Anatomy and Physiology - A.Y. 2024-2025 Midterm PDF

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. 2024-2025 | MR. RAPANOT | PRELIMS | ANGELICA MANAHAN|BSP 3.4 CHAPTER 1: ANIMAL TISSUE INTRODUCTION A tissue is a group of cells that usually have a common origin in an embryo and function together to carry out specialized activities. Histology is the...

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. 2024-2025 | MR. RAPANOT | PRELIMS | ANGELICA MANAHAN|BSP 3.4 CHAPTER 1: ANIMAL TISSUE INTRODUCTION A tissue is a group of cells that usually have a common origin in an embryo and function together to carry out specialized activities. Histology is the science that deals with the study of tissues. 4 TYPES OF BODY TISSUES 1. Epithelial tissue covers the body surfaces and lines hollow organs, body cavities, and ducts; it also CELL JUNCTIONS forms glands. This tissue allows the body to interact with both its internal and external environment. - Are contact points between the plasma 2. Connective tissue protects and supports the body membrane of tissue cells. Four most important and its organs. Various types of connective tissues types of cell junctions: bind organs together, store energy reserves as fat, TIGHT JUNCTIONS and help provide the body with immunity to disease-causing organism. Consist of weblike strands of transmembrane 3. Muscular tissue is composed of cells specialized for proteins that fuse together the outer surfaces of contraction and generation of force. In the adjacent plasma membranes to seal off process, muscular tissue generates heat that warms passageways between adjacent cells. the body. Holds cell together so there is no extracellular 4. Nervous tissue detects changes in a variety of space between them. conditions inside and outside the body and responds by generating electrical signals called GAP JUNCTIONS nerve action potential (nerve impulses) that At gap junctions, membrane called connexins activate muscular contractions and glandular form tiny fluid-filled tunnels called connexons that secretions. connect the neighboring cells. Forms an intercellular passageway between the membranes of adjacent cells. Allows the cells in a tissue to communicate with one another. ADHERENCE JUNCTIONS A dense layer of proteins on the inside of the plasma membrane that attaches both to membrane proteins and to microfilaments of the cytoskeleton. Acts like a belt that holds the epithelial cells together called adhesion belts. DESMOSOMES Contains plaque and have transmembrane protein like adherence junctions that extend into the intercellular space between adjacent cell membranes and attach to one another. Holds cell together like push button on a jacket. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. 2024-2025 | MR. RAPANOT | PRELIMS | ANGELICA MANAHAN|BSP 3.4 Attaches to cytoskeleton known as intermediate In discussing epithelia with multiple layers, the term filaments, which consists of protein keratin. apical layers refer to the most superficial layer of cells, and the basal layer is the deepest layer of cells. EPITHELIAL TISSUE BASEMENT MEMBRANE An epithelial tissue consists of cells arranged in continuous sheets, in either single or multiple layers. - Is a thin extracellular layer that commonly Epithelial is arranged in two general patterns in the consist of two layers, the basal lamina and body: reticular lamina. 1. Covering and lining various surfaces. Basal lamina- is closer to—and secreted by—the 2. Forming the secreting portions of glands. epithelial cells. Contains proteins such as laminin and collagen. Functionally, epithelial tissue protects, secretes (mucus, hormones, and enzymes), absorbs (nutrients in Reticular lamina- is closer to the underlying connective the gastrointestinal tract), and excretes (various tissue and contains proteins such as collagen substances in the urinary tract). produced by connective tissue cells called fibroblasts. Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES This tissue is highly cellular with little or no 1. Arrangement of cells in layers extracellular material. a. Simple epithelium is a single layer of cells Are avascular (no blood cells; uses diffusion) that functions in diffusion, filtration, Are capable of regeneration (easily secretion, or absorption. Secretion is the reproduce) production and release of substances such Exhibits polarity (structures differ from one as mucus, sweat, or enzymes. Absorption is another –roles and appearances) the intake of fluids or other substances such as digested food from intestinal tract. APICAL SURFACE b. Pseudostratified epithelium appears to have multiple layers of cells because the - The apical surface of