ANPH 111 - Anatomy and Physiology PDF

vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 Right Lymphatic Duct Empties into the right subclavian vein at its jun...

vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 Right Lymphatic Duct Empties into the right subclavian vein at its junction with the TOPIC OUTLINE right internal jugular vein. A. Lymphatic System B. Digestive System Lymph Transport C. Respiratory System Skeletal Muscle Contraction: Muscular movements compress D. Urinary System lymphatic vessels, propelling lymph forward. E. Reproductive System Negative Pressure in the Thorax: Breathing creates pressure changes that help draw lymph into the thoracic duct. Valves: Prevent backflow and ensure unidirectional movement LYMPHATIC SYSTEM of lymph. Functions: Lymphatic Organs Fluid Recovery: Collects and returns excess interstitial fluid from tissues to the bloodstream, maintaining fluid balance. Basic Structural Components: Filtration and Defense: Removes foreign materials, such as Lymphocyte Aggregates: Organized clusters of immune cells, pathogens and debris, from lymph to protect the body. including: Immune Surveillance: Supports the immune system by o Loose, Dense, Nodular Aggregates, and Follicles. housing and transporting immune cells that monitor and respond Loose Connective Tissue: Composed of reticular fibers that to infections. form a supportive framework. Semi-Independent Parts: Epithelial Cells: Contribute to the structural and functional Lymphatic Vessels: Network of tubes that transport lymph components of certain lymphatic organs like the thymus. throughout the body. Lymphatic Organs: Structures such as lymph nodes, spleen, Lymph Node thymus, and tonsils that support immune function and lymph located along lymphatic vessels filtration. macrophages that phagocytize bacteria lymphocytes mounting immune response Distribution of Lymphatic Vessels filters the lymph Lymphatic capillaries Thymus Lymphatic vessels is a flat, pinkish-gray, two lobed organ lying high in the chest anterior to the aorta and posterior to the sternum. Lymphatic trunks increases its size during childhood Lumbar characteristic feature is hassal’s or thymic corpuscles Intestinal in the thymus the lymphoid tissue is not arranged in nodules Bronchomediastinal Subclavian Jugular Spleen largest lymphatic organ Lymph Trunks located at the left hypochondriac region graveyard for senescent or aged RBC Lumbar Trunks: Drain lymph from the lower extremities and filters the blood pelvic region. produces lymphocytes and plasma cells Intestinal Trunk: Drains lymph from the abdominal region, including digestive organs. Structure: Bronchomediastinal Trunks: Drain lymph from the thoracic capsule cavity, including lungs and heart. contains lymphocytes, macrophages, RBC Subclavian Trunks: Drain lymph from the upper extremities. red pulp Jugular Trunks: Drain lymph from the head and neck region. o contains abundant RBC and macrophages white pulp o contains lymphocytes Lymphatic Channels Thoracic Duct Tonsils Originates from the cisterna chyli. Empties into the left subclavian vein at its junction with the left Waldeyer’s ring - several groups of tonsils forming a ring of internal jugular vein. lymphoid tissue, guard the entrance of the alimentary and respiratory tracts from invasion by microorganisms. vellichor 1 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 Components of the Ring: Palatine Tonsils: Located on the sides of the oropharynx. Nasopharyngeal Tonsil: Found in the roof of the nasopharynx (also called adenoids). Lingual Tonsils: Positioned at the base of the tongue. Peyer’s Patches Part of the Gut-Associated Lymphatic Tissue (GALT). Composed of clusters of lymphoid nodules located in the ileum of the small intestine. Contain macrophages strategically positioned to capture and destroy bacteria, protecting the intestinal wall from infections. Types Of Mature Lymphocytes T Cell Developmental Aspect of The Lymphatics helper T cell - (+) other T cells Lymphatics develop as out pocketing of developing vein, from cytotoxic T cell - attack the infected cells, virus, cancer cells, mesoderm foreign body Thymus gland develops from endoderm Suppressor T cell - terminate normal immune response The rest of the lymphoid organs develop from mesoderm B Cell Involved in humoral immunity Primary immune response Immune Response Secondary immune response Immunity defense of the body against disease causing agents like Immunoglobulin Classes transplant, blood transfusion, autoimmune, allergies, AIDS lgG specific or non specific 75% of Ig All IgG are monomers Non Specific Response crosses the placenta block the entry or spread of the disease weakly activates the complement system most abundant Specific lgA very specific 15% of Ig tailored to individual treat Serum IgA found in secretions is a dimer antibody mediated ( B cells) and cells mediated (T cells) major class of Ig in secretions – tears, saliva colostrum, mucus lgM Innate Immunity (Non Specific Immune 7-10% largest size Response) exists as a pentamer Present at birth most potent activator of complement system Non specific first Ig to be made by the fetus Does not become efficient upon the second exposure to same lgE organism less than 1% of Ig skin, mucous membrane, phagocytes, natural killer cell, exists as a monomer inflammatory response, interferon, complement, fever mediates allergic and parasitic reaction does not fix Ig to be made by the fetus Acquired (Adaptive/Specific) Immune lgD Response < 1% exists only as a monomer Following certain infection main Ab on the surface of lymphocytes of newborn Antigen and antibody reaction B lymphocytes humoral /antibody mediated immunity DIGESTIVE SYSTEM T lymphocyte cell mediated immunity Composed of organs whose primary functions are ingestion, digestion, absorption of food and excretion of undigested food vellichor 2 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 Includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and Tongue large intestines and the