Forensic Photography - University of Cagayan Valley PDF

**UNIVERSITY OF CAGAYAN VALLEY** ***New Site Campus Tuguegarao City,Cagayan*** **SCHOOL OF CRIMINOLOGY** FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY **INTRODUCTION** ***Photography plays a very vital role in both criminal and civil cases***. Almost every day, photography provides new evidence of...

**UNIVERSITY OF CAGAYAN VALLEY** ***New Site Campus Tuguegarao City,Cagayan*** **SCHOOL OF CRIMINOLOGY** FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY **INTRODUCTION** ***Photography plays a very vital role in both criminal and civil cases***. Almost every day, photography provides new evidence of its value as a powerful weapon in the war against crime. Every police personnel realizes that even in routine incidents, simple pictures taken with simple cameras can make an impressive difference in court. ***(PNPM-CLG-NSU-8-4-15).*** **The usefulness of *[Forensic Photography in criminal investigation is very important.]* Small objects but of great importance in a crime committed may escape in the first phase of investigation but may be seen and recovered only after closed examination of the photographs at the crime scene.** **A *[good photograph of the scene is a permanent record], which is always available, especially in court presentation*. In court proceeding, judges, fiscal and defense lawyers, generally never visited the crime scene. Photographs greatly facilitate them in interpreting the scene. Therefore, photographers should bear in mind to obtain *a NORMAL, SHARP and FREE OF DISTORTION PHOTOGRAPHS of the crime scene*.** ***"As a general rule take many photographs of the crime scene and select the best".* But generally for purposes of considering the financial capability of a police agency, one may wisely select the best shots in every sparks of the flashing system or every press of the shutter of the camera.** **[HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PHOTOGRAPHY]** **[IMPORTANT PERSONALITIES ]** ***The basic principles of optics and cameras were first mentioned by Chinese and Greek philosopher**.* **MOZI (4^TH^ TO 5^TH^ Century BC)** - The first person mentioned the basic principles behind the pinhole camera or camera obscura. He referred this as a "***collecting plate" or "locked treasure room".*** **ARISTOTLE (347-322 BC)** - The Greek philosopher Aristotle noticed in 4th century that light from a sun eclipse that passes through holes between the leaves, projects an image of an eclipsed sun on the ground. - **CAMERA OBSCURA - A device used by early artists (centuries before Christ) to display a scene on the wall of an otherwise-darkened room so that it could be more-easily copied. In a manner similar to the pinhole camera, a small hole placed in an opposite wall permitted light to enter the room (the "camera"), and the scene outside became transmitted inside, and was shown inverted on the rear wall or sometimes on a screen. The [*camera obscura* is the origin of the modern camera. ]** **ALHAZEN (965-1039)** - An Arabian who found out that light entering a small hole on the wall or shuttered window of a darkened room cast an upside down picture of the scene outside onto the opposite wall. - He was ***considered to be inventor of the camera obscura.*** **SIR ISAAC NEWTON (1666)** - He discovered and proved that the strongest light is "**WHITE LIGHT"**. - He defended his theory by allowing white light to pass through prism thus ***refracting and diffracting the light*** onto its component parts. - White is consists of **"ROYGIBV"** **JEAN BABTISTE FORTA** - An artist and scientist who in his Pseudo Science Magic had made use of the Camera Obscura and replaced ***the hole with a lens which made the image brighter and sharper.*** - He was the one who introduce the lens. **JOHANN HEINRICH SCHULZE** - A German scientist who discovered **[silver nitrate]** when he exposed it to light it turned purple. - He concluded that ***silver nitrate is sensitive to light and capable of producing images.*** **THOMAS WEDGEWOOD (1802)** - He discovered that **[silver chloride]** is more sensitive than that of silver nitrate and thus more capable of recording and producing images. **JOSEPH NICEPHORE NIEPCE (1816)** - He experimented by combining photosensitive materials with Lithography to facilitate his endeavor in printmaking. - Achieves the first photographic image with camera obscura and he called this as **"HELIOGRAPHY"** however the image required ***8 hours of light exposure and later faded.*** **LOUISE JACQUES MANDE DAGUERRE (1838-1839)** - **He invented the DAGUERRO TYPE in Paris.** - He continued the efforts of Niepce to perfect a photographic process. - He invented the principle of ***silver nitrate photograph and using the Daguerro type*** that produces one of a kind picture on metal which was presented by French Scientific Academy. **WILLIAM HENRY FOX TALBOT** - He is the **FATHER OF MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY**. - He invented the **"CALOTYPE**" which produces a negative picture on paper, the light on the image was recorded as dark and dark as night. **JOHN HERSCHEL** - He coined the word **"PHOTOGRAPHY"** - He then suggested negative and positive in the following years. - He pointed out images with a solution of ***hyposulfite of soda which he had discovered in 1819.*** **DANIEL BARBARO** - He introduced the use of lens in the camera. **NADAR or GASPARD FELIX TOURNACHON (1858)** - He took the first "**AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS"** of Paris from a free balloon. **SIR WILLIAM ABNEY** - He discovered the use of "**HYDROQUINONE**" as developing agent in 1880 in England. **RICHARD LEACH MADDAOX** - He successfully introduced the plate with gelatin. **GEORGE EASTMAN** - Founder of Budha Co,. He introduced the use of ***Kodak roll film*** made of celluloid materials for use by a portable camera. **JAMES CLARK MAXWELL** - He discovered the wavelength structure of light after 20 years of research. **ODELBERCHT (1864)** - He first advocated ***the used of photography for the identification of criminals and the documentation of evidence and crime scenes.*** - Meanwhile, every police force in England and in the U.S. has **ROGUES GALLERY** which became an ***integral part in almost all police departments.*** **ALPHONSE BERTILLON (1882)** - He initiated ***anthropometric measurements of personal identification*** and was also involved in various means of documentation by photography which developed into a fine science of criminalistics when ***he photographed crime scenes and formulated a technique of contact photography to demonstrate erasures on documents.*** **DR. R.A REIS (1902)** - He introduced the ***use of photography in forensic science and established the world's earliest crime scene t***hat serviced the academic community and the Swiss police. **VICTOR BALTAZARD (1910)** - He developed a method of photographic comparison of bullets and cartridge cases which act as an early foundation of the field of ballistics. **EDWIN LAND (1947)** - He introduced "**POLAROID CAMERA**". **THOMAS SUTTON** - He invented the first "**SINGLE LENS REFLEX CAMERA"**. **D.A WOODWARD ((1857)** - ***He first constructed an enlarger***. It was a cumbersome object. The sun was collected by means of convex lens and the camera has to be turned with the sun. - This design became the model of **"SOLAR CAMERAS".** **STEVEN SASSON** - An American Electrical Engineer who invented the **"DIGITAL CAMERA".** **[IMPORTANT DATES]** - **1800**- Thomas Wedgewood and Humphey Davy produced photograms. - **1839**- ***[Birth year of Modern Photography]***, the year when the science of photography became public knowledge. - **1850**- The year when ***photography was already well developed***. It was used as an art concerned with landscape, portraiture and architectural presentation. - **1835**- The year when colored films, sensitized materials and different brands of cameras came in different types and model sold in the market. - **1859**- In the US, ***one of the earliest applied Forensic Science was in photography.*** It was used to demonstrate evidence in California Case and enlarged photographs of a signature were presented in a court case involving forgery. - **1890**- ***Full corrected lens*** were introduced. - **1906-** a plate was placed on the market that could reproduce all colors in equivalent shades of gray - **1907-** ***Lummi ere color process was introduced.*** A panchromatic Film was used but with blue, green and red filter. - **1935**- Color process came out together with electronic flash. - **1960**- ***LASER was invented*** making possible Holograms-tri-dimensional pictures. - **1970-** Colored photography has matured as an artistic medium. - **1981**- Sony unveiled the **first consumer to use a charge-couple device for imaging, eliminating the need for film**. The **[Sony Mavica]** saved images to disk, the images were displayed on television and the camera was not fully digital. - **1988**- Arrival of true digital camera's - **1990**- Kodak unveiled the DCS 100, the ***first commercially available digital camera's.*** **PHOTOGRAPHY** - The ***process or art of producing images of objects on sensitized surfaces by the chemical action of light***. - The word \"photography\" derives from the Greek and means, literally, "light writing." - **Photography\"** is derived from the Greek words photos **(\"light\")** and graphein **(\"to draw\"**). - The word was first used by the scientist ***Sir John F.W. Herschel*** in 1839. ***It is a method of recording images by the action of light, or related radiation, on a sensitive material.*** **PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOGRAPHY** 1. A photograph is the mechanical and chemical result of photography. 2. To produce a photograph, light is needed aside form sensitized material. 3. Lights reflected or radiated by a subject must reach the sensitized materials while all other lights must be excluded. 4. The exclusion of all unwanted and unnecessary lights is achieved by placing the sensitized material inside a camera. 5. The amount of light on the sensitized material after exposure is not immediately visible in the eyes. 6. To make the formed image visible, it must undergo the development process. 7. The visual effect that results from the chemical processing is depended on the quantity and quality of the exposing light. 8. More light will yield an opaque or black shade on the sensitized material after development. 9. Too little light will produce a transparent or white side. 10. The varying shade of gray will finally form the complete image. **POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY VS. FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY** **POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY** **FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY** ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Police Photography is ***the study of the general practices, methods, and steps in taking pictures of the crime scene, physical thins, and other circumstances that can be used as criminal evidences or for law enforcement purposes***. Forensic photography is that ***field covering the legal application of photography in criminal jurisprudence and criminal investigation.