an epithelial cell faces the cell nuclei lie at different levels and not all body surfaces, a body cavity, the lumen (interior cells reach the apical surface. Others space) of an internal organ, or a tubular duct that secrete mucus. receives cell secretion. c. Stratified epithelium consists of two or more - May contain cilia and microvilli. layers of cells that protect underlying CILIA – extension from the apical surface of the cell tissues in locations where there is that beat in unison. considerable wear and tear. 2. Cell Shapes MICROVILI – serve to increase the surface area of the a. Squamous cells are thin, which allows for apical aspects of the cell absorption. It captures rapid passage of substances through nutrients. them. b. Cuboidal cells are as tall as they are wide LATERAL SURFACE and are shaped like cubes or hexagon. - The lateral surfaces of an epithelial cell, which They may have microvilli at their apical face the adjacent cells on either side, may surface and function in either secretion or contain tight junctions and/or gap junctions. absorption. c. Columnar cells are much taller than they BASAL SURFACE are wide, like columns, and protect underlying tissues. Their apical surfaces - The basal surface of an epithelial cell is opposite may have cilia or microvilli, and they often the apical surface. are specialized for secretion and - It is the deepest layer of epithelial cells that absorption. adheres to extracellular materials such as the d. Transitional cells change shape, from basement membrane. squamous to cuboidal and back, as ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. 2024-2025 | MR. RAPANOT | PRELIMS | ANGELICA MANAHAN|BSP 3.4 organs such as the urinary bladder stretch (distend) to a larger size and then collapse to a smaller size. e. Glandular has goblet (goblet cells) area which produces mucus to lubricate the surface. It is a unicellular exocrine “gland” interspersed between the columnar or pseudostratified columnar epithelial cells of mucus membrane. CILIATED SIMPLE COLUMNAR SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM NONCILIATED PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM CILIATED PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR NONCILIATED SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. 2024-2025 | MR. RAPANOT | PRELIMS | ANGELICA MANAHAN|BSP 3.4 TRANSITIONAL Epithelial tissues work for protection, secretion, selective permeability, sensation, and surface parallel transport. STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE Connective tissue is one of the most abundant and widely distributed tissues in the body. In its various forms, connective tissue has a variety of functions. It binds together, support, and strengthens other body tissues; protects and insulates internal organs; compartmentalizes structures such as skeletal muscles; serves as a major transport system within the body; is the primary location of stored energy reserved; and is the min source of immune response. Characteristics of Connective Tissue STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL It consists of two basic elements: extracellular matrix and cells. The extracellular matrix consists of protein fibers and ground substances. It determines much of the tissue’s qualities. Does not occur in body surface. Highly vascular; that it has a rich blood supply. Except for cartilage, which is avascular, connective tissue is supplied with nerves. COMPONENTS OF CONNECIVE TISSUE STRATIFIED COLUMNAR FIBERS 1. Collagen fibers – are strong, flexible bundles of the protein collagen, the most abundant protein in your body. These are flexible but resist stretching. 2. Reticular fibers – are made of collagen and glycoproteins. They provide support in blood vessel walls and form branching networks around various cells (fat, smooth muscle, nerve). 3. Elastic fibers – are stretchable but strong fibers made of proteins, elastin, and fibrillin. They are found in skin, blood vessels, and lung tissue. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. 