accessory digestive organs (Salivary Salivary glands glands, Liver, pancreas and gall bladder) ➔ Big o Parotid Histologic Characteristics o Submandibular o Sublingual walls of the digestive tract composed of the following: Tunica Mucosa ➔ Small Functions: absorptive, secretory, and protective consist of the ff: o Lingual o Labial ➔ Epithelium o Buccal o all are lined by simple columnar Liver o except mouth, pharynx, esophagus, and lower anus which Gall bladder are lined by stratified sq. non keratinized Pancreas ➔ Lamina propria o loose areolar tissue ➔ Muscularis mucosa Mouth (Oral Cavity) o made up of smooth muscles Oral Vestibule Submucosa Space bounded anteriorly by lips and cheeks Major function is nutritive and protective Connective tissue Posteriorly by teeth and gums consisting of the ff: Oral Cavity Proper ➔ Blood vessels Space bounded by gums and teeth ➔ Lymphatics Floor is the tongue ➔ Nerves Roof is the hard and soft palate Tunica Muscularis Teeth Usually 2 layers of smooth muscles, inner circular and outer Two sets of teeth: longitudinal muscle layer ➔ Deciduous teeth, or temporary (milk) Stomach has 3 layers of tunica muscularis, inner oblique, middle o The deciduous teeth erupt on the average between 6 and circular and outer longitudinal muscle layer 24 months after birth and are usually shed between the Tunica Serosa ages of 6 and 12 o The deciduous set consists of 20 teeth, 5 in each quadrant: Visceral peritoneum 2 incisors, 1 canine, and 2 molars. It is a single layer of simple squamous epithelium which secretes a small amount of serous lubricating fluid which ➔ Permanent teeth reduces friction among the GI tract organs and the body wall o Eruption of the third molars, or wisdom teeth, is delayed until after the age of 18 o There are 32 permanent teeth in a full set, 8 in each Major Divisions Of Digestive System quadrant: 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolars, and 3 molars. Digestive Tract Tongue Oral cavity Organ for speech and mechanical digestion of food Pharynx Contains various types of papillae: ➔ Oropharynx ➔ Vallate Papillae: Largest; located near the sulcus terminalis, ➔ laryngopharynx dividing the tongue into the anterior two-thirds and posterior Esophagus one-third. 1/3 Stomach ➔ Foliate Papillae: Found on the sides of the tongue, primarily Small intestines for taste. Large intestine ➔ Fungiform Papillae: Mushroom-shaped, scattered across ➔ Cecum with vermiform appendix the tongue's surface, involved in taste. ➔ Ascending colon ➔ Filiform Papillae: Most numerous, slender and cone- ➔ Transverse colon shaped, providing texture and aiding in food manipulation but lacking taste buds. ➔ Descending colon o this will contain Taste buds except filiform: sensory organs ➔ Sigmoid colon (pelvic colon) of taste especially numerous around vallate papillae ➔ Rectum Nerves of the tongue ➔ Anal canal ➔ General Sensory – touch Accessory Organs/Glands o lingual (CN V) (anterior 2/3 of tongue) Lips o Glossopharyngeal (CN IX post. 1/3 of tongue) Teeth o Vagus (CN X) epiglottic area vellichor 3 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 ➔ Special sensory – taste Folds (Rugae): Allow expansion and increase surface area. o anterior 2/3 - chorda tympani from VII two notches: cardiac (near the entry point of the esophagus) o posterior 1/3 - glossopharyngeal (CN IX) and angular notch (marks the lower boundary of the body) ➔ Motor Parts: o to intrinsic and extrinsic muscles of tongue – hypoglossal ➔ Fundus Salivary Glands (Accessory Digestive Organs) Positioned on the left border. secretions (salivary amylase) poured in the oral cavity starts Boundary marked by an imaginary line through the cardiac digestion of carbohydrates. notch. ➔ Parotid ➔ Body o largest Main section of the stomach. o lies on the posterior border of ramus of mandible Lower boundary marked by an imaginary line through the o purely serous angular notch. o with stensen’s duct that open into oral vestibule opposite the upper 2nd molar tooth ➔ Pyloric Antrum o secretion is purely serous Transitional area leading to the pylorus. o duct: Stensen's - opens into the vestibule of mouth opposite ➔ Pylorus upper second molar tooth Tubular portion at the stomach's exit. o viral inflammation: mumps or parotitis Guarded by the pyloric sphincter. o important structure embedded: facial nerve ➔ Cardiac Region ➔ Submandibular Surrounds the entry point of food from the esophagus. o second largest Three Layers Of Smooth Muscles: Tunica o mixed serous and mucous gland, more of serous Muscularis o duct: Wharton's - which opens at sublingual papillae will be mixing the food within your stomach ➔ Sublingual ➔ inner oblique layer o smallest of 3 salivary glands ➔ middle circular layer o mixed serous and mucous but more of mucous o ducts ➔ outer longitudinal layer - Rivinus - small opens at summit of sublingual fold Chyme - Bartholins - large; opens into sublingual papillae food + acid mixing wave Pharynx Cells In The Stomach Parietal cell – secretes HCl and intrinsic factor (Vitamin B12) Nasopharynx (Epipharynx) Chief cell – secretes pepsin located behind the nasal cavity Mucus neck cell – secretes mucus respiratory function only G cell – secretes gastrin Oropharynx (Mesopharynx) Swallowing located behind oral cavity proper Tongue moves upward and backward palatine tonsil bounded by palatoglossal and palatopharyngeal Soft palate closes the nasopharynx fold Epiglottis moving down closing your larynx digestive and respiratory function The food will be going to your esophagus Laryngopharynx located behind larynx continuous with the esophagus Small Intestine digestive and respiratory function Longest 20 ft Esophagus Absorption of nutrients Presence of Villi and plica circularis – fold of mucosa a muscular tube extending from the pharynx to the stomach three anatomical constrictions Parts: ➔ at the pharyngo-esophageal junction ➔ Duodenum ➔ when left main bronchus crosses esophagus C-shaped ➔ when it enters the diaphragm Enclosing the head of pancreas with 4 parts (superior, descending, transverse and ascending) Stomach the common bile duct (CBD) and main pancreatic duct and located within peritoneal cavity accessory pancreatic ducts enter to the 2nd part of duodenum greater and lesser curvatures Gross Structural Characteristics: vellichor 4 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 major duodenal papilla with sphincter of Oddi around common Epiploicae Appendices: Fatty tags attached to the outer duct and main pancreatic duct of Wirsung surface of the colon, likely serving as energy reserves. minor duodenal of accessory pancreatic duct of Santorini ➔ Ampulla of Vater Liver o CBD and MPD uniting to form ampulla vater The largest gland in the body. o Guarded by sphincter of oddi Consists of right and left lobes. ➔ Jejunum Produces bile, essential for digestion and fat emulsification. o located at the left upper quadrant Contains 2 smaller lobes: Quadrate Lobe (located on the o upper 2/5 (8ft) anterior surface) & Caudate Lobe (located on the posterior o more vascular wider and thicker than ileum surface, near the inferior vena cava) ➔ Ileum o longest, found at the right lower quadrant o lower 3/5 (12ft) Ligaments o provided with Peyer's patches or aggregated lymph nodules ➔ Falciform Ligaments o Anatomical division of the liver o Sickle-shaped Large Intestine o Anchors the liver the anterior abdominal wall and the diaphragm 5 feet long ➔ Coronary Ligaments ➔ Cecum o Coronal ligament o widest; located in the right lower quadrant of the abdomen near o Attaches the liver to the diaphragm, and the right kidney and the iliac fossa. adrenal gland ➔ Vermiform Appendix ➔ Triangular Ligaments o located posteromedial to cecum o Asymmetrical ➔ Ascending Colon o Right and left components o extends superiorly from the cecum to the right colic flexure, near o Covers left lobe of the liver the liver, where it turns to the left. Inferior/Visceral Surface: ➔ Transverse Colon Fissure for ligamentum teres hepatis, ligamentum venosum o extends from the right colic flexure to the left colic flexure near Fossa of Gallbladder and IVC the spleen, where the colon turns inferiorly Porta hepatis – entrance to the liver ➔ Descending Colon o common bile duct o extends from the left colic flexure to the pelvis, where it o hepatic artery becomes the sigmoid colon. o portal vein ➔ Sigmoid Colon Lymphatics and nerves o s-shaped tube that extends medially and then inferiorly into the pelvic cavity and ends at the rectum. Gall Bladder ➔ Rectum location: undersurface of the liver o continuation of sigmoid at s3 vertebra o a straight, muscular tube that begins at the termination of the stores and concentrates the bile sigmoid colon and ends at the anal canal parts: fundus, body, neck, infundibulum ➔ Anal Canal mucosa, muscular layer and serosa o The last 2–3 cm of the digestive tract Spiral valve of heister – guarding the neck of gall bladder o internal anal sphincter o external anal sphincter Pancreas retroperitoneal at the back of the stomach Right Colic flexure (Hepatic Flexure) both endocrine and exocrine organs Fold in the right side endocrine – secretion of islets of Langerhans Left Colic flexure (Splenic Flexure) exocrine – secretion of enzymes Left side with head, neck, body and tail and uncinate process Two Ducts: Features of Large Intestines: ➔ Major Duct Of Wirsung – will drain to Main duodenal papilla and Plicae Semilunaris: Semi-circular folds in the inner lining that it will be joint increase surface area for absorption. by the common bile duct Haustra (Sacculation): Pouch-like segments created by the ➔ Accessory Duct Of Santorini – will drain to minor duodenal contraction of taenia coli muscles. papilla Taenia Coli: Longitudinal bands of muscle that help in the movement of contents through the colon. vellichor 5 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 Extrahepatic Biliary Tract ➔ Superiorly nasal and frontal bones Common Hepatic Duct o formed by the union of right and left hepatic duct ➔ Laterally Cystic Duct maxillary bones o duct of gall bladder ➔ Inferiorly Common Bile Duct plates of hyaline cartilage(hard palate) o formed by the union of cystic duct and common hepatic the lateral septal and alar cartilages duct o ampulla of vater – CBD and MPD uniting; Guarded by Internal Nose (Nasal Cavity) sphincter of oddi Lies posterior to the external nose ➔Anterior nares (nostrils) Blood Supply Of GIT o Communication between nasal cavity and outside. o Are separated by septum mobile nasi or columella (ito un Unpaired Branches Of The Abdominal Aorta: nasa gitna) ➔ Celiac Trunk: Supplies blood to the stomach, liver, spleen, and o Entrance – anterior nares; exit - posterior nares/Choanae part of the pancreas. Roof – ethmoid bone, sphenoid bone and frontal bone. ➔ Superior Mesenteric Artery: Feeds blood to the small intestine, Floor – hard palate cecum, and part of the colon. Laterally − conchae or turbinates ➔ Inferior Mesenteric Artery: Provides blood to the distal colon, o (Superior, middle, inferior) which protrude medially forming rectum, and part of the sigmoid colon. grooves inferior to each conchae (meatus) o recess and meatuses: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM ➔ Superior meatus The respiratory system functions to supply oxygen for the ➔ Middle meatus metabolic needs of the cells and to remove one of the waste ➔ Inferior meatus materials of cellular metabolism which is carbon dioxide. ➔ (Sphenoethmoidal recess) This involves the processes of: o nasal conchae ➔ External respiration ➔ Superior concha (parts of ethmoid - cranial bone) o Absorption of O2 and removal of CO2 from the lungs. ➔ Middle concha (parts of ethmoid – cranial bone) ➔ Internal respiration ➔ Inferior concha (facial bone) o Gaseous exchanges between the cells of the body and Medially their fluid medium. o the nasal septum which is formed anteriorly by hyaline o The RBC will give oxygen to your tissues and get the cartilage, and posteriorly by the vomer bone and metabolic wastes product of your tissues, your carbon