*** **OBJECTIVES OF POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY** 1. **To produce a pictorial record of everything pertaining to the crime.** 2. **To help in keeping the police officers memory accurately as possible as to where he find things.** 3. **To help in securing and obtaining confession, disposition and information relating to the case.** **USE OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN POLICE WORK** 1. **Identification. This is the very first use of photography.** 2. **As a method of discovering, recording and preserving evidence.** 3. **As a way to present, in the court room, an impression of the pertinent elements of crime and;** 4. **As a training and public relations medium for police programs.** **IMPORTANCE OF FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY** 1. **Small objects but of great importance in a crime committed may escape in the first phase of examination by the investigator but maybe seen and recorded on the photograph.** 2. **A good photograph of the scene is a permanent record which is always available especially in court presentation.** 3. **Used as an aid by the investigator to describe in court some of the details of the crime scene they have investigated several months, ago, the small details and exact locations of objects.** 4. **To assist the investigators in using photographic equipment and techniques in their effort to solve crimes.** **[ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY]** LIGHT: ITS NATURE, CHARACTERISTICS, SOURCES AND CLASSIFICATION - Light is defined as an ***electromagnetic energy with the speed of 186,000 miles per second***. Its wave travel is said to be characterized in certain extent based on ***velocity, wavelength and frequency*** of the number of vibration of the wave per second. - Light wavelength is ***the distance measured between two (2) successive crest or through of wave and it is expressed in either Millimicron (nanometer) or Angstrom.*** - **Millimicron** is the units of light wavelength which is equivalent to one-millionth part of a millimeter which the **Angstrom** is relatively smaller for it has an equivalent measurement of ten (10) millionth part of a millimeter. - Once light hits a certain medium, its action can be characterized as either: **Reflected, Absorbed and Transmitted** (RAT). - **Reflected** once the light hits a mirror and ***it bounce back.*** - **Transmitted** when the light hits a transparent glass which would allow the ***light to pass through its medium*** and; - **Absorbed** when the light hits a dark colored object and prevents it ***from either bouncing or passing through***. - ***ISAAC NEWTON in 1666 proved that the light which men see as white light is actually a mixture of all colors of the spectrum.*** - This is produced when we allow light to hit a glass prism (Sharp Edge of the Glass). A rainbow array will then be shown with colors ***red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet colors (from top to bottom).*** The ***visible light is also said of have a wavelength of between 400-700 millimicron or nanometer.*** **PRIMARY COLORS OF LIGHT** -.Red -.Green -.Blue **SECONDARY COLORS OF LIGHT** - Yellow - Cyan - Magenta - **White** - is the presence of all color. - **Black** - is the absence of all colors or the absence of light. **[TYPES OF LIGHT]** - ***Lights can largely be classified into visible and invisible light.*** a. **Visible Light** **[PROPERTIES OF LIGHT]** 1. **REFLECTION- It is the *deflection or bouncing back of light when it hits a surface.*** - ***Regular reflection*- happens when light hits a flat, smooth and shiny surface.** - ***Irregular reflection*- occurs when lights hits a rough or uneven but glossy object.** 2. **REFRACTION- the bending of light when passing from medium to another.** 3. **DIFFRACTION- the bending of light when it hits a sharp edge of an opaque object.** 4. **ABSORPTION- the nature of light to be absorbed in the process of dark surfaces.** 5. **TRANSMISSION- passes through an object, the light is transmitted.** #### **[PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS]** a. **X-ray** - ***Light with the wavelength between.01 to 30 millimicrons***. It is produced by passing an electric current through a special type of vacuum tube. It was incidentally discovered by ***Conrad Welhelm Roentgen***. This type of light works in the principle of shadow photography. b. **Ultra-violet ray (Before the violet)** - ***Radiation having a wavelength of 30 to 400 nanometers designed to photograph fingerprints in multi colored background,*** documents that are altered, decipherment of erase writing and developing invisible writing. It is commercially known ***as "black Light".*** c. **Visible Light** - It refers to the type of radiation having a ***wavelength of 400 to 700 millimicrons*** designed for ordinary photographing purposes. d. **Infra-red (Beyond the Red)** - Considered as the photographic ***rays with the longest wavelength ranging from 700 to 1000 millimicrons***. It is designed to take photograph of ***over-written documents, obliterated writing, and charred documents or for black out photography***. It is sometimes referred to as heat rays). **[SOURCES OF LIGHT]** - **Natural Light=** are those light which come to existence without the intervention of man e.i. Sunlight, moonlight and starlight. 1. **Bright Sunlight** 2. **Hazy Sunlight** 3. **Dull Sunlight** - **Daylight** may still be classified as: open space bright sunlight, under shade bright sunlight, hazy sunlight, cloudy sunlight and cloudy dull sunlight. - ### Artificial Light = otherwise known as man-made light e.g. fluorescent bulb, incandescent bulb and photoflood lamp. ***Continuous Radiation*** 1. **Photoflood lamp**= is likewise known ***as Reflectorized light or Spot light***. It is a light with a reflector at the back which focus the light to the object the common wattages of this lamp is 500 watts. 2. **Fluorescent Lamp** = are tube lamps in which the walls are coated with fluorescent powders with both ends is mounted with a holder that serves as the reflector. This is commonly used by everybody more than it is used in photographing. 3. **Incandescent bulb** = are bulb with a wire filament connecting two wires which sustain the electrical charge that produces the light. Everybody likewise commonly uses this although it is more expensive in terms of electrical consumptions. ***Short Duration type*** 1. **Flash bulb** = are chemical lamps, as it generate lights by the rapid combination of metal in oxygen***. The bulb can be used only once as the bulb is busted when fired electrically.*** There are thin filaments inside the bulb with two electrical contacts. When the current flows through the filament, it becomes incandescent and ignites the explosive primer that ***ignites the aluminum foil that burns, giving flash of tense light.*** 2. **Electronic Flash** = produces light by an instantaneous electrical in charges between two electrodes in a gas filled glass bulbs. The electrical energy for the discharge is kept in capacitor or condenser. It usually ranges from 1/300 second and 1/5000 second, and ***because of this, subject in fast motion can be arrested or stopped in the photographs***. **KINDS OF OBJECTS AS TO HOW THEY BEHAVE TO LIGHT** 1. **TRANSPARENT OBJECT-** allows sufficiently visible light to pass through them that the object on the other side may be clearly seen. 2. **TRANSLUCENT OBJECT-** allows light to pass, however diffuse it sufficiently that objects on the other side may not clearly distinguished. 3. **OPAQUE OBJECT-** greatly diffuse the light that recognizing the object on the other side is very difficult if not possible. **[PROPERTIES OF LIGHT]** 6. **REFLECTION- It is the *deflection or bouncing back of light when it hits a surface.*** - ***Regular reflection*- happens when light hits a flat, smooth and shiny surface.** - ***Irregular reflection*- occurs when lights hits a rough or uneven but glossy object.** 7. **REFRACTION- the bending of light when passing from medium to another.** 8. **DIFFRACTION- the bending of light when it hits a sharp edge of an opaque object.** 9. **ABSORPTION- the nature of light to be absorbed in the process of dark surfaces.** 10. **TRANSMISSION- passes through an object, the light is transmitted.** #### **[CAMERA and its ACCESSORIES]** - A ***light tight box with light gathering device and a means of blocking unwanted or unnecessary light from reaching the sensitized material.*** - Basically, camera can produce image with its ***four-(4) basic parts such as light tight box, lens, and shutter, Holder of sensitized material.*** - A **camera** is a device used to take pictures (usually [photographs](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographs)). - A camera that takes pictures singly is sometimes called a ***photo camera.*** **[ESSENTIAL PARTS OF A CAMERA]** 1. **Light Tight Box** -- a box designed to keep light out and serve as a frame to hold other parts. 2. **Lens** -- designed to collect or to focus the reflected light from an object to form an image on the film. 3. **Shutter** -- designed to control the time during which the light reaches the film 4. **Holder of the sensitized material** -- located at the opposite side of the lens designed to hold firmly the sensitized material to prevent the formation of the multiple or blurred image 5. **View finder** -- designed to determine the field of view of the camera or the extent of the coverage of the given lens **[DIFFERENT TYPES OF CAMERA]** **1. BOX CAMERA** - The box camera **(viewfinder)** was the instrument of choice for the casual amateur photographer. Inexpensive and simple, ***it was, nevertheless, capable of excellent results under many conditions.*** Box cameras were normally fitted with a single-element lens, a limited range of aperture control, and a single-speed leaf shutter. - It usually lacks a ***[focusing](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus_%28optics%29) system ([fix-focus](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus_free_lens))*** as well as control of [***aperture***](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture) and [***shutter speeds***](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shutter_speed). ***This makes it suitable for daylight photography only.*** **2. PINHOLE CAMERA** - A **pinhole camera** is ***a [camera](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera) without a [lens](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_lens)***. - An image\'s light from a scene passes through this single point, and because there is no lens, the image will be clear at all distances from the pinhole. - The ***smaller the hole, the sharper the image, but the more exposure will be required.*** Also, in order to produce a reasonably clear image, the ratio of the ***pinhole, or [aperture](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture),*** size to the distance between it and the screen should be 1/100 or less. **3. FOLDING-ROLL FILM CAMERA** - The second in popularity only to the box camera, the folding camera was manufactured in a variety of formats. Basically, though, it was a box camera whose ***lens was incorporated into a movable bellows that could slide back and forth on a rail, allowing the lens to change focus.