Blood PDF

BLOOD BLOOD Whole cell, cell fragments Liquid connective tissue that forms part of the A. RBC – red blood cell / erythrocyte cardiovascular system B. WBC – white blood cell Plays an i...

BLOOD BLOOD Whole cell, cell fragments Liquid connective tissue that forms part of the A. RBC – red blood cell / erythrocyte cardiovascular system B. WBC – white blood cell Plays an important role in maintaining homeostasis in C. Platelets – thrombocytes a living organism Red Blood Cell Physical Properties of Blood 1. average – M = 5.5 million/cu.mm 1. average adult = 7-9% of total body weight F = 4.8 million /cu.mm Male = 5-6 liters of blood 2. size 7 ( micrometer ) Female = 4-5 liters of blood 3. shape – biconcave disc – like a doughnut without a 2. red color of arterial blood is due to oxygenated Hgb whole poked in the middle Functions of Blood 4. anucleated – no nucleus 1. transport 2. Protection 3. Regulation 5. absence of cytoplasmic organelles like mitochondria and Transport ER, thus cannot reproduce itself Oxygen from lungs to body tissues 6. contains oxygen carrying protein Hgb that gives blood Protection its red color Blood can clot which prevents excessive loss of blood 7. plasma membrane – strong & flexible – which allows the after an injury red blood cell to be deformed as it squeezes through small Host defense mechanism thru antibody production capillaries without rupturing Regulation 8. life span – 120 days Circulating platelets helps maintain hemostasis in all 9. old RBC’s are removed by macrophages in spleen body fluid compartments RBC Physiology Controls pH acid-base balance thru buffers Biconcave disc shape provides a larger surface area for gas Albumin osmotic pressure helps retain water diffusion Variable rate of flow of blood thru skin helps dissipate RBC consists mostly of Hgb oxygen carrying globular heat to the environment protein Plasma Mechanisms of as blood flows through capillaries: Liquid portion of blood In the lungs oxygen + heme iron portion to form Composition of plasma: oxyhemoglobin 1. Water When blood reaches the body tissue capillaries Hgb 2. Plasma proteins releases oxygen first into interstitial fluid and then to 3. plasma electrolytes cell for its cellular metabolism 4. nutrients and waste products Carbon dioxide, a waste product of cellular 5. gasses and buffers metabolism from the tissue, will bind with globin to form carbaminohemoglobin 1. Water of Plasma As blood flows to the lungs carbon dioxide is released 90%, provides the solvent for dissolving and transport by hemoglobin and then exhaled of nutrients Erythropoeisis 2. Plasma Proteins Production of red blood cell Synthesized mostly by hepatocytes Site of production : red bone marrow, vertebra, ribs, Compositions : sternum, upper end of humerus & femur 1. albumin Hypoxia stimulates kidney to produce hormone 2. globulins erythropoeitin ( EPO ) which in turn stimulates red 3. fibrinogen bone marrow to produce RBC ❖ Albumin Circulation of RBC in Bone Marrow Promotes water retention in the blood to maintain Pluripotent cell → myeloid cell → proeythroblast blood volume and pressure (rubriblast) → reproduce, proliferative, ❖ Globulin differentiate→ polychromatophilic erythroblast ( Acts as carrier molecule to transport liquid and fat metarubricyte ) after several division extrudes soluble vitamin in the blood ( Vit. ADEK ) nucleus → Reticulocyte ( immature RBC network of Used as antibodies-immunoglobulin ER, continuously synthesizes Hgb , leaves bone ❖ Fibrinogen marrow enters blood stream in 1-2 days ) → For blood clotting erythrocyte Serum – plasma minus fibrinogen and other protein ( mature RBC ) destruction & removal of RBC – life involved in clotting span 120 days 3. Plasma Electrolyte Bloodstream Inoraganic molecules that separate into ions when As the RBC ages CHON part of its plasma membrane they are dissolved in water undergoes normal degradation process and becomes leaky, since it has no nucleus it cannot replace the Classifications: enzyme and protein lost. Ultimately, it ruptures. 1. cation – positively charged like sodium, Fragmented particles are engulfed by macrophages in potassium, calcium and magnesium the spleen and liver and the breakdown product 2. anion – negatively charged like chloride, recycled phosphate, iodide Some Parameters in Examination for RBC Abnormalities 4. Nutrients & Waste products 1. Hgb - amount of hemoglobin in blood 1. nutrients – glucose, amino acids, phospholipid, Male = 14-16 gm triglycerides, free fatty acids and cholesterol Female = 12-14 gm 2. metabolic wastes – lactic acid, nitrogenous waste (urea) Male has higher Hgb because testosterone found more in 5. Gases & Buffers males stimulates synthesis of EPO Oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide ( principal gases ) 2. Hct – number of RBC in whole blood dissolved in plasma Male = 45-52 % Female = 37-48% Formed Elements RBC Disorders 1. Lymphocyte 1. anemia – oxygen carrying capacity of blood is reduced 20-25% 2. hemophilia – inherited deficiency of clotting in which 2nd most abundant leukocyte bleeding may occur spontaneously or after a minor trauma Round slightly indented nucleus WHITE BLOOD CELL Cytoplasm forms a rim around the nucleus White blood cell Not phagocytic Leukocyte They are produced in the bone marrow and lymphoid 1. 5,000-10,000 cells of blood tissue 2. has nucleus Seen in acute viral infection and chronic bacterial 3. Do not have Hgb infection 4. less numerous and larger than RBC Produces antibodies 5. most live in few days except lymphocyte can live for Types of lymphocyte several months or years 1. B-cell 2. T-cell 3. NK – cells ( natural killer cell ) 6. combats pathogen by phagocytosis and immune 2. Monocyte response 3.8% Types of WBC Kidney shaped nucleus A. Granular leukocyte Largest of formed elements B. Agranular leukocyte Stays in the bloodstream only for 3 days A. Granular Leukocyte Capable of phagocytosis as it transforms to Named after their affinity to dye / stain ( Wright ) macrophages Leukopoiesis Segmented or multilobulated nuclei Has granules in the cytoplasm At the paper 1. neutrophil Disorders of WBC 2. eosinophil Platelet - thrombocyte 3. basophil Megakaryocytes → platelets ( thrombocytes ) Neutrophil 150,000 400,000 cell of blood 60-70% of the WBC PMN Disk-shaped cell fragment Most abundant of the WBC nucleus 3-5 lobes o No nucleus Connected by very thin strand of chromatin o Lifespan 7-8 days Released in blood in band form – young neutrophil o Not actually blood cells but cellular fragments o Aged platelets are removed by macrophages BARR body – inactive x chromosome found only in o Platelet when it enters the bloodstream picks-up female important in sex identification and stores chemical substances that can be First line of defense – responds quickly to bacterial released later to help seal blood vessel breaks infection Thrombopoiesis Fine granules evenly distributed in the cytoplasm ❖ Paper again contains lysozyme. Stains neutral pink-blue Hemostasis In the process of phagocytosis granules are depleted ❖ The prevention of blood loss neutrophil dies together with micro-organism forms ❖ condition in which the body’s internal environment pus ( yellowish material ) remains relatively constant within physiological limits Eosinophil ❖ stoppage of bleeding 2-4% of WBC