perpendicular plate of ethmoid dioxide to be brought to the lungs for exhalation – external respiration. Pharynx Pulmonary Ventilation Movement of air in and out of the respiratory system ➔ Nasopharynx Parts of the Respiratory System: Purely respiratory in function. (only air) Behind the nasal cavity ➔ Conducting Passages (Dead Spaces) From posterior nares to uvula For passage of air Nose ➔ Oropharynx Pharynx soft palate to epiglottis Larynx located behind the oral cavity Trachea digestive and respiratory function (air, food and water) Bronchi and their divisions from uvula to tip of epiglottis ➔ Respiratory Passages ➔ Laryngopharynx Where absorption of O2 and removal of CO2 from the blood Located behind the larynx takes place. digestive and respiratory function (air, food and water) Lungs (respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli) from tip of epiglottis to cricoid cartilage. Conducting Passages Larynx Nose Voice box extend 5 cm from the level of the 4th – 6th cervical vertebra External Nose Boundaries: with 9 cartilages (3 paired and 3 unpaired) Unpaired vellichor 6 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 ➔ Thyroid Cartilage ➔ Secondary Lobar Bronchi largest; shield shaped; anterior portion o which supply the lobes of the lungs (superior, middle and with laryngeal prominence (Adam’s Apple): inferior in the right lung; superior and inferior in the left) Adam’s apple: angulation formed from the union of 2 ➔ Secondary Bronchi laminae. o in turn divides into tertiary, or segmental bronchi, each of ➔ Cricoid Cartilage which is distributed to a unit of the lung called a signet ring shaped bronchopulmonary segment. narrow anterior part and wide posterior part (2) ➔ Segmental Bronchi ➔ Epiglottis o continue to divide into successively smaller branches. spoon or leaf – shaped Guardian of the airway – will move down to close laryngeal Fine Branches to enter foods to the larynx. bronchioles found behind the tongue lobules - basic units of the lung. only elastic cartilage (the rest are hyaline) Each bronchiole divides upon entering a lobule into several Paired terminal bronchioles, ➔ Arytenoid cartilage Terminal Bronchioles Pyramidal End of the conducting passages ➔ Corniculate Passage of air only ➔ Cuneiform cartilages each of which further subdivides into two or more respiratory Vocal Cord bronchioles. ➔ False vocal cords (Vestibular fold) Respiratory Bronchioles non-movable exchange of gases surrounds the opening called Rima vestibuli start of respiratory portion ➔ True vocal cords (Vocal Folds) open into alveolar ducts from which alveoli arise Movable surrounds the opening called Rima glottidis (the narrowest Respiratory Zones part of the adult larynx) respiratory bronchioles branch into: Alveolar ducts, Alveolar sacs, Alveoli Laryngeal Ventricle – between these 2 vocals chords Respiratory Membrane Trachea ➔ Type I Pneumocytes "windpipe" is a cylindrical tube about 10-12 cm in length; 2.5 cm walls of alveoli composed of simple squamous epithelium. in diameter Flatten cells 16-20 C-shaped cartilage ➔ Type II Pneumocytes lined by pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium secretes surfactant – decreasing the surface tension of the C6 - T5 alveoli which will prevent the lungs from collapsing. Anterior of esophagus ➔ Alveolar Macrophages Posterior part of trachea will be made up of smooth muscles. dust cells, defense against inhaled dust, bacteria, and foreign particles. Bronchi The branches of the trachea. Respiratory membrane made up of: Trachea will branch out the structures that the gases will be traversing ➔ Right Primary Bronchus o basement membrane of alveolar epithelium o wider and shorter o basement membrane of capillary epithelium o more direct continuation of trachea o interstitial space o 3 lobar bronchi o capillary endothelium ➔ Left Primary Bronchus o alveolar epithelium o Longer and narrower o alveolar fluid with surfactant o obliquely position o 2 lobar bronchi Respiratory Passages Lungs Primary Bronchi soft, spongy, elastic organs, 0.5 kg each divides into 3: right and 2 left essential organs of respiration vellichor 7 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 situated on either side of the heart and the mediastinal pressure inside the alveoli structures Intrapleural/Intra-Thoracic Pressure Features of Right Lung pressure in the pleural cavity ➔ Three Lobes superior, middle and inferior Equal pressure – no air movement ➔ Two Fissures Low pressure within the lungs – there will be movement of gas horizontal and oblique ➔ Shorted, wider and heavier as compared to left ❖ when you have higher pressure outside from the atmosphere and there’s a low pressure inside – The air tends to move inside ➔ Deeper diaphragmatic surface due to presence of liver the lungs to have an equal pressure from the atmospheric Features of Left Lung pressure and alveolar pressure. ➔ Two lobes – superior and inferior ❖ Air will be moving inside when there is low pressure inside your ➔ One fissure (oblique); Cardiac notch; Lingula alveolar sacs ➔ Anterior border with cardiac notch ❖ When there is already an increase pressure inside then the ➔ Lingula is present tendency of air will be to move out. (tongue-like portion of the upper lobe between cardiac notch and oblique fissure) Physical Factors Influencing Pulmonary Ventilation Pleura ➔ Friction in the air passageways a serous membrane covering the lungs and made up of parietal resistance and visceral layers. ➔ Lung compliance between visceral and parietal layer is the pleural cavity which Elasticity and flexibility contains a small amount of serous fluid to prevent friction of the 2 membranes as the lung will be expanding and collapsing. ➔ Surface tension of the alveolar fluid Parietal Layer Surfactant – decreases surface tension Cover the mediastinal wall Visceral Layer Respiratory Volumes and Capacities Adherent to the lungs ➔ Tidal Volume (500ml) the 2 layers are continuous at the root of the lungs Regular expiration and inspiration ➔ Inspiration Reserve