Anatomy Study Guide PDF

**Midterm Exam Study Guide (with Answers)** **Chapter 1: Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology** - **Levels of Organization**: - Atoms \> Molecules \> Cells \> Tissues \> Organs \> Organ Systems \> Organism. - **Anatomical Position and Directional Terms**: - Anterior: F...

**Midterm Exam Study Guide (with Answers)** **Chapter 1: Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology** - **Levels of Organization**: - Atoms \> Molecules \> Cells \> Tissues \> Organs \> Organ Systems \> Organism. - **Anatomical Position and Directional Terms**: - Anterior: Front. - Posterior: Back. - Superior: Above. - Inferior: Below. - Medial: Toward the midline. - Lateral: Away from the midline. - **Planes and Sections of the Body**: - Sagittal: Divides the body into left and right halves. - Transverse: Divides the body into top and bottom halves. - Coronal: Divides the body into front and back halves. - **Body Cavities**: - **Cranial cavity**: Contains the brain. - **Thoracic cavity**: Contains the heart and lungs. - **Abdominopelvic cavity**: Contains digestive organs, kidneys, bladder. - **Homeostasis**: - Definition: Maintenance of a stable internal environment. - Types of Feedback Mechanisms: - Negative: Counteracts changes (e.g., temperature regulation). - Positive: Amplifies changes (e.g., childbirth). - Imbalance: Leads to diseases or disorders. **Chapter 2: Chemistry of Life** - **Structure of an Atom**: - Protons and neutrons in the nucleus, electrons in orbitals. - Example: Carbon has 6 protons, 6 neutrons, and 6 electrons. - **Molecules vs. Compounds**: - Molecule: Two or more atoms bonded (O2). - Compound: Molecule with different elements (H2O). - **Types of Bonds**: - Ionic: Transfer of electrons. - Covalent: Sharing of electrons. - Hydrogen: Weak bond between polar molecules. - **Solutions**: - Hydrophilic: Water-loving (e.g., salt). - Hydrophobic: Water-repelling (e.g., oil). - **Macromolecules**: - Carbohydrates: Energy source (glucose). - Lipids: Energy storage (fats, oils). - Proteins: Enzymes, structural support. - Nucleic Acids: DNA, RNA. - Monomers: - Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides. - Proteins: Amino acids. - Lipids: Glycerol and fatty acids. - Nucleic Acids: Nucleotides. - **Reactions**: - Dehydration synthesis: Builds molecules by removing water. - Hydrolysis: Breaks molecules by adding water. - **Enzymes**: - Catalysts that speed up reactions by lowering activation energy. **Chapter 3: Cell Structure and Function** - **Organelles**: - Nucleus: Stores DNA. - Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the cell, produces ATP. - Ribosomes: Protein synthesis. - Endoplasmic Reticulum: - Rough ER: Protein production. - Smooth ER: Lipid synthesis. - Golgi Apparatus: Modifies and packages proteins. - Lysosomes: Break down waste. - **Cell Transport**: - Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration. - Osmosis: Diffusion of water. - Passive Transport: No energy required. - Active Transport: Requires energy (ATP). - Endocytosis: Cell intake. - Pinocytosis: \"Cell drinking.\" - Phagocytosis: \"Cell eating.\" - Exocytosis: Cell expels materials. **Chapter 4: Tissues** - **Epithelium**: Covers body surfaces and lines cavities (e.g., skin). - **Connective Tissue**: Provides support (e.g., bone, cartilage, blood). - **Muscle Tissue**: - Skeletal: Voluntary movement. - Cardiac: Involuntary, heart. - Smooth: Involuntary, walls of organs. - **Nervous Tissue**: Conducts impulses. **Chapter 5: Integumentary System** - **Structure of the Skin**: - **Epidermis**: - Layers: Corneum, Lucidum (thick skin), Granulosum, Spinosum, Basale. - Cell types: Keratinocytes, melanocytes. - **Dermis**: - Tissue: Dense connective. - Structures: Hair follicles, sweat glands. - **Hypodermis**: - Tissue: Adipose (fat) tissue. - **Accessory Structures**: - Hair: Protects scalp, associated with sebaceous glands and arrector pili muscle. - Sweat Glands: - Apocrine: Found in armpits, secretes thicker sweat. - Eccrine: Found all over, regulates temperature. - Sebaceous Glands: Produce oil. - **Functions of the Skin**: - Protection, water regulation, waste elimination, sensory input, temperature regulation. **Chapter 6: Skeletal System** - **Functions**: - Support, protection, blood cell production, fat/mineral storage, movement. - **Long Bone Anatomy**: - Epiphysis: Ends of bone. - Diaphysis: Shaft of bone. - Periosteum: Outer covering. - Medullary Cavity: Contains marrow. - Compact Bone: Osteons provide strength. - Spongy Bone: Trabeculae provide support. - **Bone Cells**: - Osteocytes: Maintain bone. - Osteoblasts: Build bone. - Osteoclasts: Break down bone. - **Ossification**: - Endochondral: Bone replaces cartilage (e.g., long bones). - Intramembranous: Bone develops from membranes (e.g., skull). - **Types of Joints**: - Fibrous: Immovable (e.g., skull sutures). - Cartilaginous: Slightly movable (e.g., spine). - Synovial: Freely movable (e.g., knee). - **Types of Movements**: - Flexion/Extension: Bending and straightening. - Abduction/Adduction: Moving away/toward midline. - Pronation/Supination: Rotating palm down/up. **Chapter 7: Muscular System** - **Types of Muscle**: - Smooth: Involuntary, non-striated. - Cardiac: Involuntary, striated with intercalated discs. - Skeletal: Voluntary, striated. - **Muscle Fiber Anatomy**: - Sarcoplasm: Cytoplasm of muscle cells. - Sarcolemma: Cell membrane. - Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: Stores calcium. - T Tubules: Transmit signals. - Myofibrils: Contain thick (myosin) and thin (actin) filaments. - **Skeletal Muscle Contraction**: - Steps: 1. Nerve impulse triggers release of calcium. 2. Calcium binds to troponin. 3. Tropomyosin shifts, exposing binding sites. 4. Myosin heads bind to actin. 5. ATP powers the sliding filament motion.