Mechanisms Involved 2-3 lobes 1. vasoconstrictive phase – when tissue is Larger uniform sized granules than neutrophil damaged and blood vessel breaks immediately the blood Granules contains lysozymes, peroxidase to destroy vessel muscular wall constricts to prevent further loss of intruder blood Stains pink in acidic dyes 2. platelet phase Phagocytize Ag – Ab complexes ❖ A. platelet adhesion – initially when tissue is injured Destroy certain parasitic worm platelet migrate attach themselves to the collagen Combat effects of histamine in allergic rection by fiber of connective tissue underlying the damaged releasing histaminase area Basophil ❖ B. platelet aggregation – as more platelet sticks 0.5 - 1% together at the damaged area they become more Coarse large granules which stain dark blue obscuring sticky eventually forming a platelet plug. S-shaped nucleus ▪ As they interact with one another they release Liberates heparin ( anticoagulant ); slow reacting substances from their vesicle like serotonin, substance of anaphylaxis SRS-A which constricts the vascular smooth muscles, B. Agranular / Leukocyte / WBC which decreases the blood flow and stop the No granules bleeding. Have unsegmented nucleus ▪ Injured blood vessel may continue to constrict 1. lymphocyte only for about 20 mins. 2. monocyte ▪ If the injury is extensive, the intricate mechanism of clotting continues Rh system FUNCTION: carry blood to the lungs for gas exchange o It was discovered first in Rhesus monkey = RH Factor This will result to Hemolytic disease of the newborn o D antigen is most important in production of ( erythroblastosis fetalis ) antibodies Type A blood of donor + Anti-B Ab in type A blood of o People whose RBC had RH antigen are designated as recepient = Ag and Ab do not match(No RH(+) and those without are RH ( - ) Agglutination) o Normally plasma does not contain RH Ab. However, No agglutination reaction. the immune system starts to make RH + Ab that will Type A blood donated to a Type A recepient does not remain in the blood if an RH – person receives RH cause an agglutination reaction because the anti-B Ab +transfusion. If a second transfusion of RH + blood is in the recepient do not combine with the Type A Ag given later, the previously formed anti-RH + on the RBC in the donated blood antibodies will cause hemolysis ( rupture ) of the Type A blood of donor + Anti-A Ab in type B blood of RBC’s in the donated blood. recepient = Ag and Ab match Examples: ( Agglutination ) Mother is RH -/ Father is RH + = formation of RH Ab in the Type A blood donated to a Type B recepient causes an mother’s blood agglutination reaction because the anti-A Ab in the It will not harm the first fetus ( fetus=RH + ) recepient combine with the type A Ag on the RBC in Next pregnancy if fetus is RH + again = severe hemolysis the donated blood (because the blood of the mother with RH + Ab will hemolyzed the RBC of the fetus who is RH (+) CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM SIZE: approx. similar to a persons fist SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION hollow, cone-shaped, weighs ADH - ↑ water reabsorption from the forming Growth Hormones ( GH ) urine in the kidneys - ↓ urine volume - ↑ blood Regulates growth of skeletal muscles and long bones of volume the body 2.2 constriction of the arterioles leading to ↑ BP Functions: ( this explains its other name vasopressin ) o 1. transform amino acids into proteins Symptoms: 2. stimulation of target cells to grow in size and number 1. polyuria – excretion of large urine volume Pathology: 2. polydipsia – frequent thirst 2ndary polyuria o A. pituitary dwarfism – 2ndary hyposecretion of 3. bed wetting – ( common in children ) growth hormone during childhood 4. dehydration –common cause of death 2ndary o characterized by fairly normal body proportions but polyuria ( loss of water ) with a miniature height - death may occur from deprivation of water for o B. pituitary gigantism – 2ndary hypersecretion of only a day or so growth hormone during childhood Pituitary Hypothalamus Relationship o C. acromegaly – 2ndary hypersecretion of growth o Pituitary gland is regulated by the hypothalamus via hormone after long bone-growth (closure of hypophysiotropic hormones ( releasing and inhibiting epiphyseal plates) hormones ) released into the blood of portal o characterized by enlargement of the bones of the circulation face o Portal circulation – network of blood vessels Prolactin ( PRL ) connecting the blood supply of the hypothalamus and - Stimulates and maintains milk production after Childbirth the blood supply of anterior pituitary gland Adrenocorticotropic hormone Circulation: - Regulates the cortical portion of the adrenal gland o Hypothalamus –superior hyphophyseal arteries – Thyroid stimulating hormone primary plexus – hyphophyseal portal veins – - Thyrotropic hormone secondary plexus – pituitary gland - Regulates growth and activity of thyroid gland o Superior hypophyseal arteries – branches of internal Gonadotropic hormone carotid and posterior communicating arteries o Regulates hormonal activity of the gonads o Primary plexus – capillary network at the base of the o ( ovaries and testes ) hypothalamus formed by the superior hypophyseal Types: arteries A. Female o Neurosecretory cells – specialized neurons of the 1. FSH hypothalamus that secrete releasing and inhibiting - stimulates follicle development in the ovaries – hormones in the primary plexus maturation of ovaries – production of estrogen – o Secondary plexus – capillary network formed by the preparation of ovaries for ovulation hypophyseal portal veins 2. LH - serve as direct route that permit hypothalamic - triggers ovulation of an egg from the ovary hormones to act quickly on pituitary gland - develops ruptured follicle to become corpus luteum – before the hormones are diluted or destroyed in stimulation of corpus luteum to progesterone and the systemic circulation estrogen 2. Thyroid gland B. Male Two lobed gland 1. FSH – stimulates sperm development by the testes Hormones: 2. LH – interstitial cell-stimulating hormone 1. thyroid hormone - stimulates testosterone production by the interstitial 2. calcitonin ( thyrocalcitonin ) cells of the testes Sterility – 2ndary hyposecretion of FSH and LH in both males and females Thyroid hormone Mechanism: Body’s major metabolic hormone o ↓ serum Ca – parathyroid galnd secretes PTH – Types: activation of osteoclast – breakdown of bone 1. triiodothyronine ( T3 ) – majority of T3 is formed at the matrix – release of Ca into the blood - ↑ serum target tissues by conversion of T3 to T4 Ca BTN 2. thyroxine ( T4 ) – major hormone secreted by the o Also stimulates kidneys and intestines to absorb thyroid follicles more calcium ( from forming urine and Functions : foodstuffs ) 1. regulation of the rate of glucose breakdown and o Hypercalcemic hormone acts to increase serum conversion of glucose to chemical energy and body heat Ca 2. aid in normal tissue growth and development ( Pathology of PTH reproductive and nervous systems ) 1. tetany – fatal condition 2ndary hypocalcemia 3. iodine synthesis Hypocalcemia – extreme irritability and overactivity of Pathology of Thyroid hormone neurons - ↑ muscular stimulation – muscle spasm Hypothyroidism 2. Hyperparathyroidism – causes massive