2024-2025 | MR. RAPANOT | PRELIMS | ANGELICA MANAHAN|BSP 3.4 CELLS - Function: serves as an energy reserve, support and protect organs. Intrinsic - do not move - fibroblast, undifferentiated mesenchymal cells, pigment, adipocytes, pericytes, mast, macrophages. Migrant/transfer - moving cells - macrophages, lymphocytes, plasma, neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE c. Reticular Connective Tissue LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER - is a fine interlacing network of reticular fibers (thin form of collagen fiber) and reticular cells. The fibers of loose connective tissue are loosely - Mesh-like, supportive framework for soft organs arranged between cells. Found between many such as lymphatic tissue, the spleen, and the organs where it acts both to absorb shock and bind liver. tissues together. - Function: forms stroma of organs; binds smooth muscle tissue cells; filters and removes worn-out blood cells in spleen and microbes in lymph a. Areolar Connective Tissue nodes. - is one of the most widely distributed connective tissues. - Fills the spaces between muscle fibers, surrounds blood and lymph vessels, and supports organ in abdominal cavity. - Underlies most epithelial, including between our skin and our muscles or bones. - Function: strength, elasticity, support. DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER The type of connective tissue proper that contains more fibers, which are thicker and more densely packed, but have considerably fewer cells than loose connective tissue. b. Adipose Tissue a. Dense Regular Connective Tissue - Has cells derived form fibroblast (adipocytes) - Forms a shine white extracellular matrix; mainly that are specialized for storage of triglycerides collagen and fibers regularly arranged in (fats) as large, centrally located droplet. bundles with fibroblasts in rows between them. - White adipose: contains lipid storage and can - Fibers are parallel to each other, enhancing serve as insulation. tensile strength in the direction. - Brown adipose: thermogenic- releases - Function: provides strong attachment metabolic heat. Found mainly in the neck and between various structures. Can withstand clavicle. pulling along long axis of fibers. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. 2024-2025 | MR. RAPANOT | PRELIMS | ANGELICA MANAHAN|BSP 3.4 SUPPORTING CONNECTIVE TISSUE This type of mature connective tissue includes cartilage and bone. CARTILAGE - Consists of dense network of collagen fibers and elastic fibers firmly embedded in chondroitin sulfate, a gel-like component of the ground substance. a. Hyaline Cartilage b. Dense Irregular Connective Tissue - Contains a resilient gel as ground substances - is made up of collagen fiber; usually irregularly and appears in the body as a bluish-white, arranged with a few fibroblasts. shiny substance. - Function: provides tensile strength in many - Provide support to the structures in which it is directions. found, with some flexibility, and it forms smooth surface. - Function: provides smooth surfaces for movement at joints, flexibility, and support; weakest type of cartilage and can be fractures c. Elastic Connective Tissue - Contains predominantly elastic fibers with fibroblasts between them; unstained tissue is yellowish. - Function: allows stretching of various organs; is b. Fibrocartilage strong and can recoil to original shape after - Has chondrocytes among clearly visible thick being stretched. Elasticity is important to bundles of collagen fibers within extracellular normal functioning of lung tissue and elastic matrix; lacks perichondrium. arteries. - Is somewhat flexible and capable of withstanding. - Function: support and joining structures together. Strength and rigidly make it the strongest type of cartilage. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. 2024-2025 | MR. RAPANOT | PRELIMS | ANGELICA MANAHAN|BSP 3.4 FLUID CONNECTIVE TISSUE This is the final type of mature connective tissue. A liquid connective tissue has a liquid as its extracellular matrix. a. Blood - One of the liquid connective tissues has liquid extracellular matrix called blood plasma and formed elements. - Blood transport oxygen, carbon dioxide, c. Elastic Cartilage hormones, nutrients, and waste products. - has chondrocytes in threadlike network of - Mostly migrant cells elastic fibers within extracellular matrix; - Blood plasma is the most component of the perichondrium present. blood; also consist of RBC and WBC, platelets - Provides rigidity, but with flexibility than hyaline - Function: supporting and connective tissues; cartilage because elastic fibers return to their protection, defense, transport, energy original shape after being stretched. transform d. Bone - Provides great strength and support and MUSCULAR TISSUE protects internal organs such as brain. Muscular tissue consists of elongated cells called - Bone also provides attachment sites for muscle fibers or myocytes that can use ATP to muscles and ligament. generate force. It produces body movements, - Compact bone tissue- consists of osteons that maintains posture, and generate heat. contain lamellae, lacunae, osteocytes, canaliculi, and central canals. By contrast, Characteristic of Muscular Tissue spongy bone tissue consists of thin columns Excitability called trabecular; spaces between Contractability trabeculae are filled with red bone marrow. Extensibility - Function: support, protection, storage; house Elasticity blood-forming tissue; serves as levers that act with muscle tissue to enable movement. a. Skeletal Muscle Tissue - Consist of long, cylindrical, striated fibers. - Skeletal muscle fibers vary greatly in length, from a few centimeters in short muscles to 30- 40 cm in the longest muscles. - A muscle fiber is roughly cylindrical, multinucleated cell with nuclei at the periphery. - Forms the muscles that move our bones and joint. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. 2024-2025 | MR. RAPANOT | PRELIMS | ANGELICA MANAHAN|BSP 3.4 - For voluntary movement. NERVOUS TISSUE Despite the awesome complexity of the nervous system, nervous tissues consist of only two principal types of cells; neurons and neuroglia. Neurons - Or nerve cells are sensitive to various stimuli. - They convert stimuli into electric signals called nerve action potentials (nerve impulses) and conduct these to other neurons, to muscle tissue, or to glands. b. Cardiac Muscle Tissue - It consists of three basic parts; cell body and - Consists of branched, striated fibers with usually two kinds of cell processes—dendrites and only one centrally located nucleus. axons. - Attach end to end by transverse thickening of - Cell body- contains the nucleus and other plasma membrane called intercalated discs, organelles. which contain desmosomes and gap - Dendrites- are tapering, highly branched, and junctions. usually short cell processes. - Found in the heart wall. - Axon- of a neuron is a single, thin, cylindrical - Function: pumps blood to all parts of body. process that may be very long. It is the output - Involuntary control. portion of a neuron, conducting nerve impulses toward another neuron or to some other tissue. a. Nervous Tissue - Consists of neurons, which consist of cell body and processes extending from cell body; and neuroglia, which do not generate or conduct nerve impulses but have other important supporting functions. - Function: exhibits sensitivity to various types of c. Smooth Muscle Tissue stimuli; converts stimuli into nerve impulses; - Consists of nonstriated fibers and thousand conducts nerve impulses to other neurons, times smaller than skeletal muscle. muscle fibers, or glands. - Function: motion (constriction of blood vessels and airways, propulsion of foods through gastrointestinal tract, contraction of urinary bladder and gallbladder) - Involuntary control ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. 2024-2025 | MR. RAPANOT | PRELIMS | ANGELICA MANAHAN|BSP 3.4 CHAPTER 2: INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM Skin is the largest organ. Integumentary system is the largest body system in terms of surface area. 16% of the body mass came from the skin. Stratum Basale/germinativum THE THREE LAYERS OF THE SKIN Single layer of cell; composed of basal cells. EPIDERMIS Basal cells (stem cells) are precursors of Layer of epithelial issue that rest on the dermis. keratinocytes. Consist of highly keratinized squamous Continuously doing mitosis. epithelial cell. Stratum spinosum upon/over the skin Came from the word spiny because there are Thinnest layer projections on the outer part of the cell. DERMIS Layer of keratinocytes. Layers of dense connective tissue. Stratum granulosum Other structures of the skin: hair follicles, nerve Layer of flattened cells. endings, and blood vessels; glands. Cells are granulated due to the presence of Quite thick keratin. HYPODERMIS Keratin allows the skin to have a color; makes Loose connective tissue that contains about skin tough. the half the body’s stored fat. Stratum lucidum Is not a layer of the skin. Layer of dead cells. The thickest Not all of the body parts covered by the skin is covered with stratum lucidum; mostly in the palm of the hand and sole of the foot. Eleidin makes the layer transparent, lucid in color. Stratum corneum Superficial epidermal layer. Came from the word cornified, means highly keratinized; cells are dead. EPIDERMIS Thinnest layer Highly avascular Superficial layer of the skin; exposed directly to the environment. Composed of keratinocytes. Most of the cells are dead, but highly keratinized. MERKEL CELLS AND LARGERHANS CELL 4-5 layers 4 layers of stratum is described as thin; if 5, it is described as thick ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. 