*** 4. **RANGE FINDER CAMERA** - **A rangefinder camera is a camera fitted with a [range finder](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rangefinder)** - **A range-finding focusing mechanism allowing *the photographer to measure the subject distance and take photographs that are in sharp focus.*** - The range finder camera allows for accurate focus, however, by using two views of the same subject to adjust focus. In this camera ***there are two images in the viewfinder. One is usually only a portion of the viewer area and is usually slightly yellowish in color.*** - The photographer adjusts the focus ring on the lens and as they do the two images move. When both on directly on top of each other they blend together and almost disappear signifying the camera is in focus.  - The rangefinder is accurate and usually very quiet and very light weight. 5. **REFLEX CAMERA** - A camera that has a mirror directly in the path of light traveling through the lens that reflects the scene to a viewing screen. **Two Kinds:** - **SINGLE-LENS REFLEX CAMERA** - **TWIN-LENS REFLEX CAMERA** **[TWIN LENS REFLEX - (][TLR](http://www.photographytips.com/page.cfm/219)[) ]** - **A camera *having two separate lenses of the same focal length - one for viewing and focusing; the other for exposing the film.*** ***HOW A TWIN LENS RELFEX CAMERA WORKS?*** - It is fitted with two lenses of identical focal length, one mounted atop the other. The ***lower, or taking, lens focuses its image directly on the film, while the image produced by the upper viewing lens is reflected through 90 degrees by a mirror***, so that if the photographer brings the scene on the focusing screen to sharp focus, the image on the film plane will be equally sharp.    **[SINGLE LENS REFLEX (][SLR](http://www.photographytips.com/page.cfm/218)[)]** - **A camera with *one lens only for both viewing and picture-taking.*** - **The *image is reflected onto a viewing screen by a moveable mirror in the camera.*** - **The *mirror flips out of the way just before the shutter opens, permitting light to strike the film*.** ***HOW A SINGLE LENS RELFEX CAMERA WORKS?*** - By allowing light passing through the lens is reflected by a mirror and brought to focus on a ground glass. ***The mirror causes a reversal of the image seen on the ground glass, but the addition of a pentaprism mounted over the ground glass allows the camera to be used at eye level,*** with the image seen upright and in proper left/right orientation. - An instant before the exposure is made, the mirror swings upward, and the shutter is activated. A single control cocks the shutter for the next exposure, advances the film, and returns the mirror to focusing position.   During an exposure the viewfinder is blocked 6. **VIEW OR PRESS TYPE CAMERA** - **A large format camera - a term that applies to cameras that produce an individual image size of 5\" X 4\" or larger. *It is most often found in a studio, and is sometimes even called a \"studio camera,\" although the view camera can be transported and set up in the field.*** 7. **VIEWFINDER CAMERA** - Camera with a viewfinder that is separate from the lens used in taking the picture. A simple point-and-shoot disposable camera is an example of a [[viewfinder camera]](http://www.photographytips.com/page.cfm/217), but not all viewfinder cameras are simple. 8. **POLAROID CAMERA** - This camera is restricted in its uses but is ideal in instant photograph when there is no requirement for enlargements. 9. **UNDERWATER CAMERA** - This is designed for underwater photography 10. **PANORAMIC CAMERA** - Used for landscaping photography. It is easy to use by encompassing a 120, 180, 360 degrees view of one exposure. **[PARTS OF THE CAMERA]** 1. **LENS-** A disc of transparent glass generally bounded by two spherical surfaces capable of forming images. 2. **FOCUSING RING**- Moves the lens back and forth which allows the photographer to create a sharp image of the subject. 3. **DIAPHRAGM OR APERTURE**- A small opening in a camera usually circular in shape and usually varies in the form of its diaphragm that regulates the intensity of light which passes through the lens. 4. **SHUTTER SPEED DIAL**- it will control the length of time when light is allowed to strike the sensitized material. 5. **SHUTTER**- an adjustable mechanism that regulates the amount of light reaching the film by varying the length of time light is allowed to pass through the lens. 6. **SHUTTER RELASE BUTTON**- a part of camera which when pressed it will keep the shutter in open position. 7. **VIEW FINDER-** a viewing instrument attached to a camera, used to obtain proper composition. 8. **FILM HOLDER-** it holds the film firmly inside the camera. It is always located at the opposite side of the lens. 9. **ACESSORY LIGHT SHOE or HOT SHOE**- it is where the flash bulb is inserted for indoor photography. 10. **ISO/ASA/DIN DIAL**- a camera device in which when adjusted it will conform with the sensitivity of the film to light. 11. **EXPOSURE COUNTER-** a device indicating the number of exposures made. 12. **DISCTANCE SCALE**- a device that shows the approximate distance from the optical center of the lens to the point of focus on the object. 13. **FILM REWIND KNOB**- This knob rewinds the film back into the film cassette. 14. **FILM ADVANCER LEVER**- Use to advance or move over each small piece of film after the picture is taken. 15. **FILM TRANSPORT MECHANISM**- It moves unexposed film into position for the next picture. 16. **BACK COVER RELEASE KNOB**- a device used in opening the back cover for film reloading. 17. **DATA DISPLAY**- often a liquid crystal display, permits the user to view the settings such as speed, exposure and shutter speed. 18. **LENS LOCK RELEASE LEVER**- a device used to secure the lens. 19. **SPROCKET TEETH**- as part of the film transport mechanism, this is where the sprocket holes will be engaged in. 20. **TAKE UP SPOOL**- it pulls the film along so unexposed film can be placed behind the shutter. 21. **FLASH BUTTON**- pressed with the flash down, this button releases the flash head to pop up. 22. **LIGHT METER**- It determines the proper exposure under various light conditions. It is usually connected to the diaphragm and/or shutter in such a way that correct exposure is automatically produced when the shutter is tripped. 23. **MODE DIAL/CAMERA DIAL**- it is a dial used on digital camera to change the camera's mode. **[MANUAL MODES]** 1. **P**- Program mode offers the photographer partial control over the shutter speed and aperture. 2. **A or AV**- Aperture priority allows the photographer to control the aperture, while the shutter speed and ISO sensitivity are calculated by the camera. 3. **S or TV-** Shutter priority AKA "time value" allows the photographer to control the shutter speed. 4. **Sv**- sensitivity value allows the photographer to control the aperture and ISO. 5. **M**- Manual mode allows the photographer to control the shutter speed, aperture and ISO. 6. **U**- User mode (like a program preset). **[AUTOMATIC MODES]** 1. Action or sport mode increases IS0 and uses a fast shutter speed to aperture action. 2. Landscape mode uses a small aperture to gain depth of field. 3. Portrait mode widens the aperture to throw the background out of focus. The camera may recognize and focus on a human face. 4. Night portrait mode uses an exposure long enough to capture background detail with fill-in flash to illuminate a nearby subject. **[HOW CAMERA WORKS?]** 1. Turn on the camera 2. Load the film 3. Set the film speed 4. Set the aperture setting 5. Set the shutter speed selector dial. 6. Turn the shutter speed selector dial to speed desired. 7. Focus the lens and frame your picture. 8. Press the shutter release button 9. If the end of the film is reached, it will rewind automatically. However, the photographer may rewind the film manually by pressing the film rewind lock found at the back of the camera. **[FILM LOADING]** 1. Open the camera back 2. Load the film by aligning the film ledger on the orange dot reference. 3. Close the camera back 1. Hold the camera steady 2. Press down the shutter release button. **[CONTROL OF CAMERAS]** - Knowing the controls on camera is necessary ***to produce a sharp and normal image and negatives after photographing.*** There are three important controls in a camera to be manipulated and adjusted to its proper setting. - **FOCUSING CONTROL** - **DIAPHRAGM/APERTURE CONTROL** - **SHUTTER SPEED** 1. **FOCUSING CONTROL** - The camera lens bends light rays to form an image or likeness of the object. ***Adjusting the lens to form the clearest possible image is called focusing.*** - ***Focusing is defined as the setting of the proper distance in order to form a sharp image.*** **Three Types of Focusing** 1. ***Range finder (Either coincidence or split image type)*** - Coincidence otherwise known as ***superimposed image focusing***. In this type of focusing a ***single object will appeared double once the object is not in focus,*** but moving the focusing adjustment this double image will coincide or superimposed to form a single object. - ***Split Image focusing*** on the other hand will show an ***image in split or two parts once the object in not in focus*** once the two parts of the image has been united then the object is already focused. 2. ***Ground Glass*** - A focusing mechanism clearly indicates ***whether the object distance and the camera is out of focus or not***. If the object is not well focused, the object to be photographed will appear **[blurred]**. To make it clear and accurate the focusing ring of the camera is ***adjusted on clockwise or counter clockwise to get the desired clearness of the object.*** 3. ***Scale Bed or Focusing Scale*** - In the scale or bed type focusing mechanism, ***the distance of the object to be photographed is calculated by means of feet or meter***. There are cameras where estimated distance from the camera to objects is being indicated in the focusing ring. 2. **DIAPHRAGM or APERTURE CONTROL (LENS OPENING)** - An adjustable mechanism device in the lens assembly which controls the amount of light passing through the lens to the film. The diaphragm works like the pupil of the eye. It may be enlarged or contracted. If it is enlarged, it allows more light to enter. - Fortunately, on most cameras this adjustment is made automatically. The size of the aperture is measured using f/numbers (or f/stops). Confusingly, as f/numbers represent fractions, ***the larger the f/number the smaller the aperture***. ***The widest aperture on a lens might be f/2, while the smallest aperture available may be f/22.*** aperture.gif **F-NUMBER AND F-STOP** - ***f-NUMBER*** - (ƒ-number) ***A number that expresses a lens' light-transmitting ability - i.e. the size of the lens opening***. Usually found on the barrel of a lens, f-numbers indicate the size of the aperture in relation to the focal length of the lens. ***A smaller number indicates a larger lens diameter. ƒ/1.4 signifies that the focal length of the lens is 1.4 times as great as the diameter***. All lenses set at the same f-number transmit the same amount of light. - ***ƒ-stop*** - (f-stop) ***A lens aperture setting calibrated to an f-number.