bone destruction a. goiter – enlargement of the thyroid gland cause by 4. Adrenal glands iodine deficiency Two bean shaped glands over the top of the kidneys ↓ iodine – activation of anterior pituitary gland Parts : to secrete TSH – stimulation of the thyroid gland 1. adrenal cortex – outer gland part to secrete thyroxine – synthesis of peptide part 2. adrenal medulla – inner neural part containing three of thyroxine ( nonfunctional part of the molecule separate layers of cells 2ndary lack of iodine ) – absence of negative 1. Adrenal cortex feedback mechanism – failure to inhibit anterior Secretes three major groups of steroid hormones ( pituitary gland – hyperactivity of the thyroid corticosteroid ) gland – thyroid gland hypertrophy Types: 1. graves disease – autoimmune disorder, which is the 1. mineralocorticoids most common form of hyperthyroidism 2. glucocorticoids Mechanism : 3. sex hormones o Production of antibodies( thyroid stimulating Mineralocorticoids immunoglobulins or TSIs ) – TSIs mimic the Functions: action of TSH but are not regulated by the 1. regulation of the mineral content of the blood ( sodium normal negative feedback controls – continuous and potassium ) by absorbing sodium into the blood stimulation of the thyroid gland to secrete excreting potassium in the urine thyroid hormones –thyroid gland hypertrophy 2. regulation of water balances in the body (water follows S/Sx: when sodium is reabsorbed) 1. exopthalmos Enzymes regulating Aldosterone Secretion: 2. goiter 1. renin ( RAAS system ) 3. heat intolerance o Enzyme secreted by the kidneys activating secretion 4. diaphoresis of aldosterone during hypotension 5. weight loss despite food appetite o ↓ BP – secretion of renin into the bloodstream – 6. insomnia circulation of renin throughout the entire 7. tremor of extended finger bloodstream – reaction of renin with angiotensinogen 8. nervousness in the blood – angiotensin 1 formation – reaction of Calcitonin ( thyrocalcitonin ) angiotensin 1 with converting enzyme in the function: reduces serum Ca by depositing calcium into the nedothelium of the lung blood vessels – angiotensin 2 bones formation – stimulats adrenal glands to secrete o Acts as antagonist to parathyroid hormones aldosterone - ↑ Na reabsorption in the kidney 2. cretinism – 2ndary lack of TH stimulation (leading to tubules - ↑ water reabsorption in the kidney tubules hyposecretion of thyroxine) during childhood - ↑Na and H2O in the ECF - ↑ECF volume - ↑ blood S/Sx: volume - ↑ BP BTN 2.1 dwarfism – adult body proportions remain childlike ( 2. atrial natriuretic peptide head and trunk are 1 ½ times the length of the legs rather - inhibits aldosterone secretion to reduce blood volume the approximately the same length, as in normal adults and blood pressure 2.2 scanty hair Glucocorticoids 2.3 dry skin Cortisone and cortisol 2.4 mental retardation Functions: 3. myxedema – hypothyroidism in adult (F>M) 1. promotion of normal cell metabolism S/Sx: 2. resist long term stressors (by increasing serum glucose 3.1 edema ( hallmark ) levels) 3.2 fatigue o ↑ glucocorticoids – breakdown of fats and 3.3 poor muscle tone proteins by body cells into the blood ( 3.4 physical and mental sluggishness hyperglycemic hormones ) 3.5 hypothermia 3. Reduction of inflammation 3.6 dry skin - by reducing edema and inhibition of prostaglandins 3.7 obesity (pain causing molecules) 3. Parathyroid glands Prescription of glucocorticoids as drugs for Tiny masses located at the posterior surface of the inflammatory cases ( arthritis ) thyroid gland Sex Hormones Two glands on each thyroid gland Androgen and Estrogen 1. parathyroid hormone ( PTH ) Secreted by the innermost cortical layer produced Most important calcium regulator in the blood throughout life in small amounts Pathology: 4. I – Insulin 1. addison’s disease 5. D- delta 2. hyperaldosteronism 6. S – somatostain 3. cushing’s syndrome Insulin 4. masculinization Secreted by beta cells of islets Addison’s Disease Functions: Generalized hyposecretion of all adrenal cortex hormones 1. increases cellular permeability to glucose - insulin - ↑ S/Sx: permeability of cells to glucose – entrance of glucose into 1. bronze tone of the skin the cells – oxidation of glucose for energy or conversion of o ↓ aldosterone – excretion of Na and water from the glucose to glycogen or fat for storage body – electrolyte and water imbalance – skin 2. facilitation of glucose oxidation and conversion within changes the cells 2. muscle weakness – 2ndary water and electrolyte 3. reduces serum glucose imbalance o Transportation of glucose out of the blood into 3. shock – 2ndary water and electrolyte imbalance the cells (hypoglycemic) 4. hypoglycemia – 2ndary glucocorticoid deficiency o Only hormone that reduces serum glucose 5. burnout – decreased ability to cope with stress Diabetes Mellitus 6. suppression of the immune system – lead to Common pancreatic abnormality characterized by susceptibility to infection excessive serum glucose 2ndary to decrease insulin Hyperaldosteronism Cardinal signs: o Hyperactivity of the outermost cortical layer leading 1. polyuria – excessive urination to flush out to water and sodium retention glucose and ketone S/Sx: 1. HPN 2. polydipsia – excessive thirst resulting from 2. Edema water loss Cushing’s syndrome 3. polyphagia – hunger 2ndary failure of glucose o Hyperactivity of the middle cortical layer leading to consumption and the loss of fat and proteins excessive glucocorticoid production from the body S/Sx: 1. moon face o Failure of glucose consumption of energy – fats and 2. buffalo hump ( lump of fat on the upper back protein breakdown for energy production (to meet 3. HPN the enrgy requirements of the body) 4. hyperglycemia Sign & Symptoms of DM 5. diabetes 1. glucosuria – presence of glucose in the urine secondary 6. bone weakness ( 2ndary conversion of bone to inability of the kidney tubule cells to reabsorb excessive proteins into glucose amounts of glucose 7. severe depression of the immune system 2. dehydration – 2ndary water excretion (water follows as Masculinization glucose flushes from the body) o Hyperactivity of sex hormones ( regardless of sex ) 3. resistance to infection – 2ndary loss of proteins ( More apparent in females explains why diabetics must be careful with hygiene and S/Sx: 1. hirsutism management of even small cuts and bruises 2. musculine pattern of the body hair 4. weight loss – 2ndary consumption of fats and proteins distribution for energy 3. low voice production 5. acidosis -↓insulin - ↓glucose breakdown of energy - ↓ 4. testicular atrophy fat breakdown (instead of sugars/glucose) for energy - ↑ 2. Adrenal Medulla ketones in the blood ( ketones are intermediate products o Stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system to of fat breakdown ) ↑ acidity of blood – death (untreated secrete cathecholamines into the bloodstream cases) o Hormones : cathecholamines Glucagon 1. Epinephrine ( adrenaline ) o Hyperglycemic 2. Norepinephrine ( noradrenaline ) o Antagonist of insulin secreted by alpha cells of o Misplaced sympathetic nervous system ganglion pancreatic islets (because it secretes NE since some sympathetic Function: neurons also release NE as a neurotransmitter) o Promote serum glucose by stimulating the liver o Fight or Flight reaction to