2024-2025 | MR. RAPANOT | PRELIMS | ANGELICA MANAHAN|BSP 3.4 DERMIS Papillary layer The upper dermal region. Dermal papillae; a finger-like projection; results to the formation of fingerprints. Reticular layer The deepest dermal region. See most of your sweat gland. Arrector pili muscle; causes to feel goosebumps. We experienced that because of the contraction on arrector pili. Merkel Cell Responsible for stimulating sensory nerves that the brain perceives as touch. Found in stratum basale. A cell that acts as a receptor; receives stimulus from the external environment that will be FACTORS TO SKIN COLOR directly move to the brain, as a sense of touch. 1. The amount and kind of melanin in the Abundant in the palms of your hand and sole epidermis. Types: eumelanin–black to brown, of your feet. pheomelanin–reddish. Langerhans 2. The amount of carotene deposited in the Function as macrophages by engulfing stratum corneum and subcutaneous tissue. bacteria, foreign particles, and damaged cells Carotene is a protein inside the cell of the skin that occur in this layer. (orange color). Found in stratum spinosum 3. The amount of oxygen bound to hemoglobin For immunity in the dermal blood vessels. Protects us from invading foreign materials that 4. The emotional stimuli. try to invade the skin. KERATINOCYTES AND MELANOCYTES SKIN COLOR MEANING Keratinocytes 1. Erythema - redness Cell that manufactures and stores the protein 2. Pallor - blanching (paleness) keratin. 3. Jaundice - yellow cast Allows the structure to harden. 4. Bruises - black and blue marks Melanocytes A cell that produces the pigment melanin. APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN Pigmentation happens when we are exposed CUTANEOUS GLAND to the uv rays that comes from the sun. Sebaceous gland Melanosome is a vesicle that transfer the A type of oil gland found all over the body and melanin produced by melanocytes. Purpose is helps to lubricate and waterproof the skin and to cover your nucleus. hair. UV rays’ type Produces sebum that lubricates the skin. Which UVB- is not that harmful and can penetrate your skin is produced based on hormonal changes. but not the deepest layer. Sweat Glands UVA- can cause skin cancer. Produces sweat to cool the body. Eccrine sweat gland; produces the regular sweat. Known to be hypotonic. Found in most body parts. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. 2024-2025 | MR. RAPANOT | PRELIMS | ANGELICA MANAHAN|BSP 3.4 Apocrine sweat gland; usually associated with hair follicles in densely hairy areas, such as armpits and genital regions. High in organic substances. Nails Is a thin plate, consisting of layers of dead stratum corneum cells that contain a very hard type of keratin. Not vascular, but the bed of the nail is vascular. Hairs Highly keratinized Is a keratinous filament growing out of the epidermis. It is primarily made of dead, keratinized cells. Cuticle is a fatty substance that protects the hair. Medulla is the core of the hair Cortex surrounds the medulla The strand if curly or straight is due to the cortex of the hair. Follicle undergoes mitosis. Used to protect the skin, even for insulation. Filters the materials that enters the skin. Arrector pili contracts in response to nerve signals. Cycles of hair growth 1. ANAGEN PHASE- growing phase (2-7years) 2. Catagen phase - transition phase (active growth, 2-3 weeks) 3. Telogen phase - resting phase (2-4 months) It will grow and regrow INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM Comprises of the skin and its derivatives Functions of the skin Covering Protection Thermal regulation Excretion of urea and uric acid Synthesis of vitamin d Chromatophore Is a specialized structure in the skin of the frog that enables them to get oxygen from their surroundings. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. 2024-2025 | MR. RAPANOT | PRELIMS | ANGELICA MANAHAN|BSP 3.4 CHAPTER 3: Can withstand pressure and force. Elastic Cartilage Provides support SKELETAL SYSTEM Elastic in the sense that you can stretch it and BONE back to its original state. Cartilage is a connecting supportive tissue without A bone is an organ made up of several different tissues blood vessels. Cartilage is not that hard compared to working together; bone (osseous) tissue, cartilage, bone. dense connective tissue, epithelium, adipose, and nervous tissue. The study of bone disorders is referred to as osteology. BASIC FUNCTIONS 1. Support. The skeleton serves as the structural framework for the body by supporting soft tissues and providing attachment points for the tendons of skeletal muscles. 