Volume (3000ml) Mechanism of Breathing Maximum inspiration Phases of Breathing ➔ Expiration Reserve Volume (1100ml) ➔ Inspiration/ Inhalation Maximum expiration Air is flowing into the lungs (active phase) ➔ Residual Volume (1200ml) During end of inspiration: Air remaining in the lungs o Abdominal muscles relaxing You cannot totally remove the air within the lungs o The ribs moving up ➔ Functional Residual Capacity (2300ml) o Diaphragm moving down Residual volume and expiration reserve volume o Labored breathing: additional muscles contract, causing ➔ Inspiratory Capacity (3500ml) additional expansion of the thorax. o Quite breathing: the external intercostal muscles contract, Tidal and inspiratory reserve volume elevating the ribs and moving the sternum. ➔ Vital Capacity (4600ml) o Muscles of inspiration: sternocleidomastoid, scalene, Expiratory reserve, tidal and inspiratory reserve volume pectoralis minor, external intercostal and diaphragm ➔ Total Lung Capacity (5800ml) ➔ Expiration/ Exhalation Total of the air that will be present within the lungs Air is flowing out of the lung (passive phase) All are included During end of expiration o Diaphragm moving up Gas Exchange In The Body o Muscles of expiration: internal intercostal and Abdominal muscles External respiration: Pulmonary gas exchange ➔ Partial pressure gradient and gas solubility o CO2 and O2 Pressure Relationship In The Thoracic Cavity ➔ Thickness of the respiratory membranes Gases travel from area of high pressure to area of lower ➔ Surface area pressure o alveoli increase the surface area 140 meters Intrapulmonary Pressure vellichor 8 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 ➔ Ventilation ➔ Central Chemoreceptors o perfusion coupling located in the medulla oblongata sensitive to changes in blood CO2 and Ph Gas Transport increase CO2 or hypercapnia – respiratory stimulant Oxygen when you have more CO2, you need to move them out. So, respiration should be stimulated, so that you will dispose ➔ Oxyhemoglobin – O2 and Hemoglobin - 97% your CO2 ➔ Dissolved in plasma - 3% ➔ Peripheral Chemoreceptors Carbon Dioxide carotid bodies ➔ Dissolved in plasma - 7-10% sensitive to changes in blood O2 levels ➔ Carbaminohemoglobin - 20-30% if there’s a decrease in O2 level, you will be stimulated to ➔ Bicarbonate (HCO3) - 60-70% breath, so that you increase the level of O2 Carbonic anhydrase Effects of Exercise CO2 + H2O_________________HCO3 + H Increase of ventilation H2CO3 ~ carbonic anhydrase ~ HCO3 + H Changes of blood pH, CO2 and O2 When you have an increase level of CO2, more will be binding on water and with carbonic anhydrase. It will be broken down Lung Cancer into bicarbonate and hydrogen Increase CO2 = increase hydrogen ion 1/3 of cancer related deaths Increase hydrogen ion = decrease ph (respiratory acidosis; Associated with smoking proton donors) Aggressive Control Of Respiratory Opening of Eustachian Tube Medullary Respiratory Centers Communication between the nasopharynx and middle ear. ➔ Dorsal Inspiratory Group/Inspiratory Centers responsible for rhythm of breathing. Tonsils Impulses travel to phrenic and intercostal nerve to Will form a Waldeyer’s ring diaphragm ➔ Pharyngeal tonsils ➔ Ventral Respiratory Group/Expiratory Center ➔ Palatine tonsils contains both inspiratory and expiratory neurons ➔ Lingual tonsil during forceful breathing medullary respiratory center pontine respiratory group URINARY SYSTEM dorsal respiratory group – will stimulate your diaphragm Composed of: to contract ➔ Kidney ventral respiratory group – will be stimulating the ➔ Ureter expiratory group of the muscles ➔ Urinary bladder Pons Respiratory Centers ➔ Urethra ➔ Pneumotaxic Center continuously sends inhibitory impulses to the inspiratory Kidney center of the medulla sets duration of inspiration Paired, reddish brown, retroperitoneal ➔ Apneustic Center Coverings provides inspiratory drive ➔ Renal Capsule – immediate covering of the kidney sends signals for inspiration for long & deep breaths ➔ Perirenal Fat (perinephric fat) – around the renal capsule controls intensity of breathing ➔ Renal Fascia (gerota’s fascia) – external to perirenal fat; inhibited by stretch receptors or by pneumotaxic center continuous with transversalis fascia increases tidal volume ➔ Pararenal (paranephric fat) – outermost Herring-Breuer Reflex Two Parts of Kidney Stretch receptors in the visceral pleura that transmit inhibitory ➔ Cortex – outer signals to medullary inspiratory center ➔ Medulla – inner When the lungs have reach maximum level of stretching, this o Renal pyramids – triangle herring-Breuer reflex will send an impulse to your medullary o Renal column – extension of cortex towards the medulla; inspiratory center and tell to stop stimulating inspiration. between the pyramids Chemical Control Of Respiration o Renal Pelvis – union of major calyces vellichor 9 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 o Major calyx – union of minor calyces Filtration – filtration (blue arrow) is the movement of materials across the filtration membrane into Bowman’s capsule to form Nephron filtrate Structural and functional unit of the kidney Reabsorption – solutes are reabsorbed (purple arrow) across the wall of the nephron into the interstitial fluid by transport 1 million nephron each kidney process, such as active transport and cotransport. Consist of: o water is reabsorbed (green arrow) across the wall of the ➔Glomerulus – top of capillaries nephron by osmosis. ➔Bowman’s capsule o water and solutes pass from the interstitial fluid into the ➔Proximal convoluted tubule peritubular capillaries. ➔Loop of henle Secretion – solutes are secreted (orange arrow) across the wall ➔Distal convoluted tubule – yung kulot of the nephron into the capillaries. ❖ Afferent arteriole – papasok ng glomerulus Glomerular Filtration ❖ Efferent arteriole – palabas ng glomerulus Acts as a filter ❖ Collecting tubule – this will be the collecting duct that will drain 1/5 of blood flowing through the kidneys is filtered from the to