AMSCO® Advanced Placement® United States History, 4th Edition PDF

Advanced Placement® and AP® are trademarks registered and/or owned by the College Board, which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, this product. Page intentionally left blank. ADVANCED PLACEMENT EDITION ®   ...

Advanced Placement® and AP® are trademarks registered and/or owned by the College Board, which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, this product. Page intentionally left blank. ADVANCED PLACEMENT EDITION ®    © 2021 Perfection Learning® Please visit our website at: www.perfectionlearning.com When ordering the student book, please specify: ISBN: 978-1-6903-0550-7 or T168801 ebook ISBN: 978-1-6903-0551-4 or T1688D All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. For information regarding permissions, write to: Permissions Department, Perfection Learning, 2680 Berkshire Parkway, Des Moines, Iowa 50325. 2 3 4 5 6 7 SBI 25 24 23 22 21 20 Printed in the United States of America Authors John J. Newman, Ed.D., served for many years as an Advanced Placement® U.S. History teacher and the Department Coordinator of Art, Foreign Language, and Social Studies at Naperville North High School, Naperville, Illinois. He continued his career as Adjunct Professor of History at the College of DuPage and Adjunct Assistant Professor of History Education at Illinois State University. John M. Schmalbach, Ed.D., taught Advanced Placement® U.S. History and was Social Studies Department head at Abraham Lincoln High School, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He continued his career as Adjunct Assistant Professor at Temple University. This book is dedicated to our wives, Anne Newman and Rosemarie Schmalbach; our children, Louise Newman, and John, Suzanne, and Robert Schmalbach; and our students, who share our study of America’s past. Reviewers and Consultants Chris Averill, Former Member of the AP® U.S. History Development Committee Cosby High School | Midlothian, Virginia Paul Faeh, AP® U.S. History Exam Leader Hinsdale South High School | Darien, Illinois Kamasi Hill, AP® U.S. History Teacher Evanston Township High School | Evanston, Illinois John P. Irish, Former Co-Chair of the AP® U.S. History Development Committee Carroll Senior High School | Southlake, Texas Michael Kim, AP® U.S. History Exam Table Leader Schurr High School | Montebello, California Susan Pingel, AP® U.S. History Exam Table Leader Skaneateles High School (retired) | Skaneateles, New York James Sabathne, Former Co-Chair of the AP® U.S. History Development Committee Hononegah Community High School | Rockton, Illinois  Contents Preface xxv Introduction xxvi UNIT 1—Period 1: 1491–1607 Topic 1.1 Contextualizing Period 1 1 Learning Objective: Explain the context for European encounters in the Americas from 1491 to 1607. Analyze the Context and Landmark Events 2 Topic 1.2 Native American Societies Before European Contact 3 Learning Objective: Explain how various native populations interacted with the natural environment in North America in the period before European contact. Cultures of Central and South America 3 Cultures of North America 4 Topic Review and Practice 6 Topic 1.3 European Exploration in the Americas 8 Learning Objective: Explain the causes of exploration and conquest of the New World by various European nations. The European Context for Exploration 8 Expanding Trade 9 Developing Nation-States 10 Dividing the Americas 10 Topic Review and Practice 12 Topic 1.4 Columbian Exchange, Spanish Exploration, and Conquest 14 Learning Objective: Explain causes of the Columbian Exchange and its effect on Europe and the Americas during the period after 1492. Christopher Columbus 14 The Columbian Exchange 15 The Rise of Capitalism 15 Historical Perspectives: Was Columbus a Great Hero? 15 Topic Review and Practice 16 Topic 1.5 Labor, Slavery, and Caste in the Spanish Colonial System 19 Learning Objective: Explain how the growth of the Spanish Empire in North America shaped the development of social and economic structures over time. Spanish Exploration and Conquest 19 Spanish Caste System 20 Topic Review and Practice 20 Topic 1.6 Cultural Interactions in the Americas 23 Learning Objective: Explain how and why European and Native American perspectives of others developed and changed in the period. European Treatment of Native Americans 23 iv UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION  Survival Strategies by Native Americans 25 The Role of Africans in America 25 Topic Review and Practice 25 Topic 1.7 Causation in Period 1 27 Learning Objective: Explain the effects of the development of transatlantic voyages from 1491 to 1607. Questions About Causation 27 Think as a Historian: Analyzing Evidence 28 UNIT 1—Period 1 Review: 1491–1607 30 Write As a Historian: Checklist for a Long Essay Answer 30 Long Essay Questions 31 UNIT 2—Period 2: 1607–1754 Topic 2.1 Contextualizing Period 2 32 Learning Objective: Explain the context for the colonization of North America from 1607 to 1754. Early Settlements 32 Sources of Labor 33 Analyze the Context and Landmark Events 33 Topic 2.2 European Colonization in North America 34 Learning Objective: Explain how and why various European colonies developed and expanded from 1607 to 1754. Spanish Colonies 34 French Colonies 35 Dutch Colonies 35 British Colonies 36 Topic Review and Practice 36 Topic 2.3 The Regions of British Colonies 38 Learning Objective: Explain how and why environmental and other factors shaped the development and expansion of various British colonies that developed and expanded from 1607 to 1754. Early English Settlements 38 Development of New England 41 Restoration Colonies 43 Early Political Institutions 46 Topic Review and Practice 46 Topic 2.4 Transatlantic Trade 49 Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of transatlantic trade over time. Triangular Trade 49 Mercantilism and the Empire 50 The Dominion of New England 52 Ongoing Trade Tensions 52 Topic Review and Practice 52 CONTENTS v Topic 2.5 Interactions Between American Indians and Europeans 54 Learning Objective: Explain how and why interactions between various European nations and American Indians changed over time. Conflict in New England 54 Conflict in Virginia 55 Spanish Rule and the Pueblo Revolt 56 Topic Review and Practice 56 Topic 2.6 Slavery in the British Colonies 59 Learning Objective 1: Explain the causes and effects of slavery in the various British colonial regions. Learning Objective 2: Explain how enslaved people responded to slavery. Demand for Labor 59 The Institution of Slavery 60 Topic Review and Practice 61 Topic 2.7 Colonial Society and Culture 63 Learning Objective 1: Explain how and why the movement of a variety of people and ideas across the Atlantic contributed to the development of American culture over time. Learning Objective 2: Explain how and why the different goals and interests of European leaders and colonists affected how they viewed themselves and their relationship with Britain. Population Growth 63 The Structure of Colonial Society 65 The Great Awakening 67 Cultural Life 68 The Enlightenment 70 The Colonial Relationship with Britain 70 Politics and Government 71 Historical Perspectives: Was Colonial Society Democratic? 