Anatomy and Physiology II Exam 1 Notes PDF

Question Answer Edit this card/select "Bulk Create with AI" or Here is the back of the card. Type "/" to access formatting options. chat with Memo to get started. What is the role of sensory pathways in the To transmit sensory information from recepto...

Question Answer Edit this card/select "Bulk Create with AI" or Here is the back of the card. Type "/" to access formatting options. chat with Memo to get started. What is the role of sensory pathways in the To transmit sensory information from receptors to the Central Nervous System (CNS). nervous system? What triggers an action potential in sensory A significantly large graded potential produced by a stimulus. pathways? What is the difference between sensation and Sensation is the arriving information, while perception is the conscious awareness of a perception? sensation. What are the general senses? Temperature, pain, touch, pressure, vibration, and proprioception (body position). What are the special senses? Olfaction (smell), gustation (taste), vision (sight), equilibrium (balance), and hearing. Where are special sensory receptors located? In sense organs such as the eye or ear, and they are protected by surrounding tissues. What is transduction in sensory receptors? Conversion of a stimulus into action potential by sensory receptor. What is a receptive field? The area monitored by a single receptor. What does adaptation refer to in sensory Reduction of receptor sensitivity in the presence of a constant stimulus. receptors? What is a labeled line in sensory pathways? A pathway that transmits sensory information. What are tonic receptors? Always active and slow adapting receptors. What type of pain do myelinated type A fibers Fast pain (prickling pain). transmit? What is the function of unmyelinated type C Transmit slow pain (burning and aching) and activate reticular formation and thalamus. fibers? What do exteroceptors monitor? Information about the external environment. What do interoceptors monitor? Visceral organs. What do proprioceptors monitor? Position of joints and muscles. What are nociceptors? Pain receptors, free nerve endings with large receptive fields. What is the role of thermoreceptors? Temperature receptors that conduct sensations on the same pathways as pain. What do mechanoreceptors respond to? Physical movement of plasma membranes containing mechanically gated ion channels. What are free nerve endings sensitive to? Touch and pressure. Where are root hair plexuses located? In the dermis, around each hair root. What type of adaptation do tactile discs Tonic, with a small receptive field. (Merkel cells) exhibit? What do bulbous corpuscles (Ruffini) Distortion. respond to? What is the adaptation speed of lamellar Fast adaptation. corpuscles (Pacinian)? What do tactile corpuscles (Meissner) detect? Fine touch, pressure, and low frequency vibration. Question Answer What do baroreceptors monitor? Change in pressure; they respond immediately and adapt quickly. Where is the carotid sinus located and what At the base of the internal carotid artery, monitoring blood pressure to the brain. does it monitor? What do aortic sinuses monitor? Blood pressure out of the heart. What do lung receptors monitor? Lung expansion for respiratory rhythmicity centers. What do receptors in the digestive tract Volume of segments, triggering peristalsis. monitor? What do colon receptors monitor? Fecal volume, triggering the defecation reflex. What is the function of the urinary bladder? To monitor urine volume and trigger the urination reflex. Where are proprioceptors found? In tendons, muscles, and ligaments. What do muscle spindles trigger? Stretch reflexes. What do Golgi tendon organs monitor? Tension during muscle contraction. What do free nerve endings in joint capsules Pressure, tension, and movement of joints. detect? What do chemoreceptors monitor? pH, carbon dioxide, and oxygen levels. Where are carotid bodies located? At the base of the internal carotid artery. What do aortic bodies monitor? Blood composition. What do respiratory centers in the medulla Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). oblongata monitor? What do somatic sensory pathways carry Skin and muscles of the body wall, head, neck, and limbs to the CNS. information from? What does the anterior spinothalamic tract Crude touch and pressure. convey? What does the lateral spinothalamic tract Pain and temperature. convey? What happens to first order neurons in the They enter the cord and synapse within posterior horns. spinothalamic pathway? What occurs to second order neurons in the They decussate in the cord before ascending. spinothalamic pathway? What is the role of the primary It receives and processes sensations after they are sorted and processed. somatosensory cortex in sensation processing? What is phantom limb syndrome? A condition where painful sensations are perceived in a limb that is no longer present. What is referred pain? Visceral pain that manifests as pain in the body surface. What sensations are carried by the posterior Fine touch, vibration, pressure, and proprioception. column pathway? What