your minor calyx glomeruli Through filtration membrane: podocyte cell processes, Bowman’s Capsule basement membrane & capillary endothelium ➔ Inner Visceral Layer Composed of podocytes, octopus like that terminates in Pressures Acting on the Glomerulus branching pedicles ➔Glomerular Hydrostatic Pressure Podocyte cell processes will be forming filtration slits, a force that push the water and solutes across the filtration together with the endothelium of the capillary will form the membrane filtration membrane ➔Glomerular Osmotic Pressure ➔ Parietal Layer opposes filtration, hold the fluid inside the glomerulus Simple squamous epithelium exerted by plasma protein plasma protein – like a magnet for the fluid Renal (Malphigian) Corpuscle ➔Capsular Hydrostatic Pressure Glomerulus plus bowman’s capsule opposes filtration, force exerted by the fluid inside the bowman’s capsule Juxtaglomerular apparatus – consist of: ➔JG cell (Juxtaglomerular cells) o Secreting substance called Renin ➔Macula densa o Part of the distal convoluted tubule - Cuboidal cells o Columnar cells – adjacent to the afferent arteriole ➔Mesangial cell o extra glomerular mesangial cell/ Lacis cells Mechanism of Urine Formation Glomerular filtration Tubular reabsorption Tubular secretion Glomerular capillary pressure, the blood pressure within the glomerulus, moves fluid from the blood into Bowman’s capsule. Capsular pressure, the pressure inside Bowman’s capsule, moves fluid from the capsule into the blood Colloid osmotic pressure, produced by the concentration of blood proteins, moves fluid from Bowman’s capsule into the blood osmosis Filtration pressure is equal to the glomerular capillary pressure minus the capsular and colloid osmotic pressures. vellichor 10 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 In the absence of Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), urine becomes Net Filtration Pressure diluted – If you don’t have ADH, your water will not be inhibited Force responsible for filtrate formation from going out of your system. Water will be joining the solutes NFP = glomerular hydrostatic pressure – (glomerular oncotic therefore; the urine will become diluted. pressure + capsular hydrostatic pressure) When Blood ADH increases the permeability of DCT and Glomerular Filtration Rate collecting duct to water increases (the water will not be going amount of filtrate formed per minute time out, your ADH will hold the water in) Equal to 125ml/min Directly proportional to the net filtration pressure Tubular Reabsorption The process of returning needed substance from the filtrate to the capillary blood Active or passive depending on a particular substance Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT) is the most active 80% of filtrate, nutrients water and Na, the bulk actively transported ions are reabsorbed here Reabsorption in Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT) tubule and collecting duct is controlled by Aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone Increased osmolality/ large decrease in BP – you have less water (decreased Fluid volume) Increased ADH release – the kidney will increase water reabsorption in decreased osmolality and increased BP(increased Fluid volume) When you have decreased BP, JG cells will secrete the renin Tubular Secretion adding substance to the filtrate from blood or tubular cells Angiotensinogen Can be active or passive protein in your blood Important in eliminating urea, excess ions, drugs, and this will be converted by renin into Angiotensin I maintaining acid base balance Angiotensin I will be circulating in the lungs Regulation Of Urine Concentration And Volume angiotensin converting enzyme, this will be converted into Urine osmolarity ranges from 50-1200mosm Angiotensin II Hyperosmolarity of the medullary fluid ensures that the urine Angiotensin II reaching the DCT is hypo-osmolar vasoconstrictor, there will be an increased in BP vellichor 11 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 it will stimulate the aldosterone secretion from your adrenal Body cortex made up 3 erectile tissues aldosterone – will increased Na and water reabsorption results ➔Corpora Cavernosa in increased BP o 2, dorsolateral, vascular spaces Renal Clearance ➔Corpus Spongiosum The rate at which the kidneys clear the plasma for a particular o contains spongy urethra solute o located ventrally Root Ureter proximal 10 inches long muscular tube ➔Bulb Three Anatomical Constrictions o expanded proximal portion of corpus spongiosum. ➔ at the uretero-pelvic junction o covered by bulb spongiosum. ➔Crura ➔ where iliac vessels cross the ureter o proximal tapered parts of corpora cavernosa. ➔ where it joins the urinary bladder o covered by ischiocavernosum. Glans Penis Urinary Bladder expanded distal end of corpus spongiosum Hollow muscular organ distal terminal urethra is expanded called fossa navicularis Temporary storage of urine prepuce and frenulum Wall consist of detrusor muscle Will contain folds called rugae; without rugae called trigone – Internal Genitalia smooth area Inner – trigone occupied by ureteral orifices and urethral orifice Testis intra-abdominal during fetal life Urethra (Male) descends and covered by tunica vaginalis from peritoneum deep covering tunica albuginea Prostatic - widest, most dilatable, prostate gland divides the testis into lobules Membranous – traverses’ urogenital diaphragm, shortest and each lobule contains seminiferous tubule least dilatable Penile(spongy) - longest, traverses corpus spongiosum Cells in the Testis ➔Spermatogenic Cells Urethra (Female) o grow and mature to form mature sperm cells. 