*** 3. **SHUTTER SPEED** **CONTROL** - It is a device ***that allows light to pass for a determined period of time***, for the purpose of exposing photographic film or a light-sensitive electronic sensor to light to capture a permanent image of a scene. **The different shutter speeds are:** 1, 2 or 1/2 sec, 4 or 1/4 sec, 8 or 1/8 sec, 15 or 1/15 sec, 30 or 1/30 sec, 60 or 1/60 sec, 125 or 1/125 sec,250 or 1/250, 500 or 1/500 sec, 1000 or 1/1000, 2000 or 1/2000. **SHUTTER setting for bright and cloudy day:** **APERTURE** **F22** **F16** **F11** **F8** **F5.6** -------------- --------- --------- ----------- ----------- ----------- **SHUTTER** **1/8** **1/6** **1/125** **1/250** **1/500** ***Camera shutters often include one or two other settings for making very long exposures:*** ***B (for bulb )*** - keep the shutter open as long as the shutter release is held. ***T (for time)*** - keep the shutter open until the shutter release is pressed again. ***When to Use Slow Shutter Speeds*** - By using a tripod, or other camera support, photographers can use slower shutter speeds than usual. These allow you to use apertures that would not otherwise be possible when using a handheld camera and to shoot in the lowest light. ***Slow shutter speeds can also be used for creative effect, as moving subjects will become artistically blurred***. ***When to Use Fast Shutter Speeds*** - ***Moving subjects require you to consider using a faster shutter speed than that needed to avoid camera shake***. Some blur may be welcome with action subjects, but often we want to freeze the action. Selecting the right shutter speed depends not only on the velocity of the subject, but also on the direction in which it is traveling.  **Types of Shutter** 1. **Central Shutters** - are mounted within a lens assembly, or more rarely behind or even in front of a lens, and shut off the beam of light where it is narrow. A leaf mechanism is usually used. 2. **Focal Plane Shutter** - In camera design, a focal-plane shutter is a ***type of photographic shutter that is positioned immediately in front of the focal plane of the camera***, that is, right in front of the photographic film or image sensor. 3. ***Focal-Plane Shutters*** - Focal-plane shutters are usually implemented as a pair of cloth, metal, or plastic curtains which shield the film from light. 4. ***Leaf Shutters*** - is a type of camera shutter consisting of a mechanism ***with one or more pivoting metal leaves which normally does not allow light t***hrough the lens onto the film, but which when triggered opens the shutter by moving the leaves to uncover the lens for the required time to make an exposure, then shuts. 5. ***Diaphragm Shutters*** - is a type of leaf shutter consisting of a number of thin blades which briefly uncover the camera aperture to make the exposure. ***There are many factors to be considered in using this control. Some of these factors are:*** 1\. The light sensitivity of the film, which are determined through its ISO 2\. The lighting condition 3\. The motion of the subjects on different angles 4\. The purpose of the photographs to be taken, etc. **[DEPTH OF FIELD VS. DEPTH OF FOCUS]** ***DEPTH OF FIELD*** - The ***zone of acceptable sharpness or the area or \'zone\' of a photograph,*** from front to back, which is in focus or the range of distance in a scene that appears to be in focus and will be reproduced as being acceptably sharp in an image. - ***is controlled by the lens aperture***, and extends for a distance in front of and behind the point on which the lens is focused. ***DEPTH OF FOCUS*** - A ***zone of focus in the camera***. If an image is focused on a ground glass screen in a camera, ***[depth of focus](http://www.photographytips.com/page.cfm/150) makes it possible to move the screen slightly backward or forward and still have the image in acceptable focus.*** ***FOCAL LENGTH*** - The ***focal length of a lens is defined as the distance in mm from the optical center of the lens to the focal point, which is located on the sensor or film if the subject (at infinity) is \"in focus***\". The camera lens projects part of the scene onto the film or sensor. - The ***field of view (FOV***) is determined by ***the angle of view from the lens out to the scene and can be measured horizontally or vertically***. ***FOCAL POINT*** - \(1) The central or principal point of focus. (2) The optical center of a lens when it is focused on infinity. ***FILM PLANE/FOCAL PLANE*** - A film plane is the ***area inside any [camera](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera) where the individual frame of film or digital sensor is positioned during exposure***. It is sometimes marked on camera body with the **\'Φ\'** symbol where the vertical bar represents the exact location. **[PHOTOGRAPHIC LENS]** **[LENS ]** - A **[true]** ***"lens" is a single piece of glass (or other transparent substance) having one or more curved surfaces used in changing the convergence of light rays.*** - What we commonly call a photographic lens is more accurately and technically called an "objective," an optical device containing a combination of lenses that receive light rays from an object and form an image on the focal plane. - However, dictionaries have come to accept the usage of the term **"lens"** to mean the entire photographic objective itself. - ***A photographic lens will always be called a lens, even though it is not a lens,*** but has a lot of lenses in it. - A ***camera lens collects and focuses rays of light to form an image on film.*** ***[CLASSIFICATION OF LENSES]*** 1. ***POSITIVE OR CONVEX LENS (CONVERGING LENS)*** Characterized by the fact that it is thicker at the center and thinner at the side which is capable of bending the light together and forms the image inversely. 2. ***NEGATIVE OR CONCAVE LENS (DIVERGING LENS)*** Characterized by the fact that it is thinner at the center and thicker at the side and forms the virtual image on the same side of the lens. ***[Classification of lens according to its focal length]*** - Focal lengths are usually specified in [millimeters](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millimetre) (mm), but older lenses marked in [centimeters](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centimetre) (cm) and [inches](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inch) are still to be found. For a given film or sensor size, specified by the length of the diagonal, a lens may be classified as: 1. **NORMAL LENS** - Lens with a **focal length approximately equal to the diagonal of the film format**. A ***scene viewed through a normal lens appears to have the same perspective as if it was being viewed "normally" without a lens***, just the way your eye sees it. - In 35mm photography, ***lenses with a focal length of 50mm are called "normal"*** because they work ***w[ithout reduction or magnification and create images the way we see the scene with our naked eyes]*** (same [picture angle](http://www.dpreview.com/learn/key=picture+angle) of 46°). 2. **MACRO LENS** - A [lens](http://www.photographytips.com/page.cfm/468) with the ability to focus ***from infinity to extremely closely, allowing it to capture images of tiny objects in frame-filling, larger-than-life sizes.*** Sometimes called a **"Close-up lens,"** although a ***[close-up lens](http://www.photographytips.com/page.cfm/311) is usually a lens attachment for close-ups and does not generally have the ability to focus on infinity.*** - It has an angle of view ***narrower than 25° and focal length longer than normal***. - These lenses are used for [close-ups](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close-up), e.g., for images of the same size as the object. They usually feature a flat field as well, which means that the subject plane is exactly parallel with the film plane. 3. **WIDE-ANGLE LENS** - A lens with an angle of view that is ***wider than that of a normal lens, or that of the human eye.*** A wide-angle lens has a ***focal length which is less than the diagonal of the film format***. Angle of view wider than 60° and focal length shorter than normal. ***The 24mm lens is a WIDE-ANGLE LENS.*** 4. **TELEPHOTO LENS -- OR LONG-FOCUS LENS** - A lens with a narrow angle of view, a longer-than-normal focal length, the ability to magnify images, and exhibiting relatively shallow depth of field. Examples of 35 mm camera telephoto lenses include 85 mm, 400 mm and 600 mm lenses, to name a few. 5. **FISHEYE** **LENS** - Describes an ***extreme wide-angle lens that has an angle of view exceeding 100***° - sometimes more than 180° - and that renders a scene as **[highly distorted]**. 6. **ZOOM LENS** - Lens with variable focal length or that which can be adjusted continuously by the movement of one or more elements in the lens system. - One in which focal length is variable. Elements inside a variable focus lens shift their positions, enabling the lens to change its focal length -- in effect, providing one lens that has many focal lengths. **[LENS DEFECTS OR ABERRATION ]** 1. **ASTIGMATISM** - The ***inability of the lens to bring to focus both vertical and horizontal lines on the same plane***. Lines in some directions are focused less sharply than lines in other directions. - It is caused by axial rays (not parallel to the lens axis). It will appear that lines of equal density (darkness) are less dense horizontally or vertically. ***Astigmatism is improved by stopping down the lens (smaller lens opening, larger F number).*** 2. **COMA** - ***Inability of the lens to focus light that travels straight or lateral, thus making it blurred*** while the light reaching the lens oblique is the one the is transmitted sharp. 3. **CURVATURE OF FIELD** - The plane of sharpest focus becomes curved, not flat. ***It is caused by rays from the outer limits of the subject plane coming to focus nearer to the lens than the axial rays.*** 4. **SPHERICAL ABERRATION** - Inability of the lens ***to focus light passing the side of the lens producing an image that is sharp in the center and blurred*** at the side. 5. **CHROMATIC ABERRATION** - ***Inability of the lens to focus light of varying wavelength.*** The lens refracts rays of short wavelength more strongly than those of longer wavelength and therefore bringing blue rays to a shorter focus than the red. 6. **DISTORTION** - ***Misrepresentation of proportions of objects or of their arrangement in a scene***. ***The two main types of lens distortion are:*** 7. **FLARE** - ***Flare is non-image forming light***. Reduces contrast and color saturation. Flare is caused by ***very bright subject areas and produces internal reflections in the lens***. **[Types of Lens According to Degree of Correction]** - ***Simple Meniscus lens*** -- this lens is usually found in simple or box camera. It is uncorrected lens and therefore suffers from inherent defects of lenses. - ***Rapid Rectilinear Lens*** -- It is a combination of two achromatic lens with almost the same focal length. This is corrected from some kinds of lens defects but not on astigmatism. - ***Anastigmatic lens (a.k.a. Anastigmat) -*** a lens designed to correct astigmatism. A lens which is free from astigmatism and other types of lens defects. It has the ability to focus a vertical and horizontal lines at the same time. - ***Achromatic Lens*** -- An achromatic lens or achromat is a [lens](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lens_%28optics%29) that is designed to limit the effects of [chromatic](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatic_aberration) and [spherical aberration](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_aberration). - ***Process lens*** -- a super-corrected lens for astigmatism. It has a better color correction and has the ability to produce the best definition of image in the photographs. - ***Fixed Focus Lens*** -- a lens use in all fixed focus camera. Basically, it has a short focal length and greater depth of field. **FILTER** - Tinted glass, gelatin or plastic discs, squares or rectangles that modify the light passing through them. - ***[Filters](http://www.photographytips.com/page.cfm/33) are used in photography to change the appearance of a scene by emphasizing, eliminating or changing color or density,*** generally so that the scene can be recorded with a more natural look, on a particular film. **[PURPOSE ]** The purpose of photographic filters is to ***alter the characteristics of light that reaches the light-sensitive emulsion.