happens to first order neurons in the They ascend in the posterior columns. Question Answer posterior column pathway? What is the function of the thalamus in Processing in the thalamus determines how sensation is perceived. sensation perception? What does the sensory homunculus A functional map of the somatosensory cortex proportional to the density of sensory neurons. represent? What type of information does the Subconscious information about the position of muscles, tendons, and joints. spinocerebellar pathway carry? How do the posterior spinocerebellar tract They do not decussate and travel in the inferior cerebellar peduncle. neurons travel? What is unique about the anterior Many axons decussate twice, once in the cord and once in the cerebellum. spinocerebellar tract? What types of receptors are included in Nociceptors and baroreceptors. visceral sensory pathways? What are thermoreceptors responsible for? Detecting temperature changes. Which cranial nerves are involved in sensory Cranial nerves V, VII, IX, and X. information from the mouth and throat? Where is the solitary nucleus located? On either side of the medulla oblongata. What is the role of the upper motor neuron? Facilitates or inhibits lower motor neurons. What happens when the lower motor neuron Eliminates both voluntary and reflexive control over the motor unit. is damaged? What does the corticospinal pathway provide Voluntary control over skeletal muscles. control over? What do corticobulbar tracts control? Conscious movement of eyes, jaw, face, and some neck and pharynx muscles. Where do corticospinal tracts synapse? On lower motor neurons in the anterior horn of the spinal cord. What is the significance of the pyramids in They are visible axons of the corticospinal tracts. the anterior medulla oblongata? What occurs at the pyramids in the lateral Axons decussate (cross over). corticospinal tracts? Where do the axons of the anterior At the target spinal segment in the anterior white commissure. corticospinal tracts decussate? What is the primary function of the medial Controls muscle tone and gross movement of neck, trunk, and proximal limbs. pathway? What type of information do the vestibular Information from cranial nerves VIII about head position. nuclei receive? What is the goal of the vestibular nuclei? To maintain posture and balance. Where are the superior and inferior colliculi In the tectum (roof) of the midbrain. located? What type of sensations does the superior Visual sensations. colliculus receive? What type of sensations does the inferior Auditory sensations. colliculus receive? What is the function of the reticular Extends loosely throughout the brainstem and influences motor control. formation? Question Answer What do the lateral pathways control? Muscle tone and precise movements of distal limb muscles. Where do axons in the red nuclei decussate? In the brain. What role do the basal nuclei play in motor Provide background patterns of movement in voluntary motor activities. activities? How does the cerebellum contribute to It monitors proprioceptive sensations and visual information from the eyes. motor control? What sensations are associated with the Balance sensations from the inner ear. vestibular system? What type of control do motor neurons exert Voluntary control. over skeletal muscles? Where do lower motor neurons receive Reflexes based in the spinal cord. control from? Where are upper motor neurons located? In brain nuclei or at the primary motor cortex. What do CNS motor neurons synapse with in Visceral motor neurons in autonomic ganglia. the autonomic nervous system? What are the two types of visceral motor Preganglionic neurons and ganglionic neurons. neurons? What is the origin of preganglionic neurons? Cell bodies in the CNS. What do ganglionic neurons innervate? Effectors like cardiac and smooth muscle. What is the characteristic of the sympathetic Sympathetic is short and ganglia are long. division regarding ganglia? What is the characteristic of the Parasympathetic is long and ganglia are short. parasympathetic division regarding ganglia? From where do the axons of the sympathetic From the thoracic and superior lumbar segments of the spinal cord. division emerge? From where do the axons of the From the brain stem and the sacral segments of the spinal cord. parasympathetic division emerge? What is the enteric nervous system It is an extensive system of neurons and nerve networks that controls the digestive system. responsible for? What is the primary function of the Fight or flight response. sympathetic division of the ANS? From which segments of the spinal cord do Thoracic and superior lumbar segments. the axons of the sympathetic division emerge? Where do sympathetic ganglia innervate in Relatively close to the spinal cord. relation to the spinal cord? When does the sympathetic division typically During exertion, stress, or emergencies. activate? What is the primary function of the Rest and digest. parasympathetic division of the ANS? From where do the axons of the Brain stem and sacral spinal segments. parasympathetic division emerge? Where do parasympathetic ganglia innervate Very