4cm ➔Sertoli Cells/Sustentacular Cells Opens into vestibule o support and protect sperm cells. ➔Interstitial Cells Of Leydig MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM o secrete testosterone Functions o located in between seminiferous tubules Production and transport of male sperm cells Production of male hormones like testosterone Male Reproductive Duct Gonads Epididymis Male – testis comma shaped, 4cm long Female – ovary located posterior to the testis, with ff parts, head, body and tail tail is continuous with vas deferens External Genitalia Functions Scrotum Site of sperm maturation – mobility and capability to fertilize an ovum (10-14 days) wrinkled sac containing testis, epididymis, and vas deferens Storage of sperm cells dartos muscle Propel sperm cells to vas deferens regulates testicular temperature cold temperature – testis gets closer to the body warm temperature- testis hangs loosely Vas/Ductus Deferens spermatogenesis requires 2-3 °C lower than body temperature Continuation of epididymis 45cm long Penis Passes through the inguinal canal and enter the pelvic cavity vellichor 12 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 Joins the duct of seminal vesicle to form ejaculatory duct – 60% of semen volume which will drain to the prostatic urethra Secretes fructose Will go to the back of urinary bladder and will dilate to form your Secretions ampulla ➔Alkaline viscous fluid Functions o neutralizes acidic environment of vagina and male urethra Storage of sperm cells o contains fructose for energy source of sperm cells Conveys sperm cell from epididymis to ejaculatory duct and ➔Prostaglandin urethra o mobility and sperm viability Reabsorbed not ejaculated sperm cells o stimulate smooth muscle contraction of female ➔Clotting protein Cowper’s (Bulbourethral) Gland o coagulate sperm after ejaculation Located within the urogenital diaphragm on either side of membranous urethra Semen Opens into penile urethra volume- 2.5- 5ml with 50-150million sperm cells/ml approx. 300- Secretions 500millions sperm ➔Alkaline fluid Slightly alkaline 7.2-7.7 ➔Mucus – lubricates penis and lining of urethra Contains seminal plasmin destroys certain bacteria Once ejaculated sperm coagulates in 5min due to clotting Male Urethra protein from seminal vesicle About 10-20 min liquefies due to prostate specific antigen (PSA) passage way of urine and semen and other proteolytic enzymes from prostate 20 cm Components of Semen ➔Seminal fluid Prostatic secretion from glands Traverse prostate gland prostate gives milky white, seminal vesicle and bulbourethral widest, most dilatable gland sticky appearance 2-3 cm ➔Sperm 70um, viable in 72hrs Membranous o Head traverses’ urogenital diaphragm acrosomes with lysosomal enzymes for penetration of zona shortest and least dilatable pellucida of 2° oocyte 1 cm nucleus – with 23 chromosomes haploid number o Mid Piece – with mitochondria o Tail – flagella for motility Penile longest, travers’s corpus spongiosum Erection 15-20 cm Enlargement and stiffening of the penis Due to tactile, visual, auditory, olfactory and imagination Accessory Reproductive Organs reaches erection center in hypothalamus --- sends Prostate Gland parasympathetic nerve impulses into the penis ---vasodilatation of helicine arteries into the penis – erection located beneath urinary bladder with 5 lobes surround prostatic urethra secretes milky, slightly acidic pH 6.5 seminal fluid Ejaculation Secretions Powerful expulsion of semen from the urethra to the exterior --- ➔Citric acid – for ATP energy of sperm cells due to sympathetic reflex--- closure of smooth muscle sphincter ➔Acid phosphatase at the base of urinary bladder-peristaltic contraction of the male ➔Proteolytic enzyme – breaks down clotting protein reproductive tract ➔Prostate specific antigen (PSA) Emission Seminal Vesicle Discharge of small volume of semen before ejaculation Located postero-inferior to urinary bladder May occur during sleep, nocturnal emission 5cm long Due to peristaltic contraction of male reproductive tracts Convoluted pouch vellichor 13 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 Cryptorchidism o vaginal orifice – guarded with hymen ➔Bartholin’s (greater vestibular gland) Undescended testis 80% will spontaneously descend during 1 year of life May result to sterility and testicular cancer Internal Genitalia Vagina Circumcision fibromuscular canal Removal of the foreskin from the penis lined by mucous membrane rugae FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM hymen acidic Functions fornices ➔ Production and transport of ovum Functions of Vagina ➔ Production of hormones ➔ Copulation o Estrogen o receives the penis during sexual intercourse o Progesterone o Relaxin ➔ Birth canal o Inhibin ➔ Outlet of menstrual flow ➔ Nurture the developing zygote Uterus Perineum Parts: Diamond shape ➔ Fundus Contains genitalia and anus Above attachment of fallopian tube Boundaries ➔ Body ➔ Anterior – pubic symphysis From attachment of fundus to isthmus uteri ➔ Lateral – ischial tuberosities ➔ Cervix ➔ Posterior – coccyx Distal with canal Surrounded by proximal part of vaginal canal External Genitalia Layers of the Uterus Sex organ is located ➔ Perimetrium outer covering Mons Pubis derived from peritoneum Mound, fats beneath and symphysis pubis forms the uterovesical and rectouterine pouch Puberty, pubic ➔ Myometrium Middle layer Labia Majora Smooth muscles Skin fold with hair Thickest at the fundus and thinnest at the cervix Pudendal cleft – space in between labia majora Response to oxytocin stimulation during labor and delivery ➔ Endometrium Labia Minora Innermost Skin fold, hairless Contains endometrial glands Few swear gland, many sebaceous gland Response to estrogen and progesterone that prepares the Vestibule – space between labia minora uterus for possible implantation Layers: ➔Clitoris stratum functionalis o frenulum and prepuce o slough off during menstruation o small cylindrical mass stratum basalis o abundant nerve endings o does not slough off during menstruation gives rise to new o corpora cavernosa- clitoral erection stratum functionalis o homologue to male glans penis Ligaments Support of Uterus ➔Urethral orifice ➔ Broad ligament ➔Paraurethral glands (skene’s gland) Derived from peritoneum o secretes mucus o homologue to prostate ➔ Round ligament of the uterus ➔ Uterosacral ligament vellichor 14 