*** As light is transmitted through a filter, at least one of the following alterations occurs: 1. The color of light is modified. 2. The amount of light is reduced. 3. The vibration direction of the light rays is limited. **[SPECIAL- PURPOSE FILTERS ]** ***Some of the special-purpose falters you will work with include the following:*** 1. ***Neutral Density Filters*** - Neutral density (ND) filters reduce the amount of light passing through a camera lens without changing the reproduction of colors in the scene. 2. ***Haze Filters*** - A haze ***filter is any filter that absorbs atmospherically scattered sunlight.*** This includes contrast and correction filters.  When contrast   and   correction   filters   are   used   for haze penetration, they may be considered special-purpose falters.   3. ***Polarizing  Filters*** - It is an adjustable filter, with an inner ring that screws onto the lens and an outer ring that can be rotated. Turning the outer ring reduces or increases the filter's effectiveness. ***The polarizer absorbs glare, reducing or eliminating reflections and darkening blue skies***. 4. ***Skylight Filter*** - A skylight filter adds ***warmth to a scene recorded on color   transparency film   by absorbing   ultraviolet radiation***.    - A skylight filter is light pink in color. **[PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM]** **[FILM ]** - A transparent cellulose nitrate or cellulose acetate composition made in thin, flexible strips or sheets and coated with a light-sensitive emulsion for taking photographs. ***The basic structures of a black and white film are the following:*** 1. **Top Coating** - It is an ***over-coating of a thin layer of hard gelatin which helps protect the silver halide emulsion from scratches and abrasions.*** 2. **Emulsion Layer** - ***It is the light-sensitive portion of a film or paper that records the image.*** Composed of silver compounds which are light sensitive, but for photographic purposes, halogens such as bromide. 3. **Film base** - It is commonly ***made of cellulose acetate or other materials such as paper, plastic, or glass*** which supports the emulsion layer and is coated with a non-curl anti-halation backing. 4. **Anti-halation backing** - It is a black dye applied on the rear surface of the film, ***its function is to absorb light that may penetrate the emulsion layer, thus, preventing it to reflect back to the emulsion (halation).*** The dye is removed during processing by one of the chemical in the developer. Its second function is to control the film from curling towards the emulsion layer. Basically, the structure of **[color film]** is almost the same as black and white film ***except that the emulsion layer consists of three layers, stacked one on top of the other.*** 1. **Top layer** - It ***is sensitive to blue light only***; green and red light passes through it without exposing the color blind halides. 2. **Yellow filter** - It ***is known as Carey Lea silver***, suspended in gelatin is coated between the top and second layer to absorb any penetrating blue light but freely passes green and red light. 3. **Middle layer** - ***It is orthochromatic, which is sensitive to blue*** (which cannot reach it) and green, but not to red. So the red light passes on to the bottom emulsion layer. 4. **Bottom layer** - ***It is panchromatic, sensitive to blue (which cannot reach it) and red***. It is also somewhat sensitive to green light but to such a slight degree that it is not important. **[FILM TYPES ACCORDING TO COLOR SENSITIVITY]**: 1. **NON-CHROMATIC** - ***It is sensitive to ultraviolet and blue-violet colors only***. This film may be used when natural rendition is not important. For example, it is used to copy black and white originals and to photograph colorless subjects when extreme contrast is needed. 2. **ORTHOCHROMATIC** - ***It is sensitive to blues and greens, but not to reds***. Reds are recorded as dark tones, while greens are light tones when printed. 3. **PANCHROMATIC** - ***It is sensitive to all colors and are further subdivided according to their degree of sensitivity to each color.*** This film is most commonly used in investigative photography because it produces the most natural recording of colors. 4. **INFRARED** - ***It is sensitive to blues and infrared radiation***, which is beyond the human eye's sensitivity. It is useful in penetrating haze because of its longer wavelengths. In investigative photography, it is useful in laboratory analysis of questionable documents; in the discovery of old or faded tattoos or areas where small objects are hidden under the skin; and in the construction of camera traps. **FILM SPEED** - ***It is the sensitivity of the film emulsion to light, which is measured and expressed in a numerical rating called ISO formerly known as ASA/DIN***. - This means that the higher the ISO number, the more sensitive the film is to light, and that pictures can be taken indoors under dim light conditions. ***The suggested uses of the following film under varying conditions are*:** - ISO -- 25 or lowest that condition will permit for best color and sharpness - ISO -- 100 or 200 -- for general purpose - ISO -- 400 -- for dim light or with moving subject - ISO -- 1000 and up -- for extremely low light conditions **[ASA (American Standards Association)]** - This is expressed in arithmetic value system. The bigger the number the more sensitive the film is. **ASA 10, 20 , 30 , 40,50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1000** **DIN ( Deutche Industre Normen)** - This is expressed in Logarithmic value system. Used in the same principle as the ASA. **Din 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33 etc.** **ISO (International Standard Organization)** - This is expressed as combination of ASA and DIN rating. **[DARKROOM TECHNIQUES]** [ **PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSING**] - can  be  defined  simply as  a  series  of  chemical  changes  that  accomplish  the following goals: - Develop the image - Stop the action of development at a desired point - Fix the visible image to make it permanent - Wash away all traces of chemicals used - Dry the photographic material **[PHOTOGRAPHIC SOLUTIONS]** ***[Developer ]*** - When a photographic emulsion is exposed to light, the silver halides (usually silver bromide and/or silver chloride) in the emulsion change chemically. However, ***no noticeable change can be seen until the film is developed.  *** - The developer causes the affected silver halides to change into metallic silver while having no effect on the unexposed silver halides. The result ***is that a subject area reflecting the most light will affect the most silver halides and will be the darkest part of the image formed in development.*** ***Most all modern developer contains the following ingredients***: ***[Stop Bath/rinse bath]*** - It has become common practice to rinse  film  in ***running water*** after development to retard development and to remove excess chemicals. With prints, it is equally common to use an acid bath to stop the action of the developer and prolong the life of the fixer***. In either case, the bath is referred to as a stop bath***. ***[Acetic acid diluted with water is the most commonly used stop bath. ]*** **[THREE (3) GENERAL TYPES OF RINSE BATH]** - ***Water rinse bath***- helps retard the action of the developing agent and remove the excess developer from the film, thus preventing contamination of the fixing bath. - A ***water rinse is suitable and sufficient for most negatives, however, it will dilute the fixer.*** So, if used, it should be followed by an acid bath. The same procedure applies when processing prints. - ***Acid rinse bath*** -- ***sometimes referred to as a stop bath and is more effective than a water rinse***, as it instantly neutralizes the action of the developer and stops further development. - It also neutralizes the alkalinity of the developer and prolongs the life of the fixing bath. To prepare an acid bath, mix ½ oz. of 28% acetic acid in 32 oz. of water. - ***Hardening rinse bath*** -- use only when it is impossible to control the temperature of the solutions, particularly the wash water, or when development is done in high temperature or under tropical conditions. - A typical hardener rinse bath contain the following: ***32 oz. of water; 1 oz of potassium chrome alum; and 1 oz sodium bisulfate*** (a solution containing potassium chrome alum is very unstable and becomes exhausted quickly with or without use). ***[Fixing Bath]*** - The fixing bath is employed to fix or ***to make the developed image permanent by removing all the unaffected silver salt from the emulsion.*** These silver salts are still sensitive; and if they are allowed to remain in the emulsion, light ultimately darkens them and obscure the image, thus, making the negative useless. ***Fixing Bath Ingredients:*** ***[Wash]*** - ***Running water is not actually required but greatly simplifies the removal of all the chemicals previously used.***   The   wash   step   is   necessary   if   you   desire   a permanent image without stains.  Wash films and papers with fresh running water for about five minutes. ***[Wetting Agent]*** - The  wetting  agent,  usually  called  **Photo-Flo,**  is  a chemical  ***designed  to  reduce  the  surface  tension  of water,***  thus  reducing  the  possibility  of  water  spots forming on film as it dries. ***[Drying]*** - The ***final step in processing film is to dry the wet negative*** which is done in two phases. First is removal of the excess water from the surface. Second is drying, either by evaporation or forced air. **Equipment for Film Processing** **Developer Formulation** **Typical component:** **D-76 Film Developer Formula** **Dektol - Paper Developer** **[THE POSITIVE OR PRINT]** **PRINT** - A photographic image printed on paper, ***generally a positive image made from a negative.*** (Also ***refers to a photograph*** of a model that appears in print - in a newspaper or magazine, for example.) - After the process of producing the negative has been completed, a positive image is produced from the negative which is a true representation of the relative brightness of all parts of the object and is now called print. ***A print is ordinarily made on paper that is coated with a light sensitive emulsion.