close to or within target organs. in relation to target organs? Question Answer What is the enteric nervous system (ENS)? An extensive network of neurons within the walls of the digestive tract. How many neurons are estimated to be in About 100 million. the enteric nervous system? What is the relationship between the ENS The ENS is influenced by both divisions but can coordinate activities locally without CNS and the sympathetic/parasympathetic instructions. divisions? What are the characteristics of preganglionic Preganglionic fibers are relatively short, while postganglionic fibers are relatively long. and postganglionic fibers in the sympathetic division? What are the two types of sympathetic Sympathetic chain ganglia and collateral ganglia. ganglia? What areas do sympathetic chain ganglia Visceral effectors within the thoracic cavity, head, body wall, and limbs. innervate? What are examples of collateral ganglia? Celiac, superior, and inferior mesenteric ganglia. What does the adrenal medulla produce? Adrenaline/epinephrine. What is the role of the adrenal medulla in the Acts as an endocrine gland targeting organs and systems throughout the body. body? What is the 'fight or flight' response? A physiological reaction that prepares the body for heightened levels of somatic activity. What are typical responses of the body Heightened mental alertness, increased metabolic rate, reduced digestive and urinary during the 'fight or flight' response? functions, activation of energy reserves, increased respiratory rate, elevated heart rate and blood pressure, and activation of sweat glands. What is the typical structure of the They synapse on 6-8 ganglionic neurons, which may be situated in terminal ganglia near the parasympathetic division's preganglionic target organ. fibers? What are some examples of ganglia Ciliary ganglion, pterygopalatine and submandibular ganglia, otic ganglion, and intramural associated with the parasympathetic ganglia. division? What areas do the parasympathetic division Visceral organs of the neck, thoracic cavity, and abdominopelvic cavity. innervate? What is the primary function of the Regulation of visceral function and energy conservation, known as the 'rest and digest' parasympathetic division of the autonomic system. nervous system? What are typical responses of the Decreased metabolic rate, decreased heart rate and blood pressure, increased salivary and parasympathetic system? digestive gland secretion, increased digestive tract motility and blood flow, stimulation of urination and defecation. What nerve provides about 75% of all The vagus nerve (X). parasympathetic outflow? What are the two classes of adrenergic Alpha receptors and beta receptors. receptors in the sympathetic division? What is the role of alpha 1 receptors in the Generally excitatory, acting like a gas pedal. sympathetic division? What is the role of alpha 2 receptors in the Generally inhibitory, acting like a brake pedal. sympathetic division? What do sympathetic postganglionic fibers Thoracic cavity structures and other target organs. innervate? What forms the splanchnic nerves in the Preganglionic fibers passing to collateral ganglia. sympathetic division? Question Answer What do preganglionic fibers in the sacral Distinct pelvic nerves. spinal cord segments form? What neurotransmitters do adrenergic Epinephrine (E) and norepinephrine (NE). receptors respond to? What do Beta 1 receptors primarily Cardiac muscle stimulation and increased tissue metabolism. stimulate? What is the effect of Beta 2 receptors on They cause relaxation and dilation. respiratory passages and blood vessels? What do Beta 3 receptors promote in the Release of fatty acids from adipose tissue for metabolic use. body? Which neurotransmitters are released by the Epinephrine (E) and norepinephrine (NE). stimulation of Beta receptors? Where is epinephrine primarily released The adrenal medulla. from? What type of receptors bind to acetylcholine Nicotinic and muscarinic receptors. (Ach) in the parasympathetic division? What is the effect of nicotinic receptors? Always excitatory. Where are muscarinic receptors located? At cholinergic neuromuscular and neuroglandular junctions, as well as some sympathetic cholinergic junctions. What is the general effect of the sympathetic It prepares the body for 'fight or flight' responses. division on the body? What neurotransmitter is mainly used for Norepinephrine (NE). local sympathetic activation? What is the role of the hypothalamus in It controls sympathetic activation. sympathetic activation? What are the effects of sympathetic Increased alertness through the reticular activating system. activation on alertness? What feelings are associated with Feelings of energy and euphoria. sympathetic activation? What cardiovascular changes occur during Increased blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing rate. sympathetic activation? What is the effect of sympathetic activation General elevation in muscle tone. on muscle tone? What does parasympathetic activation focus Relaxation, food processing, and energy absorption. on? What is another name for the Anabolic division. parasympathetic