breakdown stored glycogen into glucose and o Enhance and prolong the effects of the to release it into the blood neurotransmitters of the sympathetic nervous 6. Pineal gland system Small cone shaped gland located at the roof of the 3rd Effects: ventricle of the brain 1. increase HR Hormone : 2. increase BP 1. Melatonin 3. increase serum glucose level Functions: 4. bronchodilatation A. regulation of sleep-awake cycle –peak levels The effects cause more oxygen and glucose in the blood occurs at night, which causes drowsiness and and faster blood circulation to the body especially the lowest level occurs during daylight brain, muscles and heart B. inhibition of reproductive system – especially 5. Pancreas ovaries,which explains prevention of asexual o Mixed gland ( both endocrine and exocrine ) located maturation from occurring during childhood close to the stomach in the abdominal cavity 7. Thymus o Pancreatic islets ( islets of langerhans ) Located at the upper thorax, posterior to the sternum Hormones: Large during infancy and childhood, but decreases in size 1. G – glucagon throughout adulthood 2. A – alpha 3. B – beta Hormone: Hormones: 1. thymosin – functions in immune system 1. testosterone – androgen o Serve as incubator for maturation of immature WBC ( o Secreted by interstitial cells T-lymphocytes ) o Testosterone production is stimulated by LH 8. Gonads Functions: Ovaries – paired almond sized organs located in the pelvic 1. development of the adult male sex characteristics ( cavity, producing ova or eggs growth of beard, development of heavy bones, Non-functional until puberty, activated by gonadotropic muscles and lowering of the voice hormones from the anteriro pituitary gland 2. promotion of growth and maturation of the Hormones: reproductive organs 1. estrogen ( estrone and estradiol ) 3. stimulation of sex drive o secreted by Graafian follicles 4. continuous sperm reproduction ( in adulthood ) Functions: Female reproductive organs a. stimulation of secondary sex characteristics in Menopause females (growth & maturation of the “ change of life “ reproductive organs & hair growth in the pubic Decline of ovarian function occurring in the late middle and axillary regions) age b. Preparation of the uterus in receiving a Manifestations: fertilized egg ( menstrual cycle ) 1. atrophy of female reproductive organs c. maintenance of pregnancy 2. cessation of fertility d. prepares breast for lactation 3. estrogen deficiency 2. progesterone – secreted by corpus luteum 4. fatigue Functions: 5. nervousness a. activation and regulation of mentrual cycles ( 6. mood changes (depression) acts with estrogen ) Conditions Associated with Estrogen Deficiency: b. relaxation of muscles of the uterus during 1. osteoporosis pregnancy to prevent abortion of the implnated 2. arteriosclerosi embryo 3. decrease skin elasticity Male reproductive organs 4. “ hot flushes “ – 2ndary functional changes in Testes the sympathetic nervous system o Suspended by the scrotum outside the pelvic cavity, producing sperm cells o Both endocrine and exocrine organ, which begins to function at puberty under the influence of the anterior pituitary GH DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Digestive System Boundaries of Oral Cavity Other nomenclature used is gastrointestinal system Bounded infront by the lips and teeth at the back by or alimentary system the oropharynx Composed of digestive tract and accessory organs On the sides are teeth and cheeks Digestive Tract The roof is formed by the soft and hard palates and Starts with the lips in the mouth and ends in the anus floor by the tongue Two Divisions: Composed of the lips, oral cavity, pharynx, Between lips and cheeks esophagus, stomach, small intestines, large intestines Oral Vestibule outside and teeth and anus internally Concerned with tearing, grinding, mixing Oral Cavity Proper Bounded by the arch of absorption of nutrients as well as excretion of the teeth unnecessary products of digestion Lips EARLY DIGESTION (MOUTH) Most anterior portion of the oral cavity Has a mucosal and skin portions The mucosal surface is the red portion of the lips The skin is where hairs are found Opens and closes the oral cavity Teeth Tear and grind the floor Has three principal parts: - corona 1. crown - projects above the gingiva or gums - radix Oral Cavity 2. root - projects below the gum First portion of the digestive tract - anchors the tooth Functions: 3. neck - cervix 1. intake of food - found between the root and crown 2. concerned with tearing and partial grinding of food 3. beginning of mechanical digestion 4. swallowing  The Tooth Pharynx Short, broad muscular tube lying behind the nasal Teeth Has Four Types cavity, oral cavity and larynx 1. incisors – located directly behind the front part of lips Divided into nasal, oral and laryngeal parts - chisel-shaped for cutting of food Continuous inferiorly to esophagus at 6th cervical 2. canines - cuspids vertebrae - lateral or at the sides of incisors Function: passage of food and air hence a part also of - have conical crown for grasping and tearing of the respiratory tract food Helps push the food to the esophagus 3. premolars – bicuspids Esophagus - posterolateral to the canines Begins at the neck opposite the 6th cervical vertebrae - have square ovoid crown with flat upper surface Passes downward behind the trachea for crushing 25 cm long narrow muscular tube that transports 4. molars – tricuspids food from pharynx to stomach - lie behind the premolars Runs downward to the diaphragm at the level of 10th - have rounded, box like crown with flat surface thoracic vertebra and opens into the stomach in the for a crushing and grinding abdominal cavity - have greater crushing force than premolars Esophagus Has 3 Constrictions: The dentin surrounds the central pulp cavity in both 1. at the cricopharyngeal area crown and root 2. at the level where it crossed by the left bronchus Enamel is a calcified material that covers the dentin 3. as it enters the diaphragm of the crown Mainly for the passage of food Tongue Stomach Dilated portion of the digestive tract found in left upper part of abdominal cavity For temporary storage of food Adds mucus, acid and digestive enzymes for partial breakdown of food Roughly J-shaped with 2 openings: cardiac and pyloric orifices The mucosa facing the lumen are thrown into folds called rugae 4 Major Regions of the Stomach Mass of skeletal muscle in the floor of the 1. cardia – narrow collar region at the point of the entry oral cavity of the esophagus Contains receptors for taste 2. fundus – dome-shaped portion that projects upward Divided into two portions by the sulcus to the left of cardiac orifice terminalis into anterior 2/3 and posterior 3. body/corpus – forms the bulk of the stomach 1/3 - extends from the cardiac orifice to Tongue Has 4 types of Papillae the notch in the lower part of the 1. filliform – most numerous lesser curvature 2. fungiform 4. pylorus – most tubular part of stomach 3. foliate – undeveloped in humans - with cavity for exit of food towards the 4. circumvallate – least numerous; largest duodenum called pyloric canal or orifice and found infront of sulcus terminalis - guarded by pyloric sphincter Salivary Glands Lesser curvature forms the right border of stomach Contribute to the