2. Protection. It protects most important internal organs from injury. Hyaline cartilage has a high concentration of 3. Assistance in movement. Most skeletal muscles chondrocyte. Lacunae is a space where attach to bones; when they contract, they pull on chondrocytes are placed. bones to produce movements. Fibrocartilage– collagen fibers are high and is spread 4. Mineral homeostasis (storage and release). It out in the matrix. stores several minerals, especially calcium and BONE/ OSSEOUS TISSUE phosphorus, which contribute to the strength of Is hard dense connective tissue bone. On demand, bone releases minerals into Fibers in the bones are arranged in pattern. the blood to maintain critical mineral balances Bone can be categorized as a supporting and to distribute mineral to other parts of the tissue. body. Known for its wide range of function. 5. Blood cell production. Within certain bones, a Protects the internal organs of the body. connective tissue called red bone marrow Stores and releases fat produces red blood cells, white blood cells, and Produces blood cells–process is called platelets, a process called hemopoiesis. Present in hematopoiesis (RBC, WBC, Platelets) developing bones of fetus and in some adult Stores and releases minerals bones. With increasing age, much of the bone Facilitates movement marrow changes from red to yellow. Supports the body 6. Triglyceride storage. Yellow bone marrow consists Femur- the longest bone of the body. mainly of adipose cells, which store triglycerides. The stored triglycerides are a potential chemical energy reserve. TWO IMPORTANT STRUCTURES CARTILAGE Nonvascular type of supporting connective tissue that is found throughout the body. Receives nutrients via filtration or diffusion Hyaline Cartilage At the top of the of the femur is where red bone Has a smooth surface and is the most common marrow situated, which produces blood cells. of the three types of cartilage. Spongy bone area produces red bone marrow. Fibrocartilage Is the toughest of the three types of cartilage. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. 2024-2025 | MR. RAPANOT | PRELIMS | ANGELICA MANAHAN|BSP 3.4 Yellow bone marrow is produced in the compact Diaphysis bone area. It produces fats. Is the tubular shaft that runs between the CLASSIFICATION OF BONES proximal and distal ends of the bone. Flat Bone Distal epiphysis Thin and curvy Is the wider section at each end of the bone Long bone Normally called head of the bone. Cylinder like shape longer than it is wide Articular cartilage Sesamoid bone Covering of the bone to eliminate friction. Small and round: embedded in tendons Metaphysis and epiphysis Irregular bone Periosteum Complex shape location of the bone where most of the Short bone nutrients are coming true Cube-liked shape: approximately equal in A fibrous membrane, contains blood vessels, length, width, and thickness nerves, and lymphatic vessels that nourish Pneumatized compact bone. Hollow or full of air pockets. Endosteum A delicate membranous lining, where bone LONG BONE growth, repair, and remodeling occur. FLAT BONE BONE CELLS Metaphysis The narrow area that contains the epiphyseal plate (growth plate), a layer of hyaline cartilage in a growing bone. Narrow area between epiphysis and diaphysis. Medullary cavity Is the hollow region in diaphysis, which is filled with yellow marrow. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. 2024-2025 | MR. RAPANOT | PRELIMS | ANGELICA MANAHAN|BSP 3.4 Osteocyte and nerves to provide nutrients to the cells and other Maintain mineral concentration of matrix components of the tissue. Primary mature cell of the bone Perpetrating canal allows some vessels to move in Do not undergo mitotic division some parts of the bone. Found in lacunae, surrounded by tissue. Osteoblast Bone formation Never undergo mitotic division. Found in growing area of the bond. Releases, secretes, synthesizes collagen matrix. Capacity to release calcium salt. Once calcified, they surround the osteoblast, once trapped become the osteocytes. Osteogenic cell Develop into osteoblasts SPONGY BONE Known to be stem cells for osteoblast. Contains osteocytes housed in lacunae, but Undergo mitosis they are not arranged in concentrix circles. Osteoclast Shows mesh-like arrangement. Bone resorption. Reabsorbed the presence of calcium Remove the components of the bone that are not needed. Found on the surface of the bone Hydroxyapatite Produced due to the reaction by calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate. This makes the bone part BONE TISSUE COMPACT BONE The spaces allow movement. Denser, stronger of the two types of bone BLOOD AND NERVES SUPPLY tissue. It can be found under periosteum and in Vessels enter the bone via nutrient foramen. the diaphysis of long bones, where it provides As the blood passes through the marrow support and protection. cavities, it is collected by veins, passing out of Osteon the bone through the foramina. Comprises Concentrix lamellae where you can Blood low in oxygen, high in waste materials via see the lacunae in which you can see the the veins and move out of the bone. osteocytes. Nerves follow the same paths into the bone, where they tend to concentrate in the more metabolically active regions of the bone. The middle part is called the haversian canal, where blood vessels, arteries and veins, lymphatic vessels, ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. 