division? What happens to pupils during Constriction of pupils and focusing of eye lenses for nearby objects. parasympathetic activation? What digestive changes occur during Secretion of digestive glands and increased smooth muscle activity in digestive organs. parasympathetic activation? What is the role of the autonomic nervous ANS output affects virtually every body system and can maintain homeostasis without system (ANS) in regulating body systems? conscious input. What happens to heart rate during Heart rate decreases due to the release of acetylcholine (Ach). parasympathetic activation? What neurotransmitter is released during Norepinephrine (NE) is released to accelerate heart rate. sympathetic activation to affect heart rate? Question Answer What is meant by dual innervation in the Many organs receive signals from both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the context of the ANS? ANS, which may have opposing or complementary effects. What is autonomic tone? It refers to the continuous activity of autonomic motor neurons, maintaining a balance between sympathetic and parasympathetic influences. How do visceral reflexes function in relation Visceral reflexes provide automatic motor responses that can be modified by higher centers, to the ANS? such as the hypothalamus, and are all polysynaptic. What are interoceptors and their role in the Interoceptors, such as nociceptors, thermoreceptors, and baroreceptors, act as receptors in ANS? the reflex arc for autonomic responses. What is the effect of the ANS on the urinary The ANS causes contraction of the urinary bladder during urination. bladder during urination? What is the effect of the ANS on respiratory The ANS causes contraction of respiratory passageways. passageways? What are the two types of visceral reflexes? Short reflexes and long reflexes. What characterizes short reflexes in the They bypass the CNS entirely and control simple motor responses with localized effects. visceral nervous system? What is the role of long reflexes in the visceral They activate entire organs and coordinate responses of multiple organ systems. nervous system? How do visceral sensory neurons enter the Through dorsal roots via cranial nerves and autonomic nerves. CNS? What are baroreceptors? Stretch receptors that monitor pressure changes in blood vessels and other organs. What do chemoreceptors detect? Small changes in specific chemical or compound concentration, including pH. What is the function of free nerve endings in They monitor blood pressure and flow. the walls of blood vessels? What is the significance of the processing Interneurons process information in the CNS before ANS motor neurons carry responses to center in the visceral reflex pathway? visceral effectors. What areas of the brain monitor pH and P Medulla oblongata and other brain areas. CO2 in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)? Where are carotid bodies located and what Near the origin of internal carotid arteries in the neck; they monitor pH, P CO2, and P O2 in do they monitor? blood. What do aortic bodies monitor? pH, P CO2, and P O2 in blood. Which CNS areas control autonomic Autonomic ganglia and spinal cord. activities? What type of reflexes are controlled by the Simple reflexes. medulla oblongata? What are examples of more complex Cardiovascular reflexes, respiratory reflexes, salivation, swallowing, digestive secretions, reflexes? peristalsis, urinary function. What is the role of the endocrine system in It directs or controls virtually all the other organ systems of the body through hormones. maintaining homeostasis? What are hormones? Chemical messengers that move through the blood to target cells. What is a multi-step process often associated Cascades. with hormone action? Which organs have primary endocrine Hypothalamus and pituitary gland. functions? What are the main glands involved in the Thyroid Gland, Adrenal Gland, Pancreas, Pineal Gland, Parathyroid Glands, Heart, Thymus, Question Answer endocrine system? Digestive tract, Kidneys, Gonads. What determines the function of hormones? The specific structures of the chemicals. What are the classes of hormones? Amino acid derivatives, Peptide Hormones, Lipid Derivatives. What is the source of amino acid derived From tyrosine. hormones like epinephrine? What is the function of catecholamines? Increased energy. What hormone is derived from tryptophan Melatonin, which acts as a sleep aid and decreases energy. and what is its function? What are T3 and T4 hormones? T3 is triiodothyronine and T4 is tetraiodothyronine (thyroxine). What type of hormones include most Peptide hormones. hormones of the body? What are prohormones? Inactive precursor molecules synthesized as hormones. What is the range of amino acids in short 2 to 50 amino acids. polypeptide chain hormones? Name two examples of short polypeptide Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and Oxytocin (OXT). chain hormones. What are small proteins in the context of Hormones that consist of more than 50 amino acids. hormones? Give examples of small protein hormones. Insulin, Growth hormone (GH), and Prolactin (PRL). What are glycoproteins in hormone Polypeptides with carbohydrate side chains. classification? Name three glycoprotein hormones. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), Luteinizing hormone (LH), and Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). What are eicosanoids derived from? Arachidonic acid. What is the role of prostaglandins? Involved in localized cellular activities including pain sensation. How does aspirin affect prostaglandins? Aspirin blocks the release of prostaglandins. What are steroid hormones derived from? Cholesterol. What is the function of calcitriol? Needed for calcium absorption. How do steroid hormones affect genetic They change genetic activity (DNA) and stimulate or inhibit the synthesis of enzymes or activity? structural proteins. What is the effect of hormones on protein They change the rate of protein synthesis, including enzymes, and affect transcription or synthesis? translation rates. What is the role of receptors in hormone Receptors are specialized protein molecules that bind to specific hormones, allowing for action? cellular responses. What happens during up regulation in cells? The cell increases the number of receptors generally based on low levels of hormone being present. What is down regulation in the context of It is the cell's ability to decrease the number of receptors based on high levels of hormone hormone receptors? being present, resulting in decreased sensitivity to that hormone. Question Answer Where are extracellular receptors located? On the outside of the cell membrane. Which hormones typically bind to Catecholamines, peptide hormones, and most eicosanoids. extracellular receptors? What type of hormones bind to intracellular Steroid and thyroid hormones. receptors? What is the first step in the hormone The hormone binds to the plasma membrane, activating a G protein. mechanism for non-steroid hormones? What is created when a steroid hormone A hormone-receptor complex that binds to DNA. binds to its receptor? What is the role of second messengers in They are activated after the G protein is activated, leading to changes in cellular enzyme hormone action? activity and target cell response. What is the process of gene activation that Transcription and mRNA production followed by translation and protein synthesis. leads to protein synthesis called? How do thyroid hormones affect ATP They bind to receptors on mitochondria and increase the rate of ATP production. production? What is the role of thyroid hormones in gene They bind to receptors in the nucleus to activate specific genes and change the rate of activation? transcription. What type of communication is limited to Direct communication through gap junctions. cells next to each other? What is paracrine communication? Communication through extracellular fluid that is limited to a local area. What is autocrine communication? Communication through extracellular fluid that is limited to the cell that secretes the chemical signals. How does endocrine communication differ It occurs through the bloodstream and targets distant tissues and organs with hormones. from other types? What is synaptic communication? Communication across synapses using neurotransmitters and specific receptors. What do the nervous and endocrine systems Both rely on the release of chemicals that bind to specific receptors on target cells and share have in common? many chemical messengers. How do the nervous and endocrine systems Both are regulated primarily by negative feedback control mechanisms. regulate their functions? What is the primary goal shared by the To preserve homeostasis and coordinate the activities of other cells, tissues, organs, and nervous and endocrine systems? systems. What role does the hypothalamus play in the It connects the nervous system and endocrine system. body? What is the location of the hypothalamus in Inferior to the thalamus and superior to the pituitary gland. relation to the thalamus and pituitary gland? How are the hypothalamus and pituitary By the infundibulum. gland connected? What hormones are synthesized by Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin (OXT). hypothalamic neurons? What role does the hypothalamus play in the It regulates the endocrine activity of the anterior pituitary and links the nervous and endocrine system? endocrine systems. What is the function of the hypophyseal It allows regulatory hormones to travel directly to the anterior pituitary gland. portal system? What is the role of the supraoptic nuclei and Supraoptic nuclei produce ADH and paraventricular nuclei produce OXT. paraventricular nuclei in the hypothalamus? Question Answer How does the hypothalamus exert direct By sending direct sympathetic signals that cause the immediate release of epinephrine and neural control over the adrenal medulla? norepinephrine. What type of capillaries are found at the Fenestrated capillaries, which have larger than average openings. median eminence of the hypothalamus? What is the communication method of They must go through general circulation after being released. hormones released downstream from the hypothalamus? What are releasing hormones (RH) Stimulating synthesis and secretion of hormones. responsible for? What do inhibiting hormones (IH) do? Prevent synthesis or secretion of hormones. What are the two parts of the pituitary gland? Anterior and posterior pituitary. Where does the pituitary gland lie? In the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone. What type of hormones are released by the Peptide hormones. pituitary gland? What is the function of tropic hormones from They turn on or support other endocrine glands. the anterior pituitary lobe? What hormone controls the release of TSH Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH). (thyroid stimulating hormone)? What is the target of ACTH Adrenal cortex. (adrenocorticotropic hormone)? What does FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) Ovaries and testes. target? What hormone inhibits FSH? Inhibin (from ovaries/testes). What is the primary control mechanism of Indirect, through the synthesis and release of somatomedins by liver cells. growth hormone (GH)? What effect does GH have on adipose tissue? Stimulates triglyceride breakdown. What is the glucose sparing effect of GH? Many tissues switch from glucose to fatty acids for energy. What stimulates glycogen breakdown in the ADH (vasopressin) released from the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. liver for ATP production? What hormones are released by the ADH (vasopressin) and OXT (oxytocin). neurohypophysis? What is the target organ for ADH? The kidneys. What triggers the release of ADH? Increased solute concentration of blood or decreased blood volume or pressure. How does alcohol affect ADH release? Alcohol inhibits ADH release. What is the target of oxytocin (OXT)? The uterine wall. What is the neuroendocrine response? A mechanism involving both neural and endocrine pathways. What is the most common hormone control Negative feedback. mechanism? What is the pathway for TRH? TRH -> TSH -> thyroid -> T3/T4. Question Answer What does CRH stimulate? ACTH, which then stimulates the adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids. What hormones do GnRH stimulate? FSH and LH, which act on testes/ovaries. How do GH and PRL regulate their functions? Using both releasing and inhibiting hormones. What is the effect of somatomedins on Somatomedins inhibit GHRH and stimulate GHIH. GHRH? Where is the thyroid gland located? On the anterior surface of the trachea. What forms the laryngeal prominence known The thyroid cartilage. as the 'Adam's apple'? What are the two main components of the Two lobes connected by an isthmus. thyroid gland? What is the histological structure of the Thyroid follicles surrounded by simple cuboidal epithelium and a capillary network. thyroid gland? What do follicle cells in the thyroid gland Thyroglobulin. secrete into the colloid? What amino acid is a building block of Tyrosine. thyroid hormones? What do parafollicular cells produce? Calcitonin. How are iodide ions transported to the Via blood and into the cytoplasm of follicle cells by carrier proteins. thyroid gland? What enzyme converts iodide ions to iodine Thyroid oxidase. in the thyroid gland? What happens to thyroglobulin after it is It is broken down by lysosomal enzymes, and amino acids are recycled to synthesize more removed from the follicle cavity? thyroglobulin. What percentage of thyroid hormones in the 75% T4 and 70% T3 are attached to thyroid-binding globulins. bloodstream are attached to transport proteins? Which thyroid hormone has a stronger T3 has a much stronger metabolic effect. metabolic effect, T3 or T4? How long can the bloodstream supply of More than one week's supply. thyroid hormones last? What are the effects of thyroid hormones on They increase the rate of oxygen and energy consumption, which may cause increased body oxygen and energy consumption? temperature in kids. How do thyroid hormones affect heart rate They increase heart rate and force of contraction, generally associated with an increase in and blood pressure? blood pressure. What is the role of thyroid hormones in They maintain normal sensitivity of respiratory centers to changes in oxygen and carbon respiratory sensitivity? dioxide concentrations. What effect do thyroid hormones have on red They stimulate RBC formation, enhancing oxygen delivery. blood cell formation? What are the two cell types found in the Parathyroid (principal) cells and oxyphil cells. parathyroid glands? What hormone do parathyroid cells produce They produce PTH, which is secreted when blood calcium levels fall. and when is it secreted? What is the primary regulator of blood PTH (calcitriol) is the primary regulator of blood calcium. calcium in healthy adults? Question Answer How does PTH increase blood calcium levels PTH stimulates osteoblasts to secrete RANKL, which increases osteoclast activity, leading to in the skeletal system? increased breakdown of bone matrix and thus increased blood calcium. What effect does PTH have on the urinary PTH increases reabsorption of calcium, reducing urinary loss, and stimulates calcitriol system? production by the kidneys. How does calcitriol affect calcium absorption Calcitriol secretion