72 Topic Review and Practice 73 Topic 2.8 Comparisons in Period 2 75 Learning Objective: Compare the effects of the development of colonial society in the various regions of North America. Questions About Comparison 76 Think as a Historian: Argumentation 77 UNIT 2—Period 2 Review: 1607–1754 78 Write As a Historian: Historical Thinking Skills and Long Essays 78 Long Essay Questions 79 Document-Based Question 80 vi UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION UNIT 3—Period 3: 1754–1800 Topic 3.1 Contextualizing Period 3 84 Learning Objective: Explain the context in which America gained independence and developed a sense of national identity. Analyze the Context and Landmark Events 85 Topic 3.2 The Seven Years’ War 86 Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of the Seven Years’ War (the French and Indian War). Empires at War, 1689–1763 86 The First Three Wars 86 The Decisive Conflict 87 Reorganization of the British Empire 89 Topic Review and Practice 90 Topic 3.3 Taxation Without Representation 92 Learning Objective: Explain how British colonial policies regarding North America led to the Revolutionary War. British Actions and Colonial Reactions 92 New Revenues and Regulations 93 Second Phase of the Crisis, 1767–1773 94 Renewal of the Conflict 95 Intolerable Acts 96 The Demand for Independence 96 Topic Review and Practice 97 Topic 3.4 Philosophical Foundations of the American Revolution 100 Learning Objective: Explain how and why colonial attitudes about government and the individual changed in the years leading up to the American Revolution. Enlightenment Ideas 100 Thomas Paine’s Argument for Independence 101 Historical Perspectives: Why Did the Colonies Rebel? 101 Topic Review and Practice 102 Topic 3.5 The American Revolution 104 Learning Objective: Explain how various factors contributed to the American victory in the Revolution. The First Continental Congress 104 Fighting Begins 105 The Second Continental Congress 106 Peace Efforts 106 The Declaration of Independence 106 The Revolutionary War 107 The Competing Sides 107 Initial American Losses and Hardships 108 Alliance with France 108 CONTENTS vii  Victory 109 Topic Review and Practice 109 Topic 3.6 The Influence of Revolutionary Ideals 111 Learning Objective 1: Explain the various ways the American Revolution affected society. Learning Objective 2: Describe the global impact of the American Revolution. Women in the Revolutionary Era 111 The Status of Enslaved African Americans 112 Native Americans and Independence 112 International Impact of the American Revolution 112 Historical Perspectives: How Unusual Was the Revolution? 113 Topic Review and Practice 114 Topic 3.7 The Articles of Confederation 117 Learning Objective: Explain how different forms of government developed and changed as a result of the Revolutionary Period. Organization of New Governments 117 State Governments 117 The Articles of Confederation 118 The United States Under the Articles, 1781–1789 118 Weaknesses of the Articles 120 Topic Review and Practice 120 Topic 3.8 The Constitutional Convention and Debates Over Ratification 123 Learning Objective: Explain the differing ideological positions on the structure and function of the federal government. The Annapolis Convention 123 Drafting the Constitution at Philadelphia 123 The Delegates 124 Key Issues at the Convention 125 Federalists and Anti-Federalists 126 The Federalist Papers 127 The Path to Ratification 127 Topic Review and Practice 128 Topic 3.9 The Constitution 130 Learning Objective: Explain the continuities and changes in the structure and functions of the government with the ratification of the Constitution. Federalism 130 Separation of Powers 131 The Bill of Rights 131 Topic Review and Practice 132 viii UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION Topic 3.10 Shaping a New Republic 135 Learning Objective 1: Explain how and why competition intensified conflict among peoples and nations from 1754 to 1800. Learning Objective 2: Explain how and why political ideas, institutions, and party systems developed and changed in the new republic. Washington’s Presidency 135 Organizing the Federal Government 135 Hamilton’s Financial Program 136 Foreign Affairs Under Washington 137 Domestic Concerns under Washington 138 The First Political Parties 139 Origins 140 Differences Between the Parties 140 Washington’s Farewell Address 141 John Adams’ Presidency 141 Topic Review and Practice 142 Topic 3.11 Developing an American Identity 145 Learning Objective: Explain the continuities and changes in American culture from 1754 to 1800. Social Change 145 Political Change 146 Cultural Change 147 Topic Review and Practice 147 Topic 3.12 Movement in the Early Republic 149 Learning Objective 1: Explain how and why migration and immigration to and within North America caused competition and conflict over time. Learning Objective 2: Explain the continuities and changes in regional attitudes about slavery as it expanded from 1754 to 1800. Migration and Settlement 149 American Indians 149 Population Change 151 Slavery 151 Topic Review and Practice 152 Topic 3.13 Continuity and Change in Period 3 155 Learning Objective: Explain how the American independence movement affected society from 1754 to 1800. Questions About Continuity and Change 155 Think As a Historian: Developments and Processes 156 UNIT 3—Period 3 Review: 1754–1800 157 Write