2024-2025 | MR. RAPANOT | PRELIMS | ANGELICA MANAHAN|BSP 3.4 OSTEOGENIC PATHWAYS Intramembranous ossification Process involves the direct conversion of mesenchyme to the bone. For your bones to develop Happens from fetal to development stage Your mesenchyme becomes your osteocytes and the osteocytes turns to become bone tissue. From mesenchyme to bone Endochondral ossification Involves the replacement of hyaline cartilage with bone Cartilage become the bone. The ossification center will be the one that will be calcified. Precursor of osteoblast. There is ossification center, where bone starts to develop. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. 2024-2025 | MR. RAPANOT | PRELIMS | ANGELICA MANAHAN|BSP 3.4 INTERSTITIAL BONE GROWTH Reserved zone The reserved zone contains small chondrocytes within the matrix that do not participate in bone growth but secure the epiphyseal plate to the osseous tissues of the epiphysis. Proliferative zone The proliferative zone makes new chondrocytes via mitosis to replace those that die at the diaphyseal end of the plate. Maturation and hypertrophy Chondrocytes are older and larger than those in the proliferative zone. As bone matures, the epiphyseal plate progress to an epiphyseal line. Epi plates are visible in a growing bone. APPOSITIONAL BONE GROWTH AXIAL AND APPENDICULAR Axial skeleton 80 bones Forms the vertical, central axis of the body and includes all bones of the head, neck, chest, Calcified matrix and back. Chondrocytes are dead because the matrix around them has calcified and connects the Appendicular epiphyseal plate to the diaphysis. 106 bones Includes all bones of the upper and lower limbs, plus the bones that attach each limb to the axial skeleton. BONY MARKINGS ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. 2024-2025 | MR. RAPANOT | PRELIMS | ANGELICA MANAHAN|BSP 3.4 ARTICULATIONS Joints are the location where bones come together. Many joints allow movement between the bones 1. Functional Classification Synarthrosis - an immobile or nearly immobile joints Amphiarthrosis - a joint that has limited mobility Diarthrosis - a freely mobile joint DIARTHROSIS Nonaxial joint Do not move about a plane JOINTS THAT MOVE IN THE BODY Goes against the plate Pivot joint Uniaxial joints Allow for rotation around an axis, which allows a=only allows for a motion in a single plane for side-to-side rotation of the head. Biaxial joint biaxial A metacarpophalangeal joint of the hand Hinge joint (knuckle joint) Works like a door hinge Multiaxial joint Uniaxial A joint that allows for several directions of Saddle joints movements Can move up and down and back and forth 2. Structural classification Ball and socket joint Fibrous joint Allows wide range of movement in almost any Where the adjacent bones are united by direction fibrous connective tissue Multiaxial Suture- narrow fibrous joint found between Condyloid joint most bones and skull Are elongated ball-and-socket joints Syndemosis- which two parallel bones are Plane joint united to each other by FCT Allow for limited gliding movement between Gomphosis- between the roots of a toth and bones the bony socket in the jaw into which the tooth Uniaxial fits. MOVEMENTS OF THE BODY Cartilaginous joint Flexion The bones are joined by hyaline cartilage or Extension fibrocartilage. Abduction Sychondrosis - the bones are joined by hyaline Rotation- lateral/medial cartilage Pronation Symphysis- bones joined by fibrocartilage Supination Synovial joint Plantar flexion The bones are not directly connected but Inversion instead come into contact with each other Protection and retraction within a joint cavity that is filled with lubricating Elevation and depression fluid. Opposition ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. 