*** This emulsion is much the same as the one which must be used to cover the film. **[BASIC LAYERS OF PRINTING PAPER]** - ***BASE*** - Made of paper which must be chemically pure to insure that it will not interfere with the chemical processes to which the emulsion is subjected. Available either in a single or double weight paper. - ***BARYTA LAYER*** - A gelatin layer containing baryta crystal to increase the reflectivity of the paper. - ***EMULSION LAYER*** - Contain minute silver halides suspended with gelatin which needs only to reproduce the total range of negative. ***[Types of Photographic Printing Paper]*** 1. ***Chloride Papers*** - Have a ***slow speed emulsion containing silver chloride, fine grain*** and produce deep blacks, and [used for contact printing.] 2. ***Bromide Papers*** - Have ***faster emulsion speed than chloride paper,*** achieve sensitivity through the use of bromide halides. Because of the relatively high sensitivity to light, these emulsions are particularly [suitable for projection printing.] 3. ***Chlorobromide Papers*** - Contain both silver chloride and silver bromide halides. Emulsion speed lies between that of chloride and bromide papers, ***[used for both contact and projection printing.]*** 4. ***Variable Contrast Paper*** - Combines the contrast ranges in one paper, ***this versatility is achieved with special chlorobromide emulsion*** that produces varying contrast responses upon exposure to different colored light. [**Equipment for Paper developing**\ ]1.Three plastic trays - one each for the developer, stop-bath, and the\    fixer. (The size of the tray is determined by the largest prints size).\ 2. Metal, plastic, or bamboo tong preferably with rubber ends to hold the\    prints.\ 3. Rubber (surgical) hand gloves.\ 4. Timers\ 5.Paper cutter\ 6.A bigger tray or tank for washing prints. **[PRINTING]** - In Photography, ***printing is the term used to describe the process of making positive images from neg***atives (and, in some instances, from film positives). - ***[Photographic  print]***  is  made  ***by  passing  light  through  the negative  onto  a  piece  of  paper  that  is  coated  with  a light-sensitive emulsion very similar to film.*** **[Types of Printing]** ***Contact Printing*** - It is the process of making positive prints by placing a sheet of printing paper in direct contact with the negative, emulsion to emulsion. - ***It is the quickest, simplest, and most economical method of producing photographic prints***. For making proof prints and small volume printing, all you need for a "contact printer" is a sheet of glass, a light source, and some sort of padding. - **"Contact printers,"** consisting of a sheet of glass hinged to a metal frame and a pad assembly, are generally known as proof printers. ***Contact Print*** - A print made with the negative in contact (held tightly against) the photographic paper so that both negative and print are the same size. **Projection printing** - Generally refers to ***enlarging.*** - It is ***the process of making positive prints by projecting the negative   image   onto photosensitive   paper.*** - The   projected   image   may   be enlarged, the same as the   negative   image,   or reduced in size. When the print images are larger than the negative images, the process is called ***enlarging**.* - When the print images are smaller than the negative images,   the   process   is   called ***reducing**.* - Because projection  printing  is  usually  used  to  make  positive prints with images larger than the negative, ***projection printers  are  usually  referred  to  as  enlargers.*** ***The advantages of projection printing are as follows:*** 1. [**CROPPING**](http://www.photographytips.com/page.cfm/6823) - Removal of parts of an image in order to improve the image's composition. Cropping occurs when an area that is smaller than the entire image frame is printed or reproduced. - ***Cropping is sometimes also used in reference to a photographer moving closer to a subject,*** thereby eliminating (cropping) unnecessary surrounding elements from the composition. 2. **Dodging or burning in**. This allows you to apply local exposure control to bring out more detail in the highlight and shadow areas. - **DODGING** - ***Blocking a portion of the light*** when printing a photograph so that an area of the print will be made lighter. - **BURNING or Burning-in** - Also known as \"**Printing in**.\" In a darkroom, providing extra exposure to an area of the print to make it darker, while blocking light from the rest of the print. 3. **Local fogging** with a small external light, such as a penlight, to darken selected  areas.  For example, to darken the background of a portrait to direct viewer attention to the face. 4. **Special effects**. You can change the appearance of the image by use of diffusers or patterns between the lens and paper. 5. ***Image distortion correction*** or introduction can be done by tilting the enlarger easel.  An easel is the device used to hold the paper during exposure. **[PHOTOGRAPHIC ENLARGERS]** - In general, all enlargers are similar in design and operation***.  They have an enclosed light source,  some method of providing an even distribution of light over the negative, a negative carrier, a lens, and a means of adjusting   the   lens-to-negative   and   lens-to-paper distances.*** **[ TWO TYPES OF ENLARGERS:]** 1. **Condenser Enlarger** - ***It has a set of condensing lenses between the printing light and the negative.*** These lenses align and project the light rays evenly through the negative.  Since  all  features  of the negative  are  being  enlarged,  any  flaws  also  will  be enlarged. 2. **Diffusion Enlarger** - ***The diffusion enlarger has a diffusing medium (usually a ground glass) between the light source and the negative to spread the light evenly over the entire surface of the negative***. Light emitted from the lamp,   as   well   as   that   reflected   from the parabolic reflector, strikes the diffuser, which, in turn, scatters it in all directions.  Thus, when the light reaches the negative, it is traveling in a no directional pattern. **[CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY]** There ***is no prescribed length of time it takes to photographically document a crime scene.*** The amount of time spent ***depends on the size and complication in the crime scene, how much there is to document and environmental factors like weather or danger to the investigative team.*** It can consist of thousands of photographs and hours of work. Crime scene photography should not just focus on the obvious. ***The purpose of crime scene photography is to document what is there and where it is in relationship to the scene, whether it is obviously connected to the crime or not.*** **FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY** - Also referred to as ***crime scene photography***, is an activity that ***records the initial appearance of the crime scene and physical evidence, in order to provide a permanent record for the courts***. **FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHERS** - Shall provide ***assistance to investigate units of the PNP, AFP and other government investigative institutions through photography, sketching, facial composite, video recording and comparative examination and photograph analysis.*** **CRIME SCENES** - It can be ***major sources of physical evidence that is used to associate or link suspects to scenes, victims to scenes, and suspects to victims.*** - ***A place where the crime was perpetrated and physical evidence found thereat.*** - This is Locard\'s exchange principle. It is the basic tenet of why crime scenes should be investigated. ***Anything found at a crime scene can be physical evidence.*** - In scientific crime scene investigation, the first activities at the crime scene are essential for the successful preservation of the physical evidence. The ***first responder and ultimately the crime scene investigator have the obligation to make the scene secure and ensure that any further activities at the scene do not change the evidence.*** - All forensic photography must consider three elements at a crime scene: ***the subject, the scale, and a reference object***. Also, the overall forensic photographs must be shown a ***neutral and accurate representation.*** **CRIME SCENE EVIDENCE** **RULE 128 (SECTION 1 Evidence defined)** - It is the means, sanctioned by these rules, of ascertaining in a judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact. **(Sec. 3. Admissibility of evidence)** - Evidence is ***admissible when it is relevant to the issue and is not excluded by the law of these rules.*** - ***[Crime scenes]*** ***are the source of the physical evidence that is used to associate or link suspects to scenes, victims to scenes, and suspects to victims.*** **FORENSIC EVIDENCE** - A ***form of legal evidence that can be used in a court of law*** to convict a person of a crime and as a category of public presentation. **[ESSENTIAL 3 STEPS ON CRIME SCENE]** ***The first activities at the crime scene are essential for the successful preservation of the physical evidence.*** 1. ***FIRST RESPONDERS*** - The crime scene investigator is rarely the first person at a crime scene. Most first responders work on reflex or instinct at the scene. Their tasks are to save lives or apprehend suspects. Unfortunately, ***that may mean that physical evidence may be inadvertently altered, changed, or lost due to the actions of a first responder.*** The crime scene investigator needs to communicate with the first responders to determine if any changes or alterations have occurred at the scene before the scene investigator arrived. **[THE SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS, RESPONSIBILITIES AND PROCEDURES OF THE FIRST RESPONDER (PNP HANDBOOK)]** **FIRST RESPONDER (FR)** - The ***first Police Officers to arrive at the crime scene are the FRs who were dispatched by the local police station/unit concerned after receipt of incident/flash/ alarm report;*** -  Immediately, the FR shall conduct ***a preliminary evaluation of the crime scene.*** This evaluation should include the scope of the incident, emergency services required***, scene safety concerns, administration of life-saving measures, and establishment of security and control of the scene;*** - The FR is ***mandated to save and preserve life by giving the necessary first-aid measures to the injured and their medical evacuation as necessary.*** - The FR shall likewise ***secure and preserve the crime scene by cordoning off the area to prevent unauthorized entry of persons;*** - The FR shall take the dying declaration of severely injured person/s, if any. Requisites of a "Dying Declaration" are: - That death is imminent and the declarant is conscious of that fact; - That the declaration refers to the cause and surrounding circumstances of such death; - That the declaration relates to facts which the victim is competent to testify to; 2. ***CRIME SCENE SECURITY*** - Locard\'s exchange principle ***is the basis for the use of physical evidence in a criminal investigation, it is extremely important for the crime scene to be made secure and restrict the access to the crime scene by nonessential people***. Many agencies allow easy access to crime scenes by anyone in the agency. Most media persons are kept out but changes to the scene and evidence can change in attempts to protect victims. 3. ***PRELIMINARY SCENE SURVEY*** - The preliminary scene ***survey or walk-through is the crime scene investigator's first opportunity to view the target area crime scene.