As a Historian: Analyze the Question 157 Long Essay Questions 158 Document-Based Question 159 CONTENTS ix UNIT 4—Period 4: 1800–1848 Topic 4.1 Contextualizing Period 4 163 Learning Objective: Explain the context in which the republic developed from 1800 to 1848. Analyze the Context and Landmark Events 164 Topic 4.2 The Rise of Political Parties and the Era of Jefferson 165 Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of policy debates in the early republic. The Election of 1800 165 Jefferson’s Presidency 166 Aaron Burr 169 John Marshall’s Supreme Court and Federal Power 170 Madison’s Presidency 172 Topic Review and Practice 172 Topic 4.3 Politics and Regional Interests 175 Learning Objective: Explain how different regional interests affected debates about the role of the federal government in the early republic. The Era of Good Feelings 175 Western Settlement and the Missouri Compromise 178 Topic Review and Practice 180 Topic 4.4 America on the World Stage 182 Learning Objective: Explain how and why American foreign policy developed over time. Jefferson’s Foreign Policy 182 President Madison’s Foreign Policy 183 The War of 1812 184 Monroe and Foreign Affairs 189 Topic Review and Practice 191 Topic 4.5 Market Revolution 193 Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of the innovations in technology, agriculture, and commerce over time. Development of the Northwest 193 Transportation 194 Communication 195 Growth of Industry 195 Commercial Agriculture 197 Cotton and the South 197 Topic Review and Practice 197 Topic 4.6 Effects of the Market Revolution on Society and Culture 200 Learning Objective: Explain how and why innovation in technology, agriculture, and commerce affected various segments of American society over time. Women 200 Economic and Social Mobility 201 x UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION  Population Growth and Change 201 Organized Labor 202 Topic Review and Practice 203 Topic 4.7 Expanding Democracy 205 Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of the expansion of participatory democracy from 1800 to 1848. Greater Equality 205 Changes to Parties and Campaigns 206 Historical Perspectives: The Jacksonians and Expanding Democracy 207 Topic Review and Practice 208 Topic 4.8 Jackson and Federal Power 210 Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of continuing policy debates about the role of the federal government from 1800 to 1848. Jackson Versus Adams 210 The Presidency of Andrew Jackson 211 The Two-Party System 214 The Western Frontier 216 Topic Review and Practice 218 Topic 4.9 The Development of an American Culture 222 Learning Objective: Explain how and why a new national culture developed from 1800 to 1848. Cultural Nationalism 222 A Changing Culture: Ideas, the Arts, and Literature 222 Topic Review and Practice 226 Topic 4.10 The Second Great Awakening 229 Learning Objective: Explain the causes of the Second Great Awakening. Causes of Religious Reform 229 Revivals 229 New Denominations 231 Reforms Backed by Religion 231 Topic Review and Practice 231 Topic 4.11 An Age of Reform 234 Learning Objective: Explain how and why various reform movements developed and expanded from 1800 to 1848. Improving Society 234 Changes in Families and Roles for Women 236 Antislavery Movement 237 Other Reforms 238 Topic Review and Practice 239 Topic 4.12 African Americans in the Early Republic 241 Learning Objective: Explain the continuities and changes in the experience of African Americans from 1800 to 1848. Free African Americans 242 CONTENTS xi  Resistance by the Enslaved 242 Topic Review and Practice 244 Topic 4.13 Southern Society in the Early Republic 247 Learning Objective: Explain how geographic and environmental factors shaped the development of the South from 1800 to 1848. Agriculture and King Cotton 247 Slavery, the “Peculiar Institution” 248 White Society 249 Topic Review and Practice 250 Historical Perspectives: What Was the Nature Of Slavery? 250 Topic 4.14 Causation in Period 4 253 Learning Objective: Explain the extent to which politics, economics, and foreign policy promoted the development of American identity from 1800 to 1848. Questions About Causation 253 Think As a Historian: Claims and Evidence in Sources 254 UNIT 4—Period 4 Review: 1800–1848 255 Write As a Historian: Gather and Organize the Evidence 255 Long Essay Questions 256 Document-Based Question 257 UNIT 5—Period 5: 1844–1877 Topic 5.1 Contextualizing Period 5 260 Learning Objective: Explain the context in which sectional conflict emerged from 1844 to 1877. Analyze the Context and Landmark Events 261 Topic 5.2 The Idea of Manifest Destiny 262 Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of westward expansion from 1844 to 1877. Conflicts Over Texas, Maine, and Oregon 262 Settlement of the Western Territories 265 Expansion After the Civil War 268 Topic Review and Practice 268 Topic 5.3 Manifest Destiny and the Mexican–American War 271 Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of the Mexican– American War. Conflict with Mexico 271 Consequences of the War 272 Historical Perspectives: WhyWas Manifest Destiny Significant? 273 Topic Review and Practice 273 Topic 5.4 The Compromise of 1850 276 Learning Objective: Explain the similarities and differences in how regional attitudes affected federal policy in the period after the Mexican– American War. xii UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION  Southern Expansion 276 Conflict Over Status of Territories 277 Compromises to Preserve the Union 278 Topic Review and Practice 279 Topic 5.5 Sectional Conflict: Regional Differences 282 Learning Objective 1: Explain the effects of immigration from various parts of the world on American culture from 1844 to 1877. Learning Objective 2: Explain how regional differences related to slavery caused tension in the years leading up to the Civil War. Immigration Controversy 282 Ethnic Conflict in the Southwest 284 The Expanding Economy 284 Agitation Over Slavery 285 Topic Review and Practice 287 Topic 5.6 Failure of Compromise 289 Learning Objective: Explain the political causes of the Civil War. National Parties in Crisis 289 Extremists and Violence 290 Constitutional Issues 292 Topic Review and Practice 294 Topic 5.7 Election of 1860 and Secession 297 Learning Objective: Describe the effects of