by kidneys increases calcium absorption in the digestive tract. in the digestive system? What is another name for the adrenal gland? Suprarenal gland Where are the adrenal glands located? On the superior border of each kidney. What are the three parts of the adrenal Adrenal capsule, adrenal cortex, and adrenal medulla. gland? What is the function of the adrenal cortex? Produces corticosteroids. What is the outermost layer of the adrenal Zona glomerulosa. cortex called? What does the zona glomerulosa produce? Mineralocorticoids. What is the role of aldosterone? Increases kidney reabsorption of sodium and water. What stimulates mineralocorticoid Decrease in blood pressure and blood volume. secretion? What does the zona fasciculata produce? Glucocorticoids such as cortisol, corticosterone, and cortisone. What is the function of cortisol? Increases the rate of glucose and glycogen formation by the liver and stimulates the release of amino acids and lipids. What hormone reduces inflammation? Cortisol Which part of the adrenal gland produces Zona reticularis small amounts of androgens? What is the effect of androgens produced by Minimal effect. the zona reticularis in adults? What stimulates the formation of pubic hair Androgens from the zona reticularis. in boys and girls before puberty? What hormones are produced by the adrenal Epinephrine and norepinephrine. medulla? What is the function of epinephrine and Increase cardiac activity, increase blood pressure, increase glycogen breakdown, increase norepinephrine? blood glucose. Where is the pancreas located? Retroperitoneal, inferior to the stomach. What percentage of the pancreas is exocrine? 99%. What do acinar cells in the pancreas Alkaline, enzyme-rich fluid. produce? What is the function of glucagon? Increase blood glucose, stimulate glycogenolysis, stimulate gluconeogenesis. Which cells produce insulin in the pancreas? Beta cells. What is the primary role of somatostatin in Regulating other pancreatic endocrine cells and inhibiting secretion of glucagon, insulin, and the pancreas? pancreatic polypeptide. Question Answer What are the antagonistic hormones that Glucagon and insulin. regulate blood glucose levels? What is the function of pancreatic Influences digestion. polypeptide? What hormone is produced by epsilon cells Ghrelin, which stimulates the hypothalamus to boost appetite and may slow metabolism. and what is its effect? How does melatonin production vary Increased at night and lowest in daylight. throughout the day? What is the function of melatonin in the Setting circadian rhythms and inhibiting reproductive functions. body? Where is the pineal gland located? In the posterior part of the roof of the third ventricle in the brain. What is the relationship between pancreatic All pancreatic hormones work together to maintain homeostasis of nutrient molecules. hormones and homeostasis? What role does melatonin play in sexual Melatonin levels decline at puberty, which may influence the timing of sexual maturation. maturation? What is the function of leptin secreted by Leptin plays a role in energy balance, immunity, and neuroendocrine function. adipose tissue? What is the effect of resistin secreted by Resistin reduces sensitivity to insulin. adipose tissue? What is the role of lipokines like palmiteolate Lipokines increase insulin sensitivity in tissue. from adipose tissue? What is the primary characteristic of Type I It is caused by hyposecretion of insulin and is an inherited condition with sudden childhood diabetes mellitus? onset. What are common symptoms of Type I Symptoms include polydipsia, polyuria, weight loss, and fatigue. diabetes mellitus? What characterizes Type II diabetes mellitus? It is characterized by insulin resistance and has a slow adult onset. What are the symptoms of Type II diabetes Symptoms include polydipsia, polyuria, overeating, and weight gain. mellitus? What is the initial treatment for Type II The initial treatment involves diet and exercise, followed by medication if necessary. diabetes mellitus? What happens if diabetes mellitus is left Untreated diabetes mellitus disrupts metabolic activity. untreated? What clinical problems are associated with Diabetic retinopathy, heart attacks, diabetic nephropathy, diabetic neuropathy, tissue death, tissue response as if in starvation? ulceration, and infection in toes/feet. What are the four types of hormone Antagonistic effects, additive effects, permissive effects, integrative effects. interactions? What is the outcome when cells receive There are four possible outcomes: antagonistic effects, additive effects, permissive effects, instructions from two hormones and integrative effects. simultaneously? What are antagonistic effects in hormone Opposing effects where the net result depends on the balance between hormones, generally interactions? resulting in weaker effects than either hormone unopposed. Can you give examples of hormones that PTH vs. calcitonin and insulin vs. glucagon. exhibit antagonistic effects? What are additive effects in hormone The net result from two hormones is greater than each acting alone, and in some cases, it can interactions? be