formation of saliva Greater curvature is a convex portion that Helps in digestion of food by producing enzymes extends from cardiac orifice along the left border Divided in 2 types according: of the stomach 1. big salivary glands – parotid, submandibular and Secretes hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen by sublingual glands the parietal cells and chief cells respectively 2. small salivary glands – palatine, buccal, lingual Small Intestine glands May also be classified according to type of secretion, according to fate of cell upon active secretion and according to number of cells that make up of a gland Small Intestine Divided into 2 major lobes and 2 minor lobes: Segment of alimentary tract where greatest part of 2 major lobes: digestion and food absorption takes place 1. left lobe Divided into 3 segments: 2. right lobe 1. duodenum 2 minor lobes: 2. jejunum 1. quadrate lobe 3. ileum 2. caudate lobe C-shaped tube about Covered by fibrous capsule and partly covered by 25 cms long divided peritoneum into 4 portions Processes and detoxifies food substance for blood Retroperitoneal clotting mechanisms except the first inch Storage site for glucose, fats and Vit. A Duodenum of the 1st portion Primarily made up of cells hepatocytes 2nd portion is Gallbladder pierced by the Pear-shaped sac found on the postero-inferior common bile duct portion of the liver and pancreatic ducts meters long Stores and concentrates bile Begins at the Has a fundus, body and neck duodenojejunal Neck is continuous with cystic duct flexure Cystic duct drains the concentrated bile to the Mostly situated on common bile duct. The cystic duct the upper left Joins the common hepatic duct to form a common Jejunum quadrant of the bile duct abdomen The bile from common bile duct drains to the 2nd Has wider lumen, portion of the duodenum as it joined by the main thicker walls and pancreatic duct more red in color 1. Fatty chyme enters small intestine than ileum 2. intestinal mucosal cells secrete cholecystokinin Suspended from 3. hormone travels in blood and stimulates muscular posterior abdominal wall by mesentery gallbladder wall to contract meters long 4. bile flows down bile duct to sphincter Occupies the lower 5. sphincter relaxes and bile enters duodenum part of the abdomen Pancreas Ileum Suspended by Both an exocrine and endocrine organ mesentery Found posterior to the stomach and behind Opens into cecum peritoneum Large Intestine Has the following portions: Commences from ileum to the anus 1. head – disc-shaped Functions: - lies within the concavity of C-shaped duodenum 1. absorption of water - uncinate process – projection 2. production of Vitamin K to the left from the lower part of the head 3. storage of undigested food materials 2. neck – connects the head and body 4. formation and excretion of fecal materials 3. body – bulk of pancreas found at the back of the Divided into cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, stomach descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anal canal 4. tail – extends at the hillus of the spleen Cecum – blind ended pouch lying on the right iliac fossa Exocrine – it secretes pancreatic juices and enzymes - attached on its posteromedial surface is the appendix that aids in digestion Appendix – very narrow lumen around 0.5-0.8 cms Endocrine – presence of pancreatic islets which contain cells that secrete insulin, glucagon, somatostatin and Rectum – where fecal materials are collected to be protein polypeptides excreted in anal canal 2 excretory ducts: Differences of Small and Large Intestines 1. main pancreatic duct of Wirsung 1. small intestine more mobile than large intestine ( 2. accessory pancreatic duct of Santorini ascending and descending colon ) because most of small Rectum intestines are suspended by mesentery Also known as retroperitoneal 2. major part of small intestine is provided with mesentery Caudal organ in the digestive system whereas large intestine are retroperitoneal except for the Consists of three lateral curves or bends cecum, transverse colon and sigmoid colon These are represented internally as three transverse 3. small intestines have smaller diameter than large folds called the rectal valves intestine These valves are important as to separate the feces ( 4. taenia coli are present in large intestine which are stool ) from flatus ( gas ) absent in small intestine Controlled by two sphincters: internal anal 5. appendices epiplocae are found in large intestine Sphincter and external anal sphincter 6. walls of SI are smooth while LI are sacculated The former set of muscles is primarily involuntary Liver while the latter part is voluntary. Largest gland of the body Found on the right upper quadrant of abdomen embedded beneath the ribs and costal cartilages  Definition of Terms Tongue Alimentary pertaining to food The tongue of jawed fishes is consists of primary Appendices fatty tissues that are tongue epiplocae found on the wall of the Insectivorous tetrapods – have long sticky external large intestine tongues that move in and out at a great speed Buccal pertaining to cheek Woodpeckers – shoots like an arrow into dark process of converting cervices in tree trunks, impaling grubs and carrying Digestion food into them to mouth material fit to be The tiny tongue of hummingbirds darts rapidly back absorbed and assimilated and forth between flower and mouth, collecting Gastric pertaining to stomach droplets of nectar at the hollowed frayed tip serous membrane lining A parrots tongue is armed with two flexible horny Peritoneum the shields in the walls of a seed cup that is used for abdomino pelvic walls and investing the feeding on seeds, grain and fruits Turtles, crocodilians, and some birds – unprotrusible viscera tongue Retroperitoneum behind the peritoneum Garter snakes and few others have no tongue a ring line band of muscle Oral Glands in Reptile and Mammal Sphincter fiber that constrict a passage or closes a 1. parotid natural orifice 2. submandibular Subcostal beneath the ribs 3. sublingual band of incomplete outer 4. molar 5. infraorbital Taenia coli longitudinal muscle in the colon 6. poison gland of rattle snake Digestive System of Vertebrates 7. maxillary tooth with grrove for transfer of toxin Almost every vertebrate has the following essential 8. tongue parts of the digestive system: Birds have well developed sublingual glands opening 1. mouth cavity that commonly has teeth to grasp, tear, or in the floor of the mouth chew food and tongue except fishes; An angle gland which may be homologous with the In most land vertebrates the salivary glands secrete labial glands of reptiles lies at the angle of the mouth saliva to lubricate the food and start digestion Esophagus 2. the pharynx which contains gill slits in fishes Esophagus of birds has specialized feature, the crop, 3. the esophagus ( gullet ) which is flexible tube carrying which is paired or unpaired membranous carrying food past the region of the heart and lungs diverticulum used for initial storage of food 4. the stomach The furcula ( wishbone ) supports the crop 5. The small intestine Stomach 6. The large intestine ( colon ) Birds stomach is consisting of proventiculus and 7. the cloaca ( absent in mammals ), which is a common gizzards. passageway for excretory wastes and sex