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 ➔ Cardinal ligament ➔ Luteinizing Hormone stimulate further development of follicle, ovulation, corpus Fallopian Tube luteum production of progesterone ➔ Estrogen Parts: maintenance of female repro, secondary characteristics and ➔ Infundibulum breast development. With fimbria ➔ Progesterone ➔ Ampulla secreted by corpus luteum Most dilated acts synergistically with estrogen Site of fertilization prepares the endometrium for implantation and mammary gland Longest, lat 2/3 for milk production ➔ Isthmus Narrowest Phases of Female Reproductive Cycle ➔ Intramural/Interstitial Buried into uterus Menstrual Phase Functions: Last for 3-5 days Provide route for sperm to reach the ovum 1st day of menstruation is 1st day of cycle Transport oocyte from ovary to fallopian tube during ovulation 50-150ml of menstrual flow Site of oocyte digestion if no fertilization decreased estrogen and progesterone level in the blood causes ischemia of functionalis leading to menstruation Transport fertilized ovum to be implanted in the endometrium of the uterus Preovulatory Phase (Proliferative) Ovary Between menstruation and ovulation Almond shape More variable length located lateral to the uterus Dominant follicle is selected to mature produces oocyte Estrogen and inhibin secreted by dominant follicle and stop FSH secretion to prevent other follicle to grow mesovarium ovarian ligament Repair of endometrium Cells of basalis form new functionalis infundibulopelvic ligament Hormones Secreted by Ovary ➔ Progesterone and Estrogen Ovulation prepares the uterine glands and maintains the endometrium for Release of secondary oocyte into the fallopian tube implantation Usually during 14th day of a 28th day cycle Prepares the mammary for milk production Follicles retained from mature graafian lead to minor bleeding inhibits FSH and LH if high called corpus hemorrhagicum and later transforms into corpus ➔ Inhibin luteum Secreted by granulosa cell and inhibits FSH secretion ➔ Relaxin Post Ovulatory Phase relaxes the uterus during implantation and pregnancy Constant phase last for 14 days in a 28 days cycle help dilates the cervix After ovulation LH stimulated remnants of mature graafian follicle to develop into corpus luteum Female Reproductive Cycle Corpus luteum secretes progesterone and some estrogen Ovary if oocyte is fertilized corpus luteum can persist up to 2 ➔ Ovarian Cycle weeks due to Human Chorionic Gonadotropin produced by involves maturation of oocyte placenta ➔ Uterine Cycle If not fertilized corpus luteum degenerates in 10 to 12 days’ time Changes in the endometrium forming corpus albicans Endometrium thickens and edema formation for preparation of implantation Hormonal Regulation Controlled by GnRH from hypothalamus that causes the release of FSH and LH ➔ Follicle Stimulating Hormone stimulate growth of follicle and secretion of estrogen vellichor 15 Lymphatic System  1. Right Lymphatic Duct 2. Thymus 3. Thoracic Duct 4. Spleen 5. Cisterna Chyli 1 2 3 4  Pineal gland Pituitary gland Thyroid gland Parathyroid gland Thymus gland Adrenal gland Pancreas Ovary Testis Thymus gland (Hassall’s corpuscle) Lymph node Lymph node Lymph node  Tonsil Lining epithelium: Stratified squamous nonkeratinized Tonsillar crypt Spleen Spleen  Central arteriole Periarteriolar Lymphoid Sheath (PALS)  Spleen White pulp  Ileum Appendix ILEUM WITH PEYER’S PATCH Peyer’s patch  APPENDIX Lymphatic nodule Digestive System  1. Oral vestibule 2. Teeth 3. Tongue 4. Oral cavity proper 5. Oropharynx 6. Laryngopharynx 1 3 5 6  1 1. Esophagus 2. Stomach 12 3. Duodenum 4. Ascending colon 2 5. Cecum 6. Appendix 11 7. Rectum 3 8. Ileum 10 9. Descending colon 10.Jejunum 4 9 11.Pancreas 8 12. Cardiac notch 5 7  Liver Right Lobe Left Lobe Falciform Ligament  IVC Caudate lobe Left lobe Right lobe Quadrate lobe Gallbladder Right lobe Left lobe  Caudate IVC lobe Left lobe Right lobe Quadrate lobe Gall bladder Right lobe  Pancreas Accessory/ Duct of Santorini Major/ Duodenum Duct of Wirsung Urinary System  Spleen Left Kidney Right Kidney Left Ureter Right Ureter  IVC Renal Pelvis Left Ureter Right Ureter  Renal medulla Minor Calyx Major Calyx Renal Pelvis Renal Artery Renal Vein Renal Cortex Right Ureter  Fimbriae Vaginal Ovary canal Fallopian/Urine tube Rectum Uterus Urinary Bladder Anal Canal Cervix External Urethral Orifice External anal Urethra sphincter Mons pubis Vestibule Labia Majora Labia Minora Ureter Urinary Bladder  Urinary Bladder Prostatic Urethra Urogenital Prostate Diaphragm Gland Ejaculatory duct Membranous Urethra Corpus Spongiosum Anal canal Penile Urethra External anal sphincter (control feces)  Ureter Vas Deferens Seminal Vesicle Urinary Bladder Epididymis Scrotum Testis Male and Female Reproductive System  Urinary Bladder Prostatic Urethra Urogenital Prostate Diaphragm Gland Ejaculatory duct Membranous Urethra Corpus Spongiosum Anal canal Penile Urethra External anal sphincter (control feces)  Ureter Vas Deferens Seminal Vesicle Urinary Bladder Epididymis Scrotum Testis Epididymis Testis  Urinary Bladder Urethra Ovary Vagina Cervix Fallopian/Urine tube Uterus  Mons pubis Urinary Bladder Urethra Uterus Labia Majora Labia Minora Vestibule Cervix Vaginal canal Rectum Anal Canal External anal sphincter  Fimbriae Vaginal Ovary canal Fallopian/Urine tube Rectum Uterus Urinary Bladder Anal Canal Cervix External Urethral Orifice External anal Urethra sphincter Mons pubis Vestibule Labia Majora Labia Minora Respiratory System  Frontal sinus Superior Turbinate Superior Nasal Cavity Meatus Sphenoid sinus Middle Turbinate Middle Meatus Nasopharyngeal Nasal Vestibule Inferior Turbinate Inferior Meatus Oropharyngeal Laryngopharyngeal larynx True vocal cord  Thyroid cartilage Trachea Right secondary Carina bronchus Left Main Bronchus Upper Upper Middle Lower Lower Right Main Bronchus Left secondary bronchus  Right Lung 1. Horizontal Fissure Upper lobe 2. Oblique Fissure 1 Middle lobe Lower lobe 2 Left Lung Upper lobe Oblique Fissure Lingula = tongue Right Lung Left Lung Trachea