2024-2025 | MR. RAPANOT | PRELIMS | ANGELICA MANAHAN|BSP 3.4 CHAPTER 3: Maintain balance and position of the body. Also prevent excess movements of bones and joints to eliminate damage. MUSCULAR SYSTEM Also controls movement of substances. MUSCULAR SYSTEM Allows us to shallow, urinate, and defecation. All exhibits excitability Also protects the internal organs. Integrated tissues SKELETAL MUSCLE Skeletal muscle These muscles work with your bones, tendons and Blood vessels ligaments Nerve fibers Moves the skeleton and it is multinucleated (many Connective tissue nucleus) Has three layers of connective tissue Its contraction makes it possible for us to move 1. Mysia 44% of our body mass Has long large cylindrical cell The heat in this muscle helps in regulating the body temperature. Hypertrophy - process in which cells grow in size and length. Has myocyte Voluntary CARDIAC MUSCLE Epimysium These muscles line in the heart walls A sheath of dense, irregular connective tissue Connected to the nervous system and reacts to that surrounds each muscle stimuli Moves powerfully while maintaining the Has cardiomyocytes (type of cell) structural integrity of the skeletal muscle Has myocyte (type of cell) Separates organ in the area, allowing muscles Intercalated disc - combination of anchoring to work independently. junctions and gap junctions. Muscle fiber Also, not capable of mitosis. Organize in individual bundles called fascicle Involuntary Enclosed by collagen and reticular fibers Perimysium SMOOTH MUSCLE A sheath of connective tissue surrounding These muscles line the insides of organs such as each individual fascicle the bladder, stomach and intestines Fascicle is made in the middle of perimysium Capable of mitosis. Endomysium Involuntary A sheath of connective tissue surrounding each individual muscle fiber Contains nutrients to support muscle fibers STRUCTURES OF MUSCLE CELLS STRUCTURES OF SKELETAL MUSCLE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. 2024-2025 | MR. RAPANOT | PRELIMS | ANGELICA MANAHAN|BSP 3.4 Commonly referred to as muscle fibers MOTOR UNITS Cells are multinucleated Sacro meaning flesh Sarcoplasmic reticulum is a specialized endoplasmic reticulum Sarcoplasm is the cytoplasm of muscle cells/fibers Two types of myofilament / myofibrils Actin - the one that contracts or shorten Myosin - Arranged along with other proteins like troponin and tropomyosin Sarcomere Basic structural and functional unit of skeletal muscle because it is the smallest portion of the skeletal muscle capable of contracting Arranged in sequential order. Axon terminals are connected to motor neurons. Attached to sarcolemma 1. Small motor unit - single motor neuron that The arrangement creates striations supplies a small number of muscle fibers (6 or Combination of myofilament more so), which permits fine motor Thick filament- myosin movements. Thin filament- actin 2. Large motor unit - single motor units supplies large number of muscle fibers in one muscle. Neuromuscular junctions The site where a motor neuron meets the muscle fiber Motor neurons A group of muscle fibers in a muscle innervated by a single motor neuron CONTRACTION AND RELAXATION OF MUSCLE FIBERS Myofibrils Is a threadlike structure that extends from one end of the muscle fiber to other. Component of sarcomere. Does contraction. 1. An action potential arrives at neuromuscular junction. 2. Acetylcholine is released, binds to receptors, and opens sodium ion channels, leading to an action potential in sarcolemma ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. 2024-2025 | MR. RAPANOT | PRELIMS | ANGELICA MANAHAN|BSP 3.4 3. Action potential travels along the t-tubules. Some of the ATP is stored in muscles. 4. The released of calcium ions will bind to the troponin of your actin filament. 5. Muscle shortens and produces tension. It will lengthen and relaxes later on. TYPES OF MUSCLE FIBERS FUNCTIONS OF MUSCULAR SYSTEM Body movement - Contraction of skeletal muscles is responsible for the overall movement of the body, such as walking, running, or manipulating objects with the hands Maintenance of posture - Skeletal muscles constantly maintain tone, which keeps us sitting or standing erect Respiration - Muscles of the thorax are responsible for the movement necessary for respiration. Slow twitch - aerobic type of ATP production Intermediate - primary aerobic but can switch to Product of the body heat - when skeletal muscles anaerobic. contract, heat is given off as a by-product. Fast twitch- anaerobic glycolysis type of ATP Communication - skeletal muscles are involved in all FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTIC OF SKELETAL MUSCLE aspects of communication, such as speaking, writing, 1. Contractility typing, gesturing, and facial expressions. 2. Extensibility 3. Excitability Heartbeat - the contraction of cardiac muscle causes 4. Elasticity the heat to beat, propelling blood to all parts of the body SKELETAL MUSCLE ANATOMY Two points of attachment - origin and insertion Aponeuroses - sheetlike tendons Origin - head, is the most stationary end of the muscle. Insertion - end of the muscle attached to the bone Belly - between the origin and insertion