*** A ***simple visual search for obvious physical evidence can be accomplished at this time***. It is during this first viewing of the crime scene that the scene investigator should note any transient or temporary items of evidence and protect them immediately. Melting snow footwear impression are examples of this transient evidence. **FUNCTIONS OF THE FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY DIVISION OF PNP CRIME LABORATORY** 1. Document the crime scene and physical evidence present through photography, videography and sketching. 2. Conduct mug shots photography on the suspects and crime victims for personal identification. 3. Photograph evidence submitted to this laboratory before, during and after the examination. 4. Conduct comparative examination and photograph analysis on the standard and questioned photographs. 5. Conduct facial composite based on the actual description of the suspects by the victim and/or witness. 6. Ensure preservation of photographic evidence and records. 7. Present before any court of law and/or legally mandated agency the photographic evidence, records and testimonies of the photography examiners. 8. Conduct lectures to military/police training institutions, government agencies and public/private schools upon request. **SCENE OF THE CRIME OPERATION (SOCO)** - A forensic procedure performed by ***the trained personnel of the PNP Crime Laboratory SOCO Team through scientific methods of investigation*** for the purpose of preserving the crime scene, gathering information, documentation, collection, and examination of all physical and other forensic evidence. - The SOCO Team shall not join any operations conducted by the local police or accompany the FRs or the IOC in going to the crime scene. They ***will only respond upon request*** through the Operations Center and after the IOC has already made proper assessment of the crime scene; - Upon receipt of the Request for Conduct of SOCO, the SOCO Team shall then conduct the scene of the crime operations. - In case the SOCO Team needs to temporarily suspend the processing, the Chief of Police shall be primarily responsible and accountable for securing the crime scene. **[BASIC SCENE OF THE CRIME OPERATION TEAM COMPOSITION]** **TEAM LEADER** 1. Responsible for the safety and work performance of the individual members of the SOCO Team at the crime and conduct initial walk-through for purposes of crime scene assessment, making preliminary survey, evaluation of potential evidence, and preparing a narrative description. 2. Designate command post location and ensure exchange of information between search and investigative personnel. 3. Control access to the scene and designate a personnel to record in the contamination log everyone who enters the crime scene for a purpose. 4. Continuously evaluate efficiency of search during the entire course of operation. **PHOTOGRAPHER** 1. Photograph entire area before it is entered. 2. Photograph victims, crowd and vehicles. 3. Photograph entire scene with general, medium, close up coverage and extreme close up view using scale when appropriate. 4. Photograph major evidence items before they are moved. Coordinate this effort with the sketcher, evidence custodian and evidence recovery personnel. 5. Photograph all latent fingerprints, and other impression evidence before lifting and casting is accomplished. 6. Photograph blueprints, maps and previous photographs of scene as required. 7. Take final photographs to show final condition as released. **SKETCH PREPARER** 1. Make a diagram of the immediate area of scene. It must be oriented to the north. 2. Indicate on sketch the pieces of evidence and coordinate evidence nomenclature with evidence custodian and evidence collector. 3. Indicate adjacent structures, areas and other objects as necessary and identify and label areas to be searched and inform team leader and all other search members of nomenclature for identified areas. 4. Obtain appropriate assistance for taking measurements and list assistants on sketch. **[THE MECHANICS OF SEACRHING THE CRIME SCENE]** 1\. **STRIP METHOD** = the searchers (A, B, and C) proceed slowly at the same pace along the path parallel to one side of the rectangle. 2\. **DOUBLE STRIP OR GRID METHOD** = Method, the rectangle is traversed first parallel to the bas and then parallel to the side. 3\. **SPIRAL METHOD** = a) Inward Spiral method b\) Outward Spiral Method 4\. **WHEEL METHOD** = the searchers shall assemble at the center of the crime scene, then simultaneously searching the crime scene outward. 5\. **ZONE OR SECTOR METHOD** = the area to be searched is divided into quadrants and each searcher or a group of searcher is assigned to the quadrant. **[SKETCHING THE CRIME SCENE]** ***The General Kinds of Sketch*** 1***. Rough Sketch*** is the sketch made by the investigator at the crime scene which is full of important details but without the scale of proportion. This is used as the basis for the finished sketch. *2. **Finished sketch*** is the sketch with a scale of proportion and drawn by a draftsman which can be used for court presentation. Rough and finished sketches if requested by the court shall be presented by the draftsman to clear doubts of the jury. ***PARTS OF SKETCH*** ***The following are parts of sketch that is usually practiced by the Philippine National Police (PNP).*** This may vary depending on the sketcher and purpose of sketch. 1\. Title 2\. Body 3\. Compass direction 4\. Nature of case 5\. Location of incident 6\. Date/time of incident 7\. Name of victim 8\. Name of suspect 9\. Legend 10\. Signatory 11\. Date and time **EVIDENCE LOG RECORDER/CUSTODIAN** 1. Prepare evidence log. 2. Coordinate evidence nomenclature with the sketcher, photographer and evidence collector/processor. 3. Receive and record all collected evidence at the crime scene. 4. Undertake evidence packaging and preservation. 5. Maintain chain of custody of evidence. 6. Coordinate transmittal of evidence to the concerned office for appropriate forensic laboratory examination. **DRIVER/SECURITY** 1. Ensure that the vehicle is properly maintained. 2. Provide physical security to the SOCO members and equipment. 3. Account SOCO equipment before leaving the scene. **MASTER NOTE TAKER** - The ***one who writes down in short hand all observations at the crime scene*** such as: weather condition, time of dispatch and time of arrival at the crime scene and other relevant data that's should be taken down note. **MEASURER** - ***Makes all relevant measurements of the scene such as: the distance of the body of the victim to the firearm used***; in motor vehicle collision, the distances of the two vehicles to the points of references. **EVIDENCE PROCESSOR/COLLECTOR** - This generally refers to the different crime scene technicians or forensic specialist who by virtue of their training or specialization are necessary to identify and collect physical evidence from the crime scene. The services of these forensic personnel shall be attached to the SOCO team depending on the SOCO requirements of the reported crime scene. **COLLECTING OF EVIDENCE** - In collecting firearm as evidence found in the crime scene, cautious action should be employed. The ***firearm should be lifted using string or handkerchief in its trigger guard to avoid destruction of possible latent prints in the firearm***. - **Liquid evidences** such as blood, mucous, urine and other body fluid can be collected ***using dropper and stored in a sealed container to maintain the same physical nature as found in the crime scene***. However, clotted blood and other hardened evidences can be collected by scraping with the use of any available instrument. Samples are very important for laboratory testing. **MARKING OF EVIDENCE** - As ***evidence is collected, it is individually marked with the initials of the investigator***. The ***marking tool depends upon the nature of the evidence***. If it is a hard object such as metals, the initial are scratched or engraved by the use of sharp-pointed steel, which is called **[stylus. ]** **METHODS OF MARKING SPECIFIC EVIDENCE** - ***Revolvers must be marked separately on the BARREL, FRAME, BUTT, CYLINDER, and STOCK.*** Tape should also be put around the bore and the frame of the gun with signature of the investigator. - ***Pistols must be marked on the BARREL, FRAME, BUTT, MAGAZINE, and STOCK***. Tape must also be put around the gun with signature to avoid changing the parts of the gun that may affect the result of laboratory examination. - ***Rifles should be marked on the BARREL, FRAME, MAGAZINE, and BOLT OR SLIDE. All magazines and accessories shall also be marked.*** ***Fired Empty Shells, Misfired Cartridges*** Strictly regulations say they must be marked ***inside the mouth of fired empty shells***. It is nearly impossible to mark them inside the mouth, especially.22 caliber shells. But they could be marked on the side of the **body** of the shells, not on the base. - **BULLETS/ SLUGS/ BALLS** -- A bullet or slug can be marked on the ***ogive or nose*** as well as in the **base.** - Shotgun balls when collected in the crime scene should also ***be put into container with tag*** that indicates where it was found with some relevant measurements aside from what is sketched. - Every collected evidence is marked. If they are of the same class or type such as Cal 45 caliber fired empty shells, they are marked consecutively such as: **JCT 1, JCT 2, JCT 3** and so forth and so on, depending on the initials of the investigator. **TAGGING EVIDENCE** - Evidence which by their nature could **NOT BE** marked on each surface such as blood, hairs, fibers, are placed in the plastic container where that container is then marked, we call such practice as **tagging the physical evidence** with the use of card where the initials of the investigator, date and time of collection, specific case and other information can be written. **FORENSIC SPECIALISTS** - Refers to the ***PNP Crime Lab personnel who by academic preparation, series of specialized tr***ainings, and/or occupational exposure had acquired the required technical expertise in any of the following PNP Crime Laboratory's core competencies: a. Medico Legal or any of its branches. b. Forensic Chemistry or any of its branches. c. Physical Identification or any its branches. d. Firearms identification. e. Fingerprint identification. f. Document Examination. g. Polygraph Examination h. Forensic Photography. **[GENERAL CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY]** **Purpose of Crime Scene Photography** - To record the original scene and related areas - To record the initial appearance of physical evidence - It will provide investigators and others with this permanent visual record of the scene for later use - Photographs are also used in court trials and hearings [**[BASIC EQUIPMENT FOR CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY]**](https://www.crime-scene-investigator.net/equip.html) 1\. Camera(s) 2\. Normal lens 3\. Wide angle lens 4\. Close-up lenses or accessories 5\. Filters 6\. Electronic flash(s) 7\. Remote or sync cord for electronic flash(s) 8\. Extra camera and flash batteries 9\. Locking cable release 10\. Tripod 11\. Film 12\. Owner\'s manuals for camera and flash 13\. Notebook and pen 14\. Ruler 15\. Gray card 16\. Index cards and felt pen 17\. Flashlight 18\. Lenses **[SEQUENTIAL PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE CRIME SCENE]** Each crime has individual features that should be photographed. Show the nature of the offense and those features that established the elements of the offense. Other similar evidence or articles present of left at the crime scene shall be photographed in the following manner: 1. ***General view*** of the exterior of the building/vehicle with relation to other buildings, vehicles, roads, streets etc. 2. ***Medium view and close-up views*** of the subjects but not limited to the following: - Possible point of entry, outside and inside - Possible point of exit - Condition of the crime scene - Articles/objects left at the scene - Area from which valuable articles were removed - Trace evidence (hairs, fibers, cigarette butts, etc.) - Tool marks and impressions of shoes or tire tracks - Fingerprints and foot prints as well as other articles on which these prints may be found. ***REMEMBER:*** - The forensic photographer should begin taking photographs of the scene as soon as possible after arriving at the area to assure that the scene is depicted as it is observed in its original uninterrupted state. "***NOTHING SHOULD BE TOUCHED OR MOVED IN THE SCENE UNTIL IT HAS BEEN THOROUGHLY PHOTOGRAPHED AND DOCUMENTED".