases the three sodium ions outside the cell. Membranes fuse to form vesicle 4. Binding of Potassium Ions: Two potassium ions Receptor-mediated endocytosis (K+) from outside the cell bind to the pump. 5. Dephosphorylation: The pump loses the phosphate group, reverting to its original shape. 6. Release of Potassium Ions: The shape change releases the two potassium ions inside the cell. Phagocytosis Definition: This is the process by which a cell engulfs large particles or even whole organisms. Mechanism: DAYRIT, A. B.  1. The cell’s plasma membrane extends around the particle. 2. The membrane encloses the particle, forming a vesicle known as a phagosome. 3. The phagosome then fuses with a lysosome, where the engulfed material is broken down. Pinocytosis Definition: This is the process by which a cell ingests extracellular fluid and its dissolved solutes. Mechanism: 1. Phagocytosis: extends the cell membrane to 1. The plasma membrane invaginates to bring in large molecules form a pocket around the fluid. 2. Pinocytosis: membrane invagination brings in 2. The pocket pinches off, forming a vesicle small amounts of fluid containing dissolved inside the cell. substances 3. The vesicle then moves into the 3. Receptor-mediated endocytosis: more cytoplasm, where its contents can be selective utilized by the cell. Ligand binds to membrane receptor for Both processes are types of endocytosis, which is the cellular entry general term for cellular ingestion of material. Exocytosis Phagocytosis is often referred to as “cell eating,” while The process of a cell exporting material, or cell pinocytosis is known as “cell drinking.” secretion Vesicle fuses with cell membrane Contents are released from cell Hormones and digestive enzymes secreted this way Forms of Endocytosis 1. Phagocytosis: extends the cell membrane to bring in large molecules 2. Pinocytosis: membrane invagination brings in 1. Vesicle Formation: Inside the cell, substances small amounts of fluid containing dissolved (represented by yellow dots) are packaged into substances a vesicle within the cytosol. 3. Receptor-mediated endocytosis: more 2. Movement Towards the Plasma Membrane: selective The vesicle moves towards the plasma Ligand binds to membrane receptor for membrane. cellular entry 3. Fusion with the Plasma Membrane: The vesicle membrane fuses with the plasma membrane. 4. Release of Contents: The contents of the vesicle are expelled into the extracellular fluid. This process is crucial for various cellular functions, such as the release of neurotransmitters in nerve cells DAYRIT, A. B. or the secretion of hormones in endocrine cells. It allows cells to communicate and interact with their environment effectively. CELL CYCLE ANPH111 | 1ST Semester | Academic Year 2024-2025 Natural Science Department College of Arts and Sciences Our Lady of Fatima University San Fernando, Pampanga CHROMOSOME DNA Structure 1. Chromosome: The left side shows a chromosome, which is a long DNA molecule with part or all of the genetic material of an organism. 2. Nucleosome: Zooming in, you see DNA wrapped around histone proteins, forming nucleosomes. This helps in compacting the DNA to fit within the cell nucleus. DNA Structure 3. Double Helix: Further zooming in, the DNA 1. Double Helix: DNA is composed of two strands double helix structure is visible. This is the that form a twisted ladder-like structure known famous twisted ladder shape of DNA. as a double helix. Components of DNA 2. Backbone: Each strand has a backbone made Nucleotide Base Pairs: The right side shows the of alternating sugar (deoxyribose) and nucleotide base pairs: phosphate groups. o Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T) 3. Base Pairs: Attached to each sugar is one of o Guanine (G) pairs with Cytosine © four nitrogenous bases: Cell and Nucleus o Adenine (A) Cell: The central part of the image shows a cell o Thymine (T) with its nucleus highlighted. o Cytosine (C) Nucleus: Inside the nucleus, chromosomes are o Guanine (G) stored, which contain the DNA. Base Pairing Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T) through two hydrogen bonds. Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G) through three hydrogen bonds. Components Phosphate Group: Part of the backbone. Deoxyribose Sugar: The sugar component of the backbone. Nitrogenous Bases: The rungs of the ladder, which pair specifically (A with T, and C with G). DAYRIT, A. B. Nucleotide Structure 1. Phosphate Group: Represented as a yellow circle labeled “Phosphate group.” This part of the nucleotide is involved in forming the backbone of the DNA or RNA strand. Metaphase Chromosome 2. Sugar: Depicted as a pentagon-shaped 1. Centromere: The region of a chromosome that molecule labeled “Sugar.” In DNA, this sugar is links sister chromatids together. deoxyribose, and in RNA, it is ribose. 