Social Cognitive Theory PDF

**Social Cognitive Theory** Social cognitive theory was developed by Stanford psychologist Albert Bandura. Social cognition is basically *social thought*, or how the mind processes, interprets, and responds to social signals or information. These processes allow people to understand social behavio...

**Social Cognitive Theory** Social cognitive theory was developed by Stanford psychologist Albert Bandura. Social cognition is basically *social thought*, or how the mind processes, interprets, and responds to social signals or information. These processes allow people to understand social behavior and respond in ways that are appropriate and beneficial. Social cognitive theory emphasizes the learning that occurs within a social context. The theory views people as active agents who both influence and are influenced by their environment. In particular, the theory details the processes of observational learning and modeling, and the influence of self-efficacy on the production of behavior. A major component of the theory is observational learning: the process of learning desirable and undesirable behaviors by observing others, then reproducing learned behaviors in order to maximize rewards. If the behavior is rewarded (positive or negative reinforcement) we are likely to imitate it however if the behavior is punished imitation is less likely. For example, in Bandura and Walters' experiment, the children imitated the aggressive behavior of the model who was praised for being aggressive to the Bobo doll. Social cognitive theory has been used to explain a wide range of human behavior, ranging from positive to negative social behaviors such as aggression, substance abuse, and mental health problems. **The Bobo Doll Experiments** Social cognitive theory can trace its origins to Bandura and his colleagues in the 1960s. A series of well-known studies on observational learning known as the Bobo Doll experiments. In the [first of these experiments](http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0045925), pre-school children were exposed to an aggressive or nonaggressive adult model to see if they would imitate the model's behavior. The gender of the model was also varied, with some children observing same-sex models and some observing opposite-sex models. In the aggressive condition, the model was verbally and physically aggressive towards an inflated Bobo doll in the presence of the child. After exposure to the model, the child was taken to another room to play with a selection of highly attractive toys. To frustrate participants, the child's play was stopped after about two minutes. At that point, the child was taken to a third room filled with different toys, including a Bobo doll, where they were allowed to play for the next 20 minutes. The researchers found that the children in the aggressive condition were much more likely to display verbal and physical aggression, including aggression towards the Bobo doll and other forms of aggression. In addition, boys were more likely to be aggressive than girls, especially if they had been exposed to an aggressive male model. A [subsequent experiment](http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0048687) utilized a similar protocol, but in this case, the aggressive models weren't just seen in real-life. There was also a second group that observed a film of the aggressive model as well as a third group that observed a film of an aggressive cartoon character. Again, the gender of the model was varied, and the children were subjected to mild frustration before they were brought to the experimental room to play. As in the previous experiment, the children in the three aggressive conditions exhibited more aggressive behavior than those in the control group and boys in the aggressive condition exhibiting more aggression than girls. These studies served as the basis for ideas about observational learning and modeling both in real-life and through the media. In particular, it spurred a debate over the ways media models can negatively influence children that continues today. In 1977, Bandura introduced Social Learning Theory, which further refined his ideas on observational learning and modeling. Then in 1986, Bandura renamed his theory [Social Cognitive Theory](https://books.google.com/books?id=HJhqAAAAMAAJ&q=Social+Foundations+of+Thought+and+Action:+A+Social+Cognitive+Theory&dq=Social+Foundations+of+Thought+and+Action:+A+Social+Cognitive+Theory&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiv24L7wZbdAhULQ6wKHdyqA6YQ6AEIKTAA) in order to put greater emphasis on the cognitive components of observational learning and the way behavior, cognition, and the environment interact to shape people. This experiment was notable for being one that introduced the concept of observational learning to humans. Bandura's ideas about observational learning were in stark contrast to previous behaviorists, such as B.F. Skinner. According to Skinner (1950), learning can only be achieved through individual action. However, Bandura claimed that people and animals can also learn by watching and imitating the models they encounter in their environment, enabling them to acquire information more quickly. **Stages of the Social Learning Theory (SLT) /How We Learn From The Behavior Of Others** Social cognitive theory views people as active agents who can both influence and are influenced by their environment. The theory is an extension of social learning that includes the effects of cognitive processes --- such as conceptions, judgment, and motivation --- on an individual's behavior