Lincoln’s election. The Road to Secession 297 A Nation Divided 300 Historical Perspectives: What Caused the Civil War? 301 Topic Review and Practice 302 Topic 5.8 Military Conflict in the Civil War 304 Learning Objective: Explain the various factors that contributed to the Union victory in the Civil War. War 304 First Years of a Long War: 1861–1862 305 Foreign Affairs and Diplomacy 308 The Union Triumphs, 1863–1865 309 Topic Review and Practice 310 Topic 5.9 Government Policies During the Civil War 313 Learning Objective: Explain how Lincoln’s leadership during the Civil War impacted American ideals over the course of the war. The End of Slavery 313 Effects of the War on Civilian Life 315 Assassination of Lincoln 317 Topic Review and Practice 318 Topic 5.10 Reconstruction 320 Learning Objective: Explain the effects of government policy during Reconstruction on society from 1865 to 1877. CONTENTS xiii  Postwar Conditions 320 Reconstruction Plans of Lincoln and Johnson 321 Congressional Reconstruction 322 Reconstruction in the South 326 The North During Reconstruction 328 Women’s Changing Roles 329 Topic Review and Practice 330 Topic 5.11 Failure of Reconstruction 332 Learning Objective: Explain how and why Reconstruction resulted in continuity and change in regional and national understandings of what it meant to be American. Lincoln’s Last Speech 332 Evaluating the Republican Record 332 The End of Reconstruction 333 Historical Perspectives: Did Reconstruction Fail? 335 Topic Review and Practice 336 Topic 5.12 Comparison in Period 5 339 Learning Objective: Compare the relative significance of the effects of the Civil War on American values. Questions About Comparison 339 Think As a Historian: Support, Modify, and Refute Claims 340 UNIT 5—Period 5 Review: 1844–1877 341 Write As a Historian: Develop a Thesis 341 Long Essay Questions 342 Document-Based Question 343 UNIT 6—Period 6: 1865–1898 Topic 6.1 Contextualizing Period 6 346 Learning Objective 1: Explain the historical context for the rise of industrial capitalism in the United States during the period from 1865 to 1898. Learning Objective 2: Explain a historical context for the increased international and internal migration in the United States during the period from 1865 to 1898. Analyze the Context and Landmark Events 347 Topic 6.2 Westward Expansion: Economic Development 348 Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of the settlement of the West from 1877 to 1898. Transcontinental Railroads 348 Settlement of the Last West 349 Farmers Organize 352 Topic Review and Practice 354 Topic 6.3 Westward Expansion: Social and Cultural Development 357 Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of the settlement of the West from 1877 to 1898. xiv UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION  The Closing of the Frontier 357 American Indians in the West 358 Mexican Americans in the Southwest 361 The Conservation Movement 361 Topic Review and Practice 362 Topic 6.4 The “New South” 365 Learning Objective: Explain how various factors contributed to continuity and change in the “New South” from 1877 to 1898. Growth of Industry 365 Agriculture and Poverty 366 Segregation 367 Responding to Segregation 368 Topic Review and Practice 369 Topic 6.5 Technological Innovation 371 Learning Objective: Explain the effects of technological advances in the development of the United States over time. Inventions 371 Technology and Growth of Cities 372 Marketing Consumer Goods 373 Topic Review and Practice 373 Topic 6.6 The Rise of Industrial Capitalism 375 Learning Objective: Explain the socioeconomic continuities and changes associated with the growth of industrial capitalism from 1865 to 1898. The Business of Railroads 375 Industrial Empires 377 Laissez-Faire Capitalism 379 Business Influence Outside the United States 380 Topic Review and Practice 380 Topic 6.7 Labor in the Gilded Age 383 Learning Objective: Explain the socioeconomic continuities and changes associated with the growth of industrial capitalism from 1865 to 1898. Challenges for Wage Earners 383 The Struggles of Organized Labor 384 Topic Review and Practice 387 Topic 6.8 Immigration and Migration in the Gilded Age 389 Learning Objective: Explain how cultural and economic factors affected migration patterns over time. Growth of Immigration 389 Immigration and Growth of Cities 390 Topic Review and Practice 392 Topic 6.9 Responses to Immigration in the Gilded Age 394 Learning Objective: Explain the various responses to immigration in the period over time. CONTENTS xv  Opposition to Immigration 394 Boss and Machine Politics 395 Settlement Houses 396 Historical Perspectives: Was the United States a Melting Pot? 396 Topic Review and Practice 397 Topic 6.10 Development of the Middle Class 400 Learning Objective: Explain the causes of increased economic opportunity and its effects on society. The Expanding Middle Class 400 The Gospel of Wealth 400 Working Women 401 Impact of Income on Urban Development 401 Changes in Education 402 Growth of Popular Culture 404 Topic Review and Practice 405 Topic 6.11 Reform in the Gilded Age 408 Learning Objective: Explain how different reform movements responded to the rise of industrial capitalism in the Gilded Age. Awakening of Reform 408 Literature and the Arts 410 Topic Review and Practice 412 Topic 6.12 Role of Government in the Gilded Age 415 Learning Objective: Explain the continuities and changes in the role of the government in the U.S. economy. Government Actions 415 Political Issues: Civil Service, Currency, and Tariffs 416 Topic Review and Practice 419 Topic 6.13 Politics in the Gilded Age 421 Learning Objective: Explain the similarities and differences between the political parties during the Gilded Age. Political Stalemate 421 Rise of the Populists 422 Depression Politics 423 Turning Point in American Politics: 1896 424 Topic Review and Practice 427 Topic 6.14 Continuity and Change Period 6 430 Learning Objective: Explain the extent to which industrialization brought changes from 1865 to 1898. Questions About Continuity And Change 430 Think As a Historian: Contextualization 431 UNIT 6—Period 6 Review: 1865–1898 432 Write As a Historian: Write the Introduction 432 Long Essay Questions 433 Document-Based Question 434 xvi UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION UNIT 