2. Sister Chromatids: Identical copies of a single 3. Nitrogenous Base: Shown as an organic chromosome, connected by the centromere. structure with labeled atoms (nitrogen and These are crucial for ensuring that each hydrogen) in green and blue. The specific base daughter cell receives an identical set of in this diagram is adenine (A). chromosomes during cell division. Components 3. Kinetochores: Structures located on the Phosphate Group: Links the nucleotides centromeres where spindle fibers attach. They together by forming phosphodiester bonds. play a vital role in chromosome movement. Sugar: Connects to both the phosphate group 4. Kinetochore Microtubules: Part of the spindle and the nitrogenous base. apparatus that attaches to the kinetochores Nitrogenous Base: There are four types in DNA and helps pull the sister chromatids apart (adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine) and during cell division. four in RNA (adenine, uracil, cytosine, and Process guanine). Metaphase: This is a stage in mitosis where Function chromosomes align at the cell’s equator before Nucleotides are essential for storing and transmitting being separated into daughter cells. The genetic information. They form the long chains of DNA alignment ensures that each new cell will and RNA, with the sequence of bases encoding the receive one copy of each chromosome. genetic instructions. Importance of Cell Division Structures of Chromosome Cell Theory Diploid You are a living organism, made of cells. A cell possessing two copies of each In order to keep living, your cells must stay alive. chromosome (human body cells). In order for cells to keep living, they must divide Homologous chromosomes and multiply. are made up of sister chromatids joined at the centromere. PHASES OF THE CELL CYCLE Haploid Interphase A cell possessing a single copy of each G1-Cells undergo majority of growth chromosome. DAYRIT, A. B.  S -Each chromosome replicates (Synthesizes) Prophase: Chromatin condenses into to produce sister chromatids chromosomes and the centrioles Attached at centromere migrate to opposite sides of the cell. Contains attachment site (kinetochore) Metaphase: Chromatids align in the G2 -Chromosomes condense - Assemble middle of the cell. machinery for division such as centrioles Anaphase: Chromatids separate and move toward the opposite sides of the cell. Telophase: Nucleoli and nuclear membranes start to form, and chromosomes return to chromatin form o Cytokinesis: Cleavage furrow divides cell into two distinct cells. Interphase 1. G1 Phase (Gap 1): The cell grows and performs its normal functions. It also prepares for DNA replication. 1. Interphase: The cell prepares for division by 2. S Phase (Synthesis): DNA replication occurs, duplicating its DNA and organelles. The DNA is resulting in two copies of each chromosome. in the form of chromatin. 3. G2 Phase (Gap 2): The cell continues to grow 2. Prophase: The chromatin condenses into visible and prepares for mitosis. It checks for any DNA chromosomes. The nuclear membrane begins damage and repairs it if necessary. to disintegrate, and the spindle fibers start to Mitosis (M Phase) form. 1. Prophase: Chromosomes condense and 3. Metaphase: The chromosomes line up at the become visible. The nuclear membrane begins cell’s equator, attached to the spindle fibers at to disintegrate. their centromeres. 2. Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the cell’s 4. Anaphase: The sister chromatids (each half of equator, attached to spindle fibers at their the duplicated chromosome) are pulled apart centromeres. to opposite ends of the cell by the spindle 3. Anaphase: Sister chromatids are pulled apart fibers. to opposite poles of the cell. 5. Telophase: The chromatids reach the opposite 4. Telophase: Chromatids reach the poles, and poles of the cell, and new nuclear membranes nuclear membranes start to reform around form around each set of chromosomes, which each set of chromosomes. begin to de-condense back into chromatin. Cytokinesis (C Phase) 6. Cytokinesis: The cell’s cytoplasm divides, Cytokinesis: The cytoplasm divides, resulting in creating two new daughter cells, each with an two daughter cells, each with a complete set of identical set of chromosomes. chromosomes. MITOSIS Body cells Cell replication consists of four major phases, followed by cytokinesis: DAYRIT, A. B.  