and on the environment that influences them. Albert Bandura agreed with the [[behaviorists]](https://www.simplypsychology.org/behaviorism.html) that behavior is learned through experience; however he proposed a different mechanism than conditioning. He argued that we learn through [[observation and imitation]](https://www.simplypsychology.org/what-is-observational-learning.html) of others' behavior. This theory focuses not only on the behavior itself but also on the mental processes involved in learning so it is not a pure behaviorist theory. Not all observed behaviors are learned effectively. There are several factors involving both the model and the observer that determine whether or not a behavior is learned. These include attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation. **Attention:** The individual needs to pay attention to the behavior and its consequences and form a mental representation of the behavior. Some of the things that influence attention involve characteristics of the model. This means that the model must be salient, or noticeable. If the model is attractive, or prestigious, or appears to be particularly competent, you will pay more attention. And if the model seems more like yourself, you pay more attention. **Retention:** Storing the observed behavior in LTM where it can stay for a long period of time. Imitation is not always immediate. This process is often mediated by symbols. Symbols are "anything that stands for something else". They can be words, pictures, or even gestures. In order for symbols to be effective, they must be related to the behavior being learned and must be understood by the observer. **Motor Reproduction:** The individual must be able (have the ability and skills) to physically reproduce the observed behavior. This means that the behavior must be within their capability. If it is not, they will not be able to learn it. In the reproduction process individuals reconstruct the memories of the observations so what was learned can be applied in appropriate situations. In many cases, this doesn't mean the observer will replicate the observed action exactly, but that they will modify the behavior to produce a variation that fits the context. Motivational processes determine whether or not an observed behavior is performed based on whether that behavior was observed to result in desired or adverse outcomes for the model. **Motivation:** The observer must be motivated to perform the behavior. This motivation can come from a variety of sources, such as a desire to achieve a goal or avoid punishment. Bandura proposed that motivation has three main components: expectancy, value, and affective reaction. Firstly, expectancy refers to the belief that one can successfully perform the behavior. Secondly, value refers to the importance of the goal that the behavior is meant to achieve. And, the last of these, Affective reaction, refers to the emotions associated with the behavior. If an observed behavior was rewarded (vicarious reinforcement), the observer will be more motivated to reproduce it later. However, if a behavior was punished in some way, the observer would be less motivated to reproduce it. Thus, social cognitive theory cautions that people don't perform every behavior they learn through modeling. *\[Imitation is more likely to occur if the model (the person who performs the behavior) is positively reinforced. This is called vicarious reinforcement.\]* **Features of Social Cognitive Theory** The goal of social cognitive theory is to explain how people regulate their behavior through control and reinforcement in order to achieve goal-directed behavior that can be maintained over time. Bandura, in his original formulation of the related social learning theory, included five constructs, adding self-efficacy to his final social cognitive theory. **Reciprocal Determinism** Reciprocal determinism is the central concept of social cognitive theory, and it refers to the dynamic and reciprocal interaction of people - individuals with a set of learned experiences - the environment, or external social context, and behavior - the response to stimuli to achieve goals. **Behavioral Capability** Behavioral capability, meanwhile, refers to a person's ability to perform a behavior by means of using their own knowledge and skills. That is to say, in order to carry out any behavior, a person must know what to do and how to do it. People learn from the consequences of their behavior, further affecting the environment in which they live. **Reinforcements** Reinforcements refer to the internal or external responses to a person's behavior that affect the likelihood of continuing or discontinuing the behavior. These reinforcements can be self-initiated or in one's environment, and either positive or negative. [[Positive reinforcements]](https://www.simplypsychology.org/positive-reinforcement.html) increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated, while negative reinforcers decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcements can also be either direct or indirect. Direct reinforcements are an immediate consequence of a behavior that affects its likelihood, such as getting a paycheck for working (positive reinforcement). Indirect reinforcements are not immediate consequences of behavior but may affect its likelihood in the future, such as studying hard in school to get into a good college (positive reinforcement) (Bandura, 1989). **Expectations** Expectations, meanwhile, refer to the anticipated consequences that a person has of their behavior. Outcome expectations, for example, could relate