greater than the sum of individual effects, known as a synergistic effect. What is a synergistic effect in hormone When the result from two hormones is greater than the sum of their individual effects. interactions? Question Answer What are permissive effects in hormone One hormone is needed for a second hormone to produce its effect. action? What is an example of permissive effects of Epinephrine changes the rate of cellular energy consumption only in the presence of thyroid hormones? hormones. What are integrative effects of hormones? Hormones produce different but complementary effects, important in coordinating activities of diverse physiological systems. What is an example of integrative effects of The effects of calcitriol and PTH on tissues in calcium metabolism. hormones? Which glands are involved in long-term Pituitary gland, adrenal glands, endocrine cells in the heart, and kidneys. regulation of blood pressure and volume? What hormone does the atrium of the heart Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) or atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH). release in response to increased blood volume and pressure? What is the main effect of ANP/ANH? To increase Na+ excretion in the kidney, leading to increased water excretion and decreased blood volume and pressure. How do ANP/ANH relate to ADH? ANP/ANH are antagonists to ADH. What hormone is produced by the kidneys to Erythropoietin (EPO). promote RBC production? What do natriuretic peptides promote? Na+ and water loss at the kidneys. What do natriuretic peptides inhibit? The release of renin, ADH, and aldosterone. What is the overall effect of the hormones Reduction of blood volume and pressure. released by endocrine cells in the kidneys? What hormone is released by the kidneys to Erythropoietin (EPO). increase red blood cell production? What system is activated by renin released Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). from the kidneys? What is required for normal growth in the Cooperation of many endocrine organs. body? What is the role of insulin in growth? Allows passage of glucose and amino acids into growing cells. Which hormones promote the absorption of PTH and calcitriol. calcium salts for bone deposition? What is the role of thyroid hormones in Required for proper nervous system and skeletal system development. development? How do reproductive hormones affect They affect osteoblast activity and stimulate target cell growth and differentiation. growth? What is the difference in target tissues Androgens in males and estrogens in females have different target tissues. between androgens and estrogens? What hormone is responsible for differential Growth hormone. growth resulting in sex-related differences in skeletal proportions? What role does growth hormone play in Supports protein synthesis and cellular growth in skeletal and muscular development. children? How does growth hormone assist adults? It assists in energy metabolism and storage. What is stress defined as in the context of Any physical or emotional condition that threatens homeostasis. homeostasis? Question Answer What is an example of a specific adjustment Shivering as a response to a drop in body temperature. to stress? What are the three phases of the stress Alarm phase, resistance phase, and exhaustion phase. response? What is the dominant hormone during the Epinephrine. alarm phase of the stress response? What happens during the resistance phase of Glucocorticoids are dominant hormones, and the body shifts to utilizing lipids and amino the stress response? acids. What is the overall effect of the stress Mobilization of the body's energy reserves while reserving resources. response? What happens during the exhaustion phase Homeostatic regulation breaks down and organ systems begin to fail. of energy reserves in neural tissues? What are the consequences of mineral and They contribute to malfunction of organ systems. electrolyte imbalances during the exhaustion phase? What is the effect of decreased growth It leads to pituitary growth failure. hormone before puberty? What condition results from increased Gigantism. growth hormone before puberty? What condition results from increased Acromegaly. growth hormone after puberty? What is the result of decreased ADH levels? Diabetes insipidus. What is the result of decreased insulin levels? Diabetes mellitus type 1. What condition is caused by decreased Addison's disease. glucocorticoids? What condition is caused by increased Cushing's disease. glucocorticoids? Where is the Dead Sea located? On the border between Israel and Jordan. What is the lowest point on the Earth's The Dead Sea shoreline. surface? What is the average level on which the Dead 396 meters (below sea level). Sea is located? How long is the Dead Sea? 74 km. How much saltier is the Dead Sea as 7 times. compared with the oceans? What is the volume content of salt in the 30%. Dead Sea? Why can the Dead Sea keep swimmers Due to high salt content. afloat? Why is the Dead Sea called Dead? Because only simple organisms can live in it. Why only simple organisms can live in the Because of high salt content. Dead Sea?