MEIOSIS Gametes Sexual Reproduction ensures that all will maintain both Genetic Diversity and Genetic Integrity During Meiosis gamete (sex) cells undergo a “double division”, maintaining the DNA, but reducing the chromosomal count to 23 Mitosis Purpose: To produce two identical daughter cells for growth, repair, and asexual reproduction. Stages: 1. Interphase: DNA is replicated. Start with 46 double stranded chromosomes 2. Prophase: Chromosomes condense, (2n) spindle fibers form, and the nuclear After 1 division -23 double stranded envelope breaks down. chromosomes (n) 3. Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the After 2nd division -23 single stranded cell’s equator. chromosomes (n) 4. Anaphase: Sister chromatids are pulled Occurs in our germ cells that produce gametes apart to opposite poles. 5. Telophase: Nuclear membranes reform around each set of chromosomes. 6. Cytokinesis: The cell divides into two identical daughter cells. Meiosis Purpose: To produce four non-identical gametes (sperm or eggs) for sexual reproduction, each with half the number of chromosomes (haploid). Stages: o Meiosis I: 1. Prophase I: Homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange segments (crossing over). DAYRIT, A. B.  2. Metaphase I: Homologous pairs Organs are grouped together to form system, align at the cell’s equator. each of which performs a particular function. E.g. 3. Anaphase I: Homologous digestive system. chromosomes are pulled to Tissue is a collection of cells which have similar opposite poles. structure and perform relatively common 4. Telophase I: Nuclear functions. membranes reform, and the cell divides into two haploid cells. o Meiosis II: 1. Prophase II: Chromosomes condense again. 2. Metaphase II: Chromosomes align at the equator. 3. Anaphase II: Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite EPITHELIAL TISSUES poles. Cells are closely packed without any intercellular 4. Telophase II: Nuclear spaces membranes reform, and the Lie on basement membrane cells divide, resulting in four non-identical haploid gametes. Key Differences Mitosis results in two identical diploid cells, while meiosis results in four non-identical haploid cells. Mitosis involves one division cycle, 1. Free Surface: The top layer of the tissue that is whereas meiosis involves two division cycles. exposed to the body’s exterior or to the cavity of Meiosis includes crossing over during Prophase an internal organ. I, which increases genetic diversity. 2. Cell Membrane: The outer boundary of each cell, which controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell. 3. Nucleus: The dark circle within each cell, containing genetic material (DNA) and controlling cell activities. 4. Intercellular Substance: The material found between the cells, providing support and facilitating communication between cells. 5. Basement Membrane: A thin, fibrous layer at the bottom of the epithelial tissue that anchors it to the underlying connective tissue. 6. Cytoplasm: The jelly-like substance within the TISSUES cell, where various cellular processes occur. ANPH111 | 1ST Semester | Academic Year 2024-2025 Found covering the body and lining cavities and Natural Science Department College of Arts and Sciences tubes. Outer and inner lining of most the body Our Lady of Fatima University organs such as gastrointestinal tract (GIT), San Fernando, Pampanga urinary tract, blood vessels, heart chambers, uterus. TISSUES Found on the entire exposed surface of the body Tissues are grouped together to form organs. such as skin. E.g. heart, stomach, brain. Also found in glands. DAYRIT, A. B. Functions of Epithelial Tissues Role of defense and protect body organs. Stratified Epithelial Tissue Secrete gastric juice in stomach Consists of several layers of cells of various Absorb digested food in intestine. shapes. Remove waste as sweat in skin. Continual cell division in the lower layers pushes Simple Epithelial Tissue cells above nearer and nearer to the surface Consists of a single layer of identical cells where they are shed. Found on absorptive or secretary surfaces Basement membrane are usually absent. Divided into three main types Main function is to protect underlying structure Classifications of Epithelia from mechanical wear and tear. Classification Based on Number of Cell Layers 1. Simple Epithelium: Consists of a single layer of Keritinised Squamous Epithelium cells. This type is typically involved in absorption, secretion, and filtration. Found on dry surfaces subjected to wear and tear. 2. Stratified Epithelium: Composed of multiple layers of cells. This type provides protection, Consists of dead epithelial cells that have lost their nuclei and contain the protein keratin. especially in areas subject to abrasion. 