to the consequences that someone foresees an action having on their health. As people anticipate the consequences of their actions before engaging in a behavior, these expectations can influence whether or not someone completes the behavior successfully (Bandura, 1989). Expectations largely come from someone's previous experience. Nonetheless, expectancies also focus on the value that is placed on the outcome, something that is subjective from individual to individual. For example, a student who may not be motivated by achieving high grades may place a lower value on taking the steps necessary to achieve them than someone who strives to be a high performer. **Self-Efficacy** [[Self-efficacy]](https://www.simplypsychology.org/self-efficacy.html) refers to the level of a person's confidence in their ability to successfully perform a behavior. Self-efficacy is influenced by a person's own capabilities as well as other individual and environmental factors. These factors are called barriers and facilitators (Bandura, 1989). Self-efficacy is often said to be task-specific, meaning that people can feel confident in their ability to perform one task but not another. For example, a student may feel confident in their ability to do well on an exam but not feel as confident in their ability to make friends. This is because self-efficacy is based on past experience and beliefs. If a student has never made friends before, they are less likely to believe that they will do so in the future. How is Bandura\'s theory different from Skinner\'s theory / other behavioristic theories? Albert Bandura is a behavioral psychologist credited with creating social learning theory. He agreed with B.F. Skinner\'s theory that personality develops through learning; however, he disagreed with Skinner's strict behaviorist approach to personality development. In contrast to Skinner's idea that the environment alone determines behavior, Bandura (1990) proposed the concept of *reciprocal determinism,* in which cognitive processes, behavior, and context all interact, each factor simultaneously influencing and being influenced by the others. *Cognitive processes* refer to all characteristics previously learned, including beliefs, expectations, and personality characteristics. *Behavior* refers to anything that we do that may be rewarded or punished. Finally, the *context* in which the behavior occurs refers to the environment or situation, which includes rewarding/punishing stimuli. This theory was significant because it moved away from the idea that the environment alone affects an individual\'s behavior. Instead, Bandura hypothesized that the relationship between behavior and environment was *bi-directional*, meaning that both factors can influence each other. In this theory, humans are actively involved in molding the environment that influences their own development and growth. **Criticisms of the Social-Cognitive Perspective on Personality** 1. One of the main criticisms of social-cognitive theory is that it is not a unified theory---that the different aspects of the theory do not tie together to create a cohesive explanation of behavior. For example, researchers currently cannot find a connection between observational learning and self-efficacy within the social-cognitive perspective. 2. Another limitation is that not all social learning can be directly observed. Because of this, it can be difficult to quantify the effect that social cognition has on development. 3. Social-cognitive theory tends to ignore maturation and developmental stages over a lifetime. It does not explain how motivation or personality changes over time. Vicarious Learning: (Central Idea of Social Cognitive Theory) *Vicarious learning, or the process of learning from other people's behavior, is a central idea of social cognitive theory and self-efficacy. This idea asserts that individuals can witness observed behaviors of others and then reproduce the same actions. As a result of this, individuals refrain from making mistakes and can perform behaviors better if they see individuals complete them successfully.* *Vicarious learning is a part of social modeling which is one of the four means to increase self-efficacy. Social modeling refers not just to observing behavior but also to receiving instruction and guidance of how to complete a behavior.* *The other three methods include, mastery experience, improving physical and emotional states and verbal persuasion. Mastery experience is a process in which the therapist or interventionist facilitates the success of an individual by achieving simple incremental goals.* *With the achievement of simple tasks, more complex objectives are introduced. The person essentially masters a behavior step by step. Improving physical and emotional states refers to ensuring a person is rested and relaxed prior to attempting a new behavior. The less relaxed, the less patient, the more likely the goal behavior will not be attained. Finally, verbal persuasion provides encouragement for a person to complete a task or achieve a certain behavior.* **Questions** 1. Discuss the major components of social-cognitive theory. 2. Discuss the principal features of Social Cognitive Theory. 3. How we learn from the behavior of others. 4. Critically discuss Albert Bandura's social cognitive theory. 5. Write a short note on Vicarious learning. 6. Illustrate the process of social cognitive theory of learning. 7. How is Bandura\'s theory different from Skinner\'s theory / other behavioristic theories? For further assistance: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tGiVkzqwNdA