cells in sharks, Well developed in grain eating birds and less amphibians, reptiles and birds developed in insectivorous forms and in birds of prey 8. anus or vent Mammalian stomach is divided into several All vertebrates have two large digestive glands, the chambers: liver and pancreas connected by ducts to the upper 1. rumen part of the small intestine 2. reticulum Mouth and Oral cavity 3. omasum Anterior part of the oral cavity arises from the 4. abomasum stomodeum, midventral invagination of the ectoderm Cloaca of the head Chamber at the end of the digestive tract Similar invagination, the proctodeum, provides an It receives the intestine and urinary and genital ducts exit from the hindgut when the cloacal plate ruptures and opens into the exterior via the vent It is shallow or non-existent in adult lampreys, chimaeras, ray-finned fishes and mammals above montremes, having either failed to keep pace in growth with the rest of the animal or having become partitioned into two or three separate passages. When there is no adult cloaca, the intestine opens directly to the exterior via the anus.  RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Respiratory Zones Actual sites of gas exchange, composed of respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and alveoli Conducting Zones Structures 1. Nose Divided into the external nose, and the internal nasal cavity The external nose boundaries: Superiorly : nasal and frontal bones Laterally : maxillary bones Inferiorly : plates of hyaline cartilage ( the lateral septal Components of the Upper and alar cartilage ) The nasal cavity lies posterior to the external nose Respiratory Tract - air enters the cavity through the external nares or nostrils It is divided by nasal septum The nasal cavity is formed by the following structures: 1. Roof – ethmoid bone, sphenoid bone, frontal bone 2. Floor – hard palate 3. Laterally – conchae or turbinates ( superior, middle, inferior )which protrude medially forming grooves inferior to each concha called meatus 4. Medially – the nasal septum which is formed anteriorly by hyaline cartilage, and posteriorly by the Components of the Lower vomer bone and perpendicular plate of ethmoid Respiratory tracts Pharynx Serve as a common pathway for food and air Extends from the base of the skull to the level C6 1. nasopharynx – serves only as air passageway High on its posterior wall, the pharyngeal tonsil or adenoid is located 2. Oropharynx – extends from the soft palate to the epiglottis both swallowed food and inhaled Functions of the Respiratory System 1. gas exchange or respiration air pass through it Supply the body with oxygen and dispose of 3. Laryngopharynx – common passageway for carbon dioxide food and air continuous inferiorly with the Processes of Respiration: larynx 1. pulmonary ventilation – movement of air into Larynx and out of the lungs 2. external respiration – gas exchange ( O2 loading Voice box and CO2 unloading between the blood and alveoli) Extends 5 cm from the level of the 4rth 3. transport of respiratory gases – O2 and CO2 to 6th cervical vertebra must be transported to and from the lungs and tissue cells Superiorly attaches to the hyoid bone of the body and open to the laryngopharynx, This uses blood as the transporting fluid inferiorly it is continuous with the 4. internal respiration – at the systemic capillaries, gas exchanges must be made between the blood and trachea tissue cells The framework of the larynx is an 2. Regulation of pH intricate arrangement of nine cartilages 3. Voice production connected by the membranes and 4. Olfaction ligaments 5. Innate immunity Functional Anatomy of the Respiratory 2 Classification of Larynx System 1. unpaired cartilages 1. Conducting zone or dead space 2. paired cartilages 2. Respiratory zones Conducting zones Dead space Respiratory passages extending from the nose to the terminal bronchioles  1. Unpaired cartilages Bronchi and subdivisions: The 1. thyroid cartilage Bronchial Tree 2. cricoid cartilage The right and left bronchi are formed by the 3. epiglottis division of the trachea at the level of the sternal Shield-shaped with ridge angle Thyroid like laryngeal Right primary bronchus versus left prominence which seen cartilage primary bronchus externally as the Adam’s apple Right Bronchus Left Bronchus Cricoid Signet ring shaped Dm. wider Narrower cartilage cartilage below the Length – shorter Longer thyroid cartilage Direction – more vertical oblique Epiglottis Spoon-shaped cartilage Inside the lungs, each primary bronchus subdivides into secondary ( lobar ) bronchi, The only elastic cartilage then this branches to form tertiary ( among the laryngeal segmental) cartilages ( the rest are Bronchi of hyaline cartilages ) Bronchioles – the air passages under 1mm When air is flowing to in diameter and the tiniest of these are the into the larynx, the terminal bronchioles with 0.5 cm in epiglottis projects diameter upward, but during Respiratory Zone Structures swallowing this tips to Begins as the terminal bronchioles feed into cover the laryngeal inlet the respiratory bronchioles preventing food from Respiratory bronchioles – branch into entering the laryngeal alveolar sacs and alveoli, the chambers cavity, thus the where the bulk of gas exchange occurs epiglottis has been The alveoli are minute expansions along the referred as the “ guardian of the walls of the alveolar sacs. As a results, the airways “ alveolar sacs resemble bunches of grapes opening into a common chamber, the 2. Paired cartilages atrium at the terminus of the alveolar duct. 1. arytenoids The Respiratory membrane is 2. cuneiform composed of several cell types: 3. corniculate 1. Type 1 pneumocytes Arytenoids The most important 2. Type II pneumocytes which anchor the 3. Alveolar macrophages vocal cords to the Type I Pneumocytes larynx Walls of the alveoli composed of simple Cuneiform Found in aryepiglottic fold squamous epithelium Corniculate Found at apices of Type II Pneumocytes arytenoid Scattered amidst the type I and secrete a Vocal cords fluid containing surfactant that coats the Found along the laryngeal mucosa on each gas exposed alveolar surfaces side are the vocal ligaments which support Surfactant decreases the surface tension on a pair of horizontal mucosal folds called the the alveolar walls vocal folds or true vocal cords Alveolar Macrophages The vocal cords vibrate and produce sounds Dust cells as air rushes upward from the lungs Provide their primary line of defense Superior to the true vocal cords are the against inhaled dust, bacteria and other vestibular folds or false vocal cords, which foreign particles play no part in sound production Lungs and Pleural Coverings Trachea Lungs – soft, spongy, elastic organs, each Windpipe weighing 0.5 kg ( together weigh only 1 kg ) Which is about 10-12 cm long and 2.5 cm in Paired lungs occupy the entire thoracic diameter cavity except for the mediastinum It is reinforced internally by 16-20 C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage  Each is suspended in its pleural cavity via its Expiration roots, and has a base, an apex, and medial Largely a passive process in healthy and costal surfaces individuals that depends on the natural Hilus – found in the medial surface of each elasticity of the lungs than on muscle lung through