7—Period 7: 1890–1945 Topic 7.1 Contextualizing Period 7 438 Learning Objective: Explain the context in which America grew into the role as a world power. Analyze the Context and Landmark Events 439 Topic 7.2 Imperialism: Debates 440 Learning Objective: Explain the similarities and differences in attitudes about the nation’s proper role in the world. Expansion after the Civil War 440 The Era of “New Imperialism” 441 Opposition to Imperialism 442 Latin America 443 Topic Review and Practice 444 Topic 7.3 The Spanish-American War and U.S. Foreign Policy to 1917 446 Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of the Spanish- American War. Spanish-American War 446 Open Door Policy in China 451 Theodore Roosevelt’s “Big Stick” Policy 452 Roosevelt and Asia 453 William Howard Taft and Dollar Diplomacy 454 Woodrow Wilson and Foreign Affairs 455 Topic Review and Practice 457 Topic 7.4 The Progressives 461 Learning Objective: Compare the goals and effects of the Progressive reform movement. Origins of Progressivism 461 Who Were the Progressives? 462 The Muckrakers 463 Political Reforms in Cities and States 465 Political Reform in the Nation 468 African Americans in the Progressive Era 472 Women and the Progressive Movement 474 Topic Review and Practice 474 Topic 7.5 World War I: Military and Diplomacy 478 Learning Objective: Explain the causes and consequences of U.S. involvement in World War I. Neutrality 478 Economic Links with Britain and France 479 Public Opinion 480 The War Debate 481 The Election of 1916 481 Peace Efforts 482 Decision for War 482 CONTENTS xvii  Fighting the War 483 Making the Peace 484 The Treaty of Versailles 485 The Battle for Ratification 486 Topic Review and Practice 487 Topic 7.6 World War I: Home Front 491 Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of international and internal migration patterns over time. Mobilization 491 Public Opinion 492 Civil Liberties 493 Armed Forces 493 Effects on American Society 494 Postwar Problems 495 Topic Review and Practice 496 Topic 7.7 1920s: Innovations in Communication and Technology 499 Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of the innovations in communications and technology in the United States over time. Causes of Economic Prosperity 499 Farm Problems 500 Labor Unions Struggle 501 Technology and Culture 501 Topic Review and Practice 503 Topic 7.8 1920s: Cultural and Political Controversies 505 Learning Objective 1: Explain the causes and effects of international and internal migration patterns over time. Learning Objective 2: Explain the causes and effects of the developments in popular culture in America. Religion, Science, and Politics 505 Opposition to Immigration 507 Ku Klux Klan 508 Arts and Literature 509 Women, Family, and Education 509 African American Cultural Renaissance 510 Republican Majority 511 Historical Perspectives: How Conservative Were the 1920s? 514 Topic Review and Practice 514 Topic 7.9 The Great Depression 518 Learning Objective: Explain the causes of the Great Depression and its effects on the economy. Causes of the 1929 Crash 518 Underlying Causes of the Great Depression 519 Effects of the Great Depression 520 President Hoover’s Policies 521 xviii UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION  Changing Directions 522 Topic Review and Practice 523 Topic 7.10 The New Deal 525 Learning Objective: Explain how the Great Depression and the New Deal impacted American political, social, and economic life over time. The Election of 1932 525 Franklin D. Roosevelt as President 526 The Second New Deal 529 The Election of 1936 531 Opponents of the New Deal 532 The Supreme Court 533 Labor Unions and Workers’ Rights 534 Recession, 1937–1938 535 Life During the Depression 536 Topic Review and Practice 538 Topic 7.11 Interwar Foreign Policy 541 Learning Objective: Explain the similarities and differences in attitudes about the nation’s proper role in the world. Post-World War I Agreements 541 Business and Diplomacy 542 War Debts and Reparations 542 Herbert Hoover’s Foreign Policy 543 Franklin Roosevelt’s Policies, 1933–1939 545 Prelude to Another War 547 Outbreak of War World II in Europe 548 Roosevelt Changes Policies 550 The Election of 1940 550 Arsenal of Democracy 551 Disputes with Japan 552 The War in Europe in 1941–1942 553 Topic Review and Practice 553 Topic 7.12 World War II Mobilization 556 Learning Objective: Explain how and why U.S. participation in World War II transformed American society. The Federal Government Takes Action 556 The War’s Impact on Society 558 Topic Review and Practice 560 Topic 7.13 World War II: Military 562 Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of the victory of the United States and its allies over the Axis powers. Fighting Germany 562 Fighting Japan 563 Topic Review and Practice 565 CONTENTS xix Topic 7.14 World War II and Postwar Diplomacy 567 Learning Objective: Explain the consequences of U.S. involvement in World War II. American Leadership 567 Wartime Conferences 568 The War’s Legacy 569 Topic Review and Practice 570 Topic 7.15 Comparison in Period 7 572 Learning Objective: Compare the relative significance of major events of the first half of the 20th century in shaping American identity. Questions About Comparison 572 Think As a Historian: Making Connections 573 UNIT 7—Period 7 Review: 1890–1945 574 Write As a Historian: Write the Supporting Paragraphs 574 Long Essay Questions 575 Document-Based Question 576 UNIT 8—Period 8: 1945–1980 Topic 8.1 Contextualizing Period 8 579 Learning Objective: Explain the context for societal changes from 1945 to 1980. Analyze the Context and Landmark Events 580 Topic 8.2 The Cold War from 1945 to 1980 581 Learning Objective: Explain the continuities and changes in the Cold War policies from 1945 to 1980. Origins of the Cold War 581 Containment in Europe 583 Cold War in Asia 586 Eisenhower and the Cold War 589 To the Brink of War and Back 593 Lyndon Johnson Becomes President 594 Nixon’s Detente Diplomacy 595 Another Chill in the Cold War 595 Topic Review and Practice 597 Topic 8.3 The Red Scare 600 Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of the Red Scare after World War II. Rooting Out Communists 600 Espionage Cases 601 The Rise and Fall of Joseph McCarthy 602 Topic Review and Practice 602 Topic 8.4 Economy after 1945 605 Learning Objective 1: Explain the causes of economic growth in years after World War II. xx UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION  Learning Objective 2: Explain causes and effects of the migrations of various groups of Americans after 1945. Postwar Economy 605 Truman versus the Republican Congress 607 Eisenhower in the White House (1953–1961) 608 Economy under the Democrats (1961–1969) 610 Nixon’s Domestic Policy 611 Ford and Carter Confront Inflation 612 Topic Review and Practice 613 Topic 8.5 Culture after 1945 615 Learning Objective: Explain how mass culture has been maintained or challenged over time. Historical Perspectives: A Silent Generation? 