*** **[PROCEDURES IN PHOTOGRAPHING THE CRIME SCENE]** The case identifier shall always be clearly visible in the photographs. The following procedure shall be done on all crime scenes in a logical manner: ***[GENERAL VIEW OR LONG RANGE VIEW]*** - ***General View or Long Range photographs of the overall scene fundamentally are taken to portray the areas as if a person viewing the scene is seeing it from the standing position***. To obtain this result, the photographer takes the photograph with the camera at eye level. - To establish the crime scene, photograph shall include any reference points, such as building with signage, road street name, electric post etc. **[MEDIUM VIEW OR MID-RANGE]** - ***Medium View or Mid-Range photographs are taken in a manner which portrays the scene from approximately ten to twenty feet distance from the subject matter.*** In order that the viewer be permitted to associate the crime scene with separate areas of the scene photographed, these areas should contain sufficient detail to permit the viewer this association. **[CLOSE-UP VIEW/RANGE]** - ***Close-up Range photographs are normally taken approximately five feet or less from the subject matter.*** The attention of close-up photography is directed to objects which could not effectively be seen in the long-range and mid-range photographs. **[EXTREME CLOSE-UP RANGE]** - ***Extreme Close-up Range is intended only for capturing a photo of a minute objects.*** - Shall be taken to identify the details and the extent of damage on the subject. **[GUIDELINES IN TAKING PHOTOGRAPHS OF A CRIME SCENE]** - **ESTABLISH SHOT**- this is an over-all view from extreme to the other. - **THE BUILDING**- show the building in which the crime was committed. - **THE ENTRANCE**- this is usually the door, maybe window. - **THE HALLWAY**- the camera now shows us what we would observe immediately after we enter the building. - **THE ROOM**- this maybe a bedroom, an office or a bathroom. ***THE PHOTOGRAPHERS LOG/NOTE*** - The ***photographers log is his/her personal record to make detailed notes that will remain fully meaningful even months after the scene.*** Note should be supplemented by sketches and photographs of the scene. ***The notes shall begin with:*** 1. Nature of the case 2. Requesting party 3. Officer on case 4. Camera used/model 5. Lens used 6. Flash used 7. Time started photographing time ended photographing 8. Weather condition 9. Aperture and shutter speed used 10. Description of objects being photographed **[IDENTIFICATION THROUGH MARKING]** - Evidence tag are essential in report writing to classify cadavers from objects found at the crime scene. - **LETTERS A, B, C, D** etc. shall be used on dead body. - **NUMBERS 1,2,3,4,** etc. shall be used on objects. **[PHOTOGRAPHING THE SPECIAL CRIME SCENE]** 1. **HOMICIDE/MURDER** - When photographing a homicide/murder case, the photographer relates what he has seen and defends it before the court during trial. ***He shows the manner by which the homicide or murder occurred through photographs he has taken and the views of the room with all the possible points of entrance and exit.*** - Photographs must show if there is any ***evidence of struggle and try to show what happen inside prior to the crime.*** - The circumstances of death can be illustrated by various views of the body. Take close-up shots of the wounds, bruises, weapon used and the place where it was taken. **PROCEDURE:** - **OUTSIDE THE RESIDENCE** a. Body of the victim b. Face of the victim and body wounds c. Instrument used d. Trace evidence (hairs, fibers and the like) e. Signs of activity prior to the incident. f. Evidence of struggle - **INSIDE THE RESIDENCE** a. Overlapping shots of the entire walls and move around the show the position of the victim and any potential items of evidence. b. Face of the victim and body wounds c. Instrument used d. Trace evidence e. Signs of activity prior to the incident. f. Evidence of struggle 2. **CASES OF ALLEGED SUICIDE and OTHER FOUND DED BODY RESPONSES** a. **ALLEGED SUICIDE BY SHOOTING** - Usually the hair surrounding the entrance is singeing and the skin is burned to a reddish or grayish-brown color. If the muzzle of the firearm is less than 20 cm. from the point of entry, smudging may be evident. Exit wound is always larger than the diameter of the bullet. **PROCEDURE:** - Face of the victim for identification - Medium and close-up shots on both entrance and exit of gunshot wounds with case identifier and label. - Photograph letter or suicide note, if any. b. **ALLEGED SUICIDE BY HANGING** - Photograph the body on its hanging position showing both ends of the rope where it was tied- neck and ceiling with case identifier - Close-up shots of the face of the victim, the knot and the ligature in the neck. - Put a scale on its toe to the ground to determine the distance. - Photograph letter or suicide note, if any. 3. **ROBBERY** - Determine the robber's possible point of entrance and exit. Robbers may leave at the crime scene trace evidence like fingerprints, shoeprints, tool marks, or personal items. **PROCEDURE:** - Place /area at any angle from a distance sufficient to show the evidence of being ransacked so that it can be located and referred to in the overall crime scene photographs. - Area from which valuable articles were removed - Personal items left by the robbers - Traces of evidence on the damage parts of the house - Damage locks, windows, doors, tool marks 4. **TRAFFIC INCIDENTS** - When taking photographs of traffic accidents and hit and run cases, view each drivers approaching key point of the accident and from the point of a witness who observed the same. Consider where the vehicles comes to rest and in what position, photographs should show the relationship of vehicles with each other. **PROCEDURE:** 1. Location with reference points 2. Vehicles in their original positions 3. Debris 4. Skid/tire marks 5. Victim/s 6. Plate numbers of both vehicles 7. Evidence to identify hit and run vehicles **[MARKINGS IN THE FIELD OF VIEW]** Measuring devices such as rulers, yardsticks ad tape measures shall be used to show the relative size of and distances between objects or the degree of magnification of the enlargement. The markers shall be placed beside the object in a manner that will not obscure any important piece of evidence. Many times, courts object the use of rulers and marking devices that appear in photographs of a crime scene. Therefore, photographs shall be taken in 2 ways: a. First, without scale so as to show the original condition and so as not tamper the evidence. b. Second, with scale and chalk line to show its size and its continuity. When possible, fingerprints found at the crime scene shall be preserved by photography before in attempts are made at preserving them. The following shall be photographed with case identifier: a. Place/object at any angle from a distance sufficient to show the fingerprints against the background of its setting so that it can be located and referred to in the overall crime scene photographs. b. Fingerprints with and without scale c. While dusting and lifting the fingerprint/s with case identifier. d. Do not use flash 1. **FOOTWEAR and FOOT PRINT** - Take a shots from a distance sufficient to show the object distance against the background of its setting so that it can be located and referred to in the over-all crime scene. - Medium shots before and after reproductions are made by plaster cast to clearly show - the nature of the object. - Close-up shots to clearly identify its characteristics. 2. **TIRE IMPRESSION** - Photographs at different angles from a distance sufficient to show the length of the tire impression and skid marks. - Close-up shots to clearly identify its characteristics. **[BLOOD STAIN PHOTOGRAPHY]** **Procedure:** 1. Take an orientation photograph to show where the bloodstain evidence is, so that it can be located and referred to in the overall crime scene. 2. Take overlapping shots around the area to show the entire house/room 3. Close-up shots on the blood to clearly show its characteristics. **[MEDICO LEGAL CASES]** **AUTOPSY** - It is also known ***as post-mortem examination***, it is a highly specialized surgical procedure that consists of a thorough ***examination of a corpse to determine the cause and manner of death and to evaluate any disease or injury that may be present.*** - With due respect, during post mortem examination, genital organ should be covered. - Take the following shots before and after the body has been stripped: a. Whole body in full length views b. Mug shot photography c. On an unidentified cadaver, include the identifying marks particularly tattoos, moles, scars and the like. d. Close-up shots on the entrance and exit wounds as well as the external wounds inflicted or suffered by the victim. e. Take other photographs as per instruction of the medico legal officer. **SEX OFFENSE EXAMINATION** - The crime of rape may be taken as typical class of offense. If the victim is minor, the photograph must be taken in the presence of the parents and/or medico legal officer. - The photographer should be of the same sex of the victim. **Photographs the following:** 1. Mug shots of the victim. 2. Medium and close-up shots on the wounds and bruises of the victim with scale and case identifier as directed by the medico legal offer. **FIREARMS, BULLETS, WADS AND FIRED CARTRIDGE CASES** **PROCEDURE:** 1. Photograph both sides of the firearms in full view to determine the caliber, serial number and other identifying marks or descriptions. 2. Macro photograph on the fired bullets, fired cartridge cases, bullets fragments, shot gun shells, pellets, magazine and embedded bullet inside the barrel. **[MUG SHOT PHOTOGRAPHY OF A LIVING PERSON]** The subject shall be positioned in front of the height scale holding the name tag without footwear to determine his/her exact height. Photograph the subject with case identifier in four different angles. 1. **Front view- half body** 2. **Left side view- half body** 3. **Right side view- half body** 4. **Front view- whole body**