which blood vessels of the contraction pulmonary and systemic circulation enter As the inspiratory muscles relax, the rib and leave the lungs; each primary bronchus cage descends and lung recoils, the thoracic also plunges into hilus pressure and intrapulmonary volumes Blood Supply decrease 1. pulmonary arteries – delivers blood that is to Respiratory Volumes and be oxygenated Capacities 2. pulmonary veins – delivers freshly Amount of air that is flushed in and out of oxygenated blood from the respiratory zones to the lungs that varies substantially the heart depending on the conditions of inspiration 3. bronchial arteries – oxygen-rich blood supply and expiration that nourish lung tissue which arise from the Pulmonary Volumes aorta - 500 ml Pleura Tidal volume - Volume of air Thin, doubled layered serosa inspired or expired 1. parietal pleura – lines the thoracic wall and with each breath superior aspect of the diaphragm - 3000 ml 2. visceral pleura – cover the external lung Inspiratory - Amount of air that surface , dipping into and lining its fissures can be inspired Reserve The pleura produce pleural fluid , a serous forcefully after Volume inspiration of the lubricating fluid Pleurisy – inflammation of the pleura and resting tidal volume caused by decreased secretion of pleural fluid - 1100 ml Mechanics of Breathing Expiratory - Amount of air that can be expired Pulmonary ventilation or breathing consists of reserve Volume forcefully after 2 phases: expiration of the 1. inspiration or inhalation – air flowing into resting tidal volume the lungs, an active phase - 1200 ml 2. expiration or exhalation – air is flowing out Residual - Volume of air still of the lungs , a passive phase remaining in the Volume Pressure Relationships in The Thoracic Cavity respiratory passages To describe the breathing process it is and lungs after a important to understand that respiratory maximum expiration pressures are always given relative to Pulmonary Capacities atmospheric pressure 1. functional residual capacity( 2300 ml) = Gasses travel from an area of high pressure EXPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME + RESIDUAL to an area of lower pressure VOLUME 1. intrapulmonary pressure 2. Inspiratory capacity ( 3500 ml ) = TIDAL V + Pressure within the alveoli of the lungs INSPIRATORY RESERVE V 2. intrapleural pressure 3. Vital capacity ( 4600 ml ) = INSPIRATORY RV + Pressure within the pleural cavity TIDAL V + EXPIRATORY RV 4. Total lung capacity ( 5800 ml ) = EXPIRATORY Pulmonary Ventilation RESIDUAL V +INSPIRATORY RV + RESIDUAK V + This is a completely mechanical process that TIDAL V depends on volume changes occurring in the thoracic cavity Gas Exchange in the Body Inspiration A. External Respiration The following occurs during quiet Pulmonary gas exchange inspiration which is more of an active Factors that influence the movement of process oxygen and carbon dioxide across the The dome-shaped diaphragm contracts, it respiratory membrane moves inferiorly and flattens out. As a result, the height of the thoracic cavity increases 1. Partial Pressure Gradients and Gas 4. Ventilation Solubility For gas exchange to be most efficient, there when the molecules of gas dissolved in fluid must be precise match, or coupling encounter a surface like the membrane, they between ventilation ( the amount of gas exert their own pressure in the same way that reaching the alveoli ) and perfusion ( the gas in gaseous state blood flow in pulmonary capillaries) the partial pressure of oxygen in pulmonary B. Internal Respiration blood is much lower than that of alveoli, and Capillary gas exchange in the body tissues because of this steep oxygen partial pressure The partial pressure of oxygen in the tissues gradient, oxygen diffuses rapidly from the is always lower than that of systemic 2. Thickness of the respiratory membrane arterial blood In healthy lungs, the respiratory membrane Transport of Respiratory Gases by Blood is only 0.5 to 1um thick, thus gas exchange Oxygen transport is very efficient Oxyhemoglobin – oxygen and hemoglobin 3. Surface Area in combination The alveolar surface when spread flat will Carbon Dioxide transport cover around 140 sq.m. As bicarbonate ion in plasma – the largest fraction of carbon dioxide ( 60-70% ); when carbon dioxide combines with water in the RBC, an unstable carbonic acid is formed which quickly dissolves into hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The Reproductive System Structural Support Con’t Gonads: limits side-to-side movement and rotation organs that produce gametes and Broad ligament subdivides peritoneal cavity hormones into: Ducts: rectouterine pouch: receive and transport gametes between uterus and anterior surface of colon Accessory glands: vesicouterine pouch: secrete fluids into ducts between uterus and posterior wall of bladder Perineal structures: The Ovaries collectively known as external genitalia Are small, almond-shaped Male & Female Reproductive organs: Systems near lateral walls of pelvic cavity Female produces 1 gamete per month: 5 cm long, 2.5 cm wide, 8mm thick retains and nurtures zygote weigh 6–8 g Male disseminates large quantities of gametes: Ovary Support produces 1/2 billion sperm per day Mesovarium FEMALE Ovarian ligament: extends from uterus to ovary What are the components of the Suspensory ligament: female reproductive system? o extends from ovary to pelvic wall Structural Support o Contains major blood vessels of Broad ligament: ovary attaches to pelvic cavity OOGENESIS becomes continuous with parietal process of female gamete (egg or ovum) peritoneum formation in animals, including humans. Uterine/Fallopian tubes: Also called ovum production run along broad ligament The Ovarian Cycle open into pelvic cavity lateral to ovaries Includes monthly oogenesis: between puberty and menopause Oogonia Zona pellucida - region surrounding primary Also called stem cells of females: oocyte containing microvilli and glycoproteins complete mitotic divisions before birth Thecal cells - surround follicle and work with Fetal Development granulosa cells to produce estrogens Between third and seventh months: Antrum - Is the expanded central chamber of primary oocytes prepare for meiosis follicle and is surrounded by granulosa cells stop at prophase of meiosis I Corona radiata - granulosa cells associated with secondary oocyte Atresia Is the degeneration of primordial follicles: The Uterine Tubes Ovaries have about 2 million primordial follicles Fallopian tubes or oviducts at birth: Are hollow, muscular tubes about 13 cm each containing a primary oocyte long By puberty: 3 Segments of the Uterine Tube number drops to about 400,000 Infundibulum: Primary oocytes remain in suspended an expanded funnel near ovary development until puberty fimbriae extend into pelvic cavity At puberty: Inner surfaces lined with cilia that beat rising FSH triggers start of ovarian cycle toward middle segment The Ovarian Cycle Ampulla: middle segment smooth muscle layers in wall become thicker approaching uterus Isthmus: a short segment between ampulla and uterine wall The Uterus Provides for developing embryo (weeks 1– 8) and fetus (week 9 through delivery): mechanical protection, nutritional support, waste removal 3 Suspensory Ligaments of Uterus Ovarian Follicles Uterosacral