3. Basal Surface: The bottom layer of cells that are Sites o Skin, hairs, and nails attached to the basement membrane. Basal cells regenerate and replace the apical cells as they slough off. Classification Based on Cell Shape 1. Squamous Cells: Flat and thin cells, which allow for rapid diffusion and filtration. 2. Cuboidal Cells: Cube-shaped cells that are involved in secretion and absorption. 3. Columnar Cells: Tall and column-like cells, which are also involved in absorption and secretion. 1. Highly Keratinized Cells: The topmost layer, shown in pink, consists of cells that are highly keratinized and lack nuclei. These cells form the outermost protective barrier of the skin. 2. Cells with Visible Nuclei: Below the keratinized layer, there are cells with visible nuclei, depicted in purple and blue tones. These cells are part of the living layers of the skin. 3. Basal Cell Layer: At the bottom, just above the green-colored basal lamina, is the basal cell DAYRIT, A. B.  layer. This layer contains the basal cells, which are responsible for producing new skin cells. 4. Basal Lamina: The green layer at the very bottom is the basal lamina, which supports the basal cell layer and separates it from the underlying tissues. Non-Keratinised Epithelium Protects moist surfaces subjected to wear and tear and prevents them from drying out. Sites o Conjuctiva of the eyes, the lining of the mouth, the vagina. Functions of Connective Tissues Provide support Transport materials from one part of the body to another Store energy Protection Insulation Cells in Connective Tissues Composed of several layers of pear shaped cells which are very elastic and have the capacity of dividing themselves. Sites o Line several parts of the urinary tract including the bladder Fibroblasts They are large cells with irregular processes Manufacture collagen and elastic fibres and a matrix of extracellular material. Functions o Active in tissue repair Fat Cells Also known as adipocytes These cells occur singly or in groups in many types of connective tissues and are especially abundant in adipose tissue. Macrophages CONNECTIVE TISSUES These are large irregular shaped cells with It is most abundant tissue in the body granules in the cytoplasm Connective tissues cells are most widely Important part of the body defense mechanism separated from each other than in epithelial because they are actively phagocytic, engulfing tissues and intercellular substance (matrix) is and digesting cell debris, bacteria and other present in larger amount foreign bodies. Made up of cells like fibroblast, fat cells, Leucocytes macrophages, leukocytes, and mast cells. White blood cells are normally found in small numbers in healthy connective tissues. DAYRIT, A. B.  Synthesis and secrete specific defensive o Brown adipose tissue antibodies into the blood and tissue. White Adipose Tissue Mast Cells More present in obesity and in less in those who Similar to basophilic leukocytes are underweight Found in loose connective tissues, under the Found in between muscle fibres and under the fibrous capsules of some organs e.g. liver and skin, where it acts as a thermal insulator and spleen. energy store. Sites o Deeper layer of skin, buttocks, breast, and around kidneys Brown Adipose Tissue Present in the newborn Has a more extensive capillary that white adipose tissue. Produces less energy and more heat than other fat contributing to the maintenance of body temperature. LYMPHOID/RETICULAR TISSUES Has a semisolid matrix with fine branching reticulin fibres. Contains reticular cells and white blood cells. Found in all lymph nodes and all organs of lymphatic system. Loose Aerolar Connective Tissues Most generalized type of connective tissues Matrix is semisolid with many fibroblasts and some ft cells (adipocytes), mast cells and macrophages widely separated by elastic and collagen fibres. DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE These contains more collagen fibers and fewer