618 Topic Review and Practice 619 Topic 8.6 Early Steps in the Civil Rights Movement, 1945–1960 621 Learning Objective: Explain how and why the civil rights movement developed and expanded from 1945 to 1960. Origins of the Movement 621 Desegregating the Schools and Public Places 622 Topic Review and Practice 624 Topic 8.7 America as a World Power 626 Learning Objective: Explain various military and diplomatic responses to international developments over time. Unrest in the “Third World” 626 The Middle East 627 Latin America 630 Policies in Africa 631 Limits of a Superpower 632 Topic Review and Practice 632 Topic 8.8 The Vietnam War 635 Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of the Vietnam War. Eisenhower’s Domino Theory 635 Escalation of the Vietnam War in the 1960s 636 America’s War 638 Coming Apart at Home, 1968 639 Richard Nixon’s Vietnam Policy 640 Defeat in Southeast Asia 642 Topic Review and Practice 643 Topic 8.9 The Great Society 646 Learning Objective1 1: Explain the causes and effects of continuing policy debates about the role of the federal government over time. Learning Objective 2: Explain the contributions and changes in immigration patterns over time. The War on Poverty 646 CONTENTS xxi  The Election of 1964 646 Great Society Reforms 647 Changes in Immigration 648 Topic Review and Practice 648 Topic 8.10 The African American Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s 651 Learning Objective 1: Explain how and why various groups responded to calls for the expansion of civil rights from 1960 to 1980. Learning Objective 2: Explain the various ways in which the federal government responded to the calls for the expansion of civil rights. The Leadership of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. 651 Federal Civil Rights Acts of 1964 and 1965 652 Black Muslims and Malcolm X 653 Race Riots and Black Power 653 Topic Review and Practice 654 Topic 8.11 The Civil Rights Movement Expands 657 Learning Objective: Explain how and why various groups responded to calls for expansion of civil rights from 1960 to 1980. The Women’s Movement 657 Latino Americans 658 American Indian Movement 658 Asian Americans 659 Gay Rights Movement 659 The Warren Court and Individual Rights 660 Topic Review and Practice 661 Topic 8.12 Youth Culture of the 1960s 663 Learning Objective: Explain how and why opposition to existing policies and values developed and changed over the course of the 20th century. Baby Boom Generation 663 Student Movement and the New Left 663 Students Against the Vietnam War 664 The Counterculture 665 In Retrospect 665 Topic Review and Practice 666 Topic 8.13 The Environment and Natural Resources from 1968 to 1980 668 Learning Objective: Explain how and why policies related to the environment developed and changed from 1968 to 1980. Origins of the Environmental Movement 668 Public Awareness 669 Government Environmental Protection 670 Backlash to Environmental Regulations 672 Topic Review and Practice 672 Topic 8.14 Society in Transition 674 Learning Objective 1: Explain the causes and effects of continuing policy debates about the role of the federal government over time. xxii UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION  Learning Objective 2: Explain the effects of religious movements over the course of the 20th century. American Society in Transition 674 The Nixon Presidency 674 Watergate Scandal 675 Gerald Ford in the White House (1974–1977) 677 The Election of 1976 678 An Outsider in the White House 678 The Burger Court 679 Conservative Resurgence 680 A New Era in American Politics 681 Topic Review and Practice 681 Topic 8.15 Continuity and Change in Period 8 684 Learning Objective: Explain the extent to which the events of the period from 1945 to 1980 reshaped national identity. Questions About Continuity And Change 685 Think As a Historian: Argumentation—Support and Reasoning 685 UNIT 8—Period 8 Review: 1945–1980 686 Write As a Historian: Write the Conclusion 686 Long Essay Questions 687 Document-Based Question 688 UNIT 9—Period 9: 1980–Present Topic 9.1 Contextualizing Period 9 692 Learning Objective: Explain the context in which the United States faced international and domestic challenges after 1980. Analyze the Context and Landmark Events 693 Topic 9.2 Reagan and Conservatism 694 Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of continuing debates about the role of the federal government. Ronald Reagan and the Election of 1980 694 The Reagan Revolution 695 President George H. W. Bush 698 Political Polarization 699 Topic Review and Practice 702 Topic 9.3 The End of the Cold War 705 Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of the end of the Cold War and its legacy. Foreign Policy During the Reagan Years 705 George H. W. Bush and the End of the Cold War 708 Aftermath of the Cold War in Europe 709 Topic Review and Practice 710 Topic 9.4 A Changing Economy 713 CONTENTS xxiii  Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of economic and technological change over time. Election of 1992 713 Clinton’s Focus on the Economy 713 Technology and a Changing Economy 715 Income and Wealth 716 Topic Review and Practice 717 Topic 9.5 Migration and Immigration in the 1990s and 2000s 720 Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of domestic and international migration over time. Changing Immigration Policies 720 Influence of the American South and West 722 American Society in 2000 723 Topic Review and Practice 724 Topic 9.6 Challenges of the 21st Century 726 Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of the domestic and international challenges the United States faced in the 21st century. Disputed Election of 2000 726 The War on Terrorism 727 Elections of 2004 and a Bush Second Term 729 Election of 2008 731 Foreign Policy of the Obama Presidency (2009–2017) 731 Domestic Policy of the George W. Bush Years (2001–2009) 733 Domestic Policy of the Obama Presidency (2009–2017) 736 The Trump Presidency (2017–Present) 739 Historical Perspectives: What Does Freedom Mean? 742 Topic Review and Practice 742 Topic 9.7 Causation in Period 9 746 Learning Objective: Explain the relative significance of the effects of change in the period after 1980 on American national identity. Questions About Causation 747 Think As a Historian: Argumentation—Developing Complexity 747 UNIT 9—Period 9 Review: 1980–Present 748 Write As a Historian: Reread and Evaluate 748 Long Essay Questions 749 U.S. History Practice Examination 750 Index 779 xxiv UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION  Preface This new edition of AMSCO® Advanced Placement® United States History involved a major revision based on the 2019 College Board Course and Exam Description (CED). The recent CED divided the course into 105 topics. Eighteen of these topics focused on historical thinking skills and reasoning processes. This new edition also includes updated review questions and activities at the end of each topic and the units to increase practice of skills, such as “Think As an Historian” and “Write As a Historian” features. The other 87 topics provide the essential historical content and accessible explanations of events that have been the heart of this textbook. The topics from the new CED are not equal in length or depth, and therefore the amount of time needed for each one will vary. Many can be treated in one class period or less, but others may take two or more class periods. The College Board recommends that treatment of each topic should be at the pace best suited to the needs of the students and school. There is also a separate teacher resource book that includes an answer key and additional activities on race and justice that is available exclusively for teachers and schools. Since 1997, this textbook has been used by more than a million students in various ways. Many teachers have successfully used it as a core textbook in conjunction with college-level resources and supplemental materials. Others have used it as a supplemental text to bridge the gap between a college-level textbook and the needs of their AP® high school students. In addition, students have effectively used it on their own to support their study of the content. Given the diverse instructional settings across the nation, the most effective use of this textbook is an instructional decision best made by the educators responsible for their students’ performance. We continue to be committed to keep this textbook current and to incorporate revisions from the College Board. Teachers and students should also check the College Board websites for the latest updates: AP® Central site (apcentral.collegeboard.com) and the Advances in AP® section (advancesinap. collegeboard.org). We appreciate your feedback on the new edition and how it works for students and teachers during these challenging times. The authors want to thank the staff of Perfection Learning Corporation for their support and the tireless effort they have put into this new edition. We also appreciate the continued opportunity to support the efforts of high school students and teachers as they strive to meet the challenges of the Advanced Placement® U.S. History examination. John Newman and John Schmalbach, June 2020 Preface xxv  Introduction Studying Advanced Placement® United States History Since 1998, the number of high school students taking the Advanced Placement® exam in United States History has more than tripled. Students enroll in AP® U.S. History classes for many reasons. Some of these are related to doing well on the AP® exam: to demonstrate one’s ability to succeed as a college undergraduate to become eligible for scholarships to save on college expenses by earning college credit to test out of introductory college courses The College Board’s website provides a list of colleges and universities that normally use AP® exam grades for determining placement and credits. However, the placement and credit offered vary from school to school. To find out a particular college’s or university’s policy on AP® exams, see that school’s website. Even within high school, AP® U.S. History classes are beneficial because they enrich a student’s experience. They teach students how to read complex passages, to write clearly and persuasively, and to develop higher level thinking skills. Most students who have taken AP® courses report that these courses are more difficult than regular ones but are worth the extra effort because they are more engaging. The rewards of these challenging classes can foster lifelong reading, thinking, and writing skills and, for many students, an increased interest in and enjoyment of history. Overview of the AP® U.S. History Exam This edition of this textbook was revised to address the most recent changes to the AP® United States History Course and Exam Description (CED). The revision places a greater focus on the historical thinking skills and reasoning processes used by historians and on historical themes and related concepts in order to deepen a student’s understanding of U.S. history. The 3-hour-and-15- minute exam relies heavily on excerpts, images, and other data sources. The AP® exam includes the following components, along with the amount of time allotted for each and the percentage each is weighted in the final grade: 55 Multiple-Choice Questions (MCQs) 55 minutes 40% 3 Short-Answer Questions (SAQs) 40 minutes 20% 1 Document-Based Question (DBQ) 60 minutes 25% 1 Long Essay Question (LEQ) 40 minutes 15% xxvi UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION  The multiple-choice section still has the greatest weight in a student’s final grade, but students’ performances on recent exams suggest that working on writing skills may offer the greatest opportunity for improvement. Each of these components, along with a guide to sequential skill development, will be explained in this Introduction. The College Board grades student performance on Advanced Placement® examinations, including the AP® U.S. History exam, on a five-point scale: 5: Extremely well qualified 4: Well qualified 3: Qualified 2: Possibly qualified 1: No recommendation An AP® grade of 3 or higher is usually considered evidence of mastery of course content similar to that demonstrated in a college-level introductory course in the same subject area. However, since the requirements of introductory courses may vary from college to college, some colleges may accept a 2 on the AP® History exam, while others may require a score of 4. How This Book Can Help The goal of this textbook is to provide U.S. history students with the essential content and instructional materials to develop the knowledge, the mastery of historical thinking skills and reasoning processes, and the writing skills needed to understand U.S. history and to approach the past as historians do. The book includes these elements: Introduction This section introduces students to the historical thinking skills and reasoning processes, course themes, and nine periods of the AP® U.S. History program. A step-by-step skill development guide explains how to answer the four types of questions found on the exam: (1) multiple-choice, (2) short-answer, (3) long essay, and (4) document-based. Concise History The organization of the content into topics within each unit/period reflects the new Fall 2019 AP® U.S. History Course and Exam Description. Each of the nine units/periods is divided into a number of topics based on the new CED. These topics provide the essential historical content and accessible explanations of events that form the heart of this textbook. Each unit begins with an overview of the context of the period and concludes with the practice of one of the three reasoning processes used in argumentation. Maps and Graphics Maps, charts, graphs, cartoons, photographs, and other visual materials are integrated into the text to help students practice their analytical skills. Introduction xxvii  Historical Perspectives Certain topics include a Historical Perspective section that introduces students to conflicting interpretations about significant historical issues. These are integral to the content of the book. Key Terms by Themes Each of the 87 narrative topics includes a list of key names, places, and words, organized by theme, as an aid for student review of the topic. Multiple-Choice Questions Each of the 87 narrative topics contains at least one set of source-based, multiple-choice questions to evaluate students’ historical knowledge and skills using sources. Short-Answer Questions Each of the 87 narrative topics contains at least one set of short-answer questions for review of the topic and opportunities to apply AP® historical thinking skills and reasoning processes. Long Essay Questions Periods 2 through 9 conclude with a review section that includes four to eight long essay questions. The long essay questions prompt students to deal with significant issues and to apply course reasoning and writing skills. Document-Based Questions The reviews for periods 2 through 8 each include one DBQ. Practice Examination Following the final unit is a complete practice examination using the current format. Index The index is included to help locate key terms for review. Answer Key A separate Answer Key is available from the publisher for teachers and other authorized users of the book. The Study of AP® U.S. History Historians attempt to give meaning to the past by collecting historical evidence and then explaining how these “facts” are connected. Historians interpret and organize a wide variety of evidence from both primary and secondary sources in order to understand the past. Students should develop their ability to analyze and use historical sources, to answer probing questions about past events, and to demonstrate these abilities in their writing. For many historical questions, no one “answer” is accepted by all historians, nor can one find all answers in any one historical source. AP® teachers and exam readers are looking for a student’s ability to think about history and to support ideas with evidence. AP® students should appreciate how both participants and historians differ in their interpretations of critical questions in U.S. history. The Historical Perspectives feature introduces readers to some of the issues raised by historians over time. AP® U.S. History does not require an advanced knowledge of historiography, sometimes described as “the history of history.” Nevertheless, prior knowledge of the richness of historical thought can add depth to a student’s analysis of historical questions. xxviii UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION  The study of AP® U.S. History includes three basic components that shape the course: (1) the thinking skills and reasoning processes of history, (2) thematic analysis, and (3) the concepts and understandings of the nine periods that organize the content. These three components are explained below for orientation and future reference. How Historians Think The Advanced Placement® History courses encourage students to think like historians. The practices and skills that historians use in researching and writing about historical events and developments are the foundation of the AP® U.S. History course and exam. Learning these skills and reasoning processes can be developed over a course of study, but an introduction to them is a good place to start. Historians need to be able to analyze historical evidence found in a wide variety of primary sources from written records to historical images and artifacts. Historians also need to explain and evaluate the evidence from secondary sources, especially the work of other historians with differing points of view. As historians research the evidence, they look for connections and patterns among historical events and developments. They use reasoning processes, such as making comparisons, studying causation, and analyzing continuity and change to find and test possible connections. Most historians communicate their findings through publications and presentations. This creative process takes the additional practice of argument development, which includes making a defensible claim and marshaling relevant and persuasive evidence to support an argument. Writing about history also challenges one to clarify and refine one’s thinking about the subject