extend from uterus in cortex of ovaries where oocyte growth ligaments to sacrum;prevent and meiosis I occur inferior–anterior Primary Oocytes movement in outer part of ovarian cortex extend through near tunica albuginea Round inguinal canal, end in Primordial Follicle connective tissues of ligaments external genitalia, Combination of primary oocyte and follicle cells and restrict posterior form a primordial follicle movement The Ovarian Cycle Lateral extend from base of After sexual maturation: (cardinal) uterus and vagina to a primordial follicle is activated each lateral walls of pelvis ligaments month and prevent inferior STEPS movement primary that become The Uterine Body follicles granulosa cells Also called corpus w/ follicular fluid that Is largest portion of uterus Ends at isthmus secondary accumulates between inner and The Cervix follicles outer layers of follicle Is inferior portion of uterus when the primary Extends from isthmus to vagina oocyte produces Distal end projects about 1.25 cm into vagina The Cervical Os secondary oocyte and tertiary follicle Also called external orifice of uterus polar body, then the Is surrounded by distal end of cervix secondary Leads into cervical canal oocyte drifts free in antrum The Cervical Canal Is a constricted passageway opening to uterine cavity MALE of body at internal os (internal orifice) What are the components of the male Nerves of the Uterus reproductive system? Autonomic fibers from hypogastric plexus Penis: (sympathetic) erectile organ The Endometrium contains distal portion of urethra Glandular and vascular tissues support physiological Testis demands of growing fetus 5 cm long, 3 cm wide, 2.5 cm thick Uterine Glands The Fetus: Formation of Testes Open onto endometrial surface The Fetus: Estrogen Gubernaculum Testis Causes uterine glands, blood vessels, and epithelium Is a bundle of connective tissue fibers to change with phases of monthly uterine cycle Locks testes in position (near anterior abdominal The Myometrium wall) as fetus grows The thickest portion of the uterine wall Male Reproductive System: Anterior View 2 Divisions of Endometrium The Spermatic Cords Functional zone: Enclose ductus deferens, blood vessels, nerves, and layer closest to uterine cavity lymphatic vessels of testes undergoes dramatic changes in thickness and structure during menstrual cycle The Inguinal Canals Basilar zone: Are passageways through abdominal musculature adjacent to myometrium Male Inguinal Hernias Contains terminal branches of tubular endometrial Protrusions of visceral tissues into inguinal canal glands The Dartos Muscle The Uterine Cycle Is a layer of smooth muscle in dermis of scrotum menstrual cycle Causes characteristic wrinkling of scrotal surface Is a repeating series of changes in endometrium The Cremaster Muscle Lasts from 21 to 35 days: Is a layer of skeletal muscle deep to dermis average 28 days Tenses scrotum and pulls testes closer to body Menstruation (temperature regulation) Is the process of endometrial sloughing Efferent Ductules Lasts 1–7 days 15–20 large efferent ductules: The Proliferative Phase connect rete testis to epididymis Epithelial cells of uterine glands multiply and spread Spermatogenesis across endometrial surface restore integrity of Is the process of sperm production uterine epithelium Begins at outermost cell layer in seminiferous tubules The Secretory Phase Fetal Müllerian Ducts Endometrial glands enlarge increase secretion Help form uterine tubes and uterus in females Menarche Sperm Maturation Begins at puberty (age 11–12) Testes produce physically mature spermatozoa that can Menopause not fertilize an oocyte Circulating concentrations of estrogens and progesterone decline termination of uterine cycles Age 45–55 Premature Menopause Is depletion of follicles before age 40 The Vagina Is an elastic, muscular tube that xtends between cervix and vestibule 7.5–9 cm long and highly distensible Fornix: is shallow recess surrounding cervical protrusion The Female External Genitalia Vulva - also called pudendum Is the area containing female external genitalia Vestibule - a central space bounded by small folds Clitoris - A small protruberance in vestibule  LYMPHATIC SYSTEM LYMPHATIC SYSTEM ANTIBODY VS. ANTIGEN Functions: Immunity results from the production of antibodies returns fluids that have leaked from the blood specific to a given antigen ( antibody-generators, vascular system back to the blood located on the surface of an invader ) There is as much 3L of fluid per day from the blood TYPES OF MATURE LYMPHOCYTES that remains in the tissue spaces WBC known as lymphocytes arise from by mitosis of stem DISTRIBUTION & STRUCTURE OF LYMPHATIC VESSELS cells or hemocytoblasts in the bone marrow 1. lymphatic capillaries T- CELLS Weaved between the tissue cells and blood capillaries Some lymphocytes migrate to the thymus and confer of nearly all tissues and organs of the body, except cell mediated immunity the central nervous system, bone, teeth, and bone Cell mediated immunity concerns cells in the body marrow that have been infected by viruses and bacteria, 2. lymphatic collecting vessels protect against parasites, fungi and protozoans and Next area where the lymph flows from the lymphatic also kill cancerous body cells capillaries HELPER T-CELLS Similar in structure with the veins but tend to be Chemically or directly stimulate the much more delicate with thinner wall proliferation of other T cells and of B cells 3. Lymphatic trunks that have become bound to antigen formed by the union of the largest collecting vessels CYTOTOXIC T- CELLS drain fairly large areas of the body named mostly Directly attack and lyse infected cells, from the regions from which they collect lymph cancer cells, as well as foreign human cells 4. Ducts introduced into the body such as blood A. Right lymphatic duct transfusion and organ transplants B. thoracic duct Receives lymph from the rest of the body except right SUPPRESSOR T-CELLS side of the head, neck, thorax and upper extremities Terminate normal immune responses by Has an enlarged sac called cisterna chyli which releasing suppressor factors that dampen collects lymph from 2 lumbar trunks which drain the the activity of helper T cells and B cells lower limbs, and intestinal trunk that drains the B- CELLS digestive organs Remain in the bone marrow and develop before LYMPHATIC ORGANS moving into the circulatory and lymph systems 1. LYMPH NODE Provides humoral immunity Distributed along the lymphatic vessels where lymph PRIMARY IMMUNE RESPONSE is filtered and antibodies are added Occur when antigen binds to the receptors Within the lymph node are macrophages which of B-cells causing clonal selection and engulf and destroy bacteria, cancer cells and any differentiation of B cells. Hence other particulate matter proliferation of B-cells, production of 2. THYMUS GLAND memory cells and antibodies Prominent in newborns, continues to increase in size SECONDARY IMMUNE RESPONSE during childhood, when it is most active, but by 40 Other clone members become memory B- years of age much of the thymus has been replaced cells, capable of mounting a rapid attack with fats against the same antigen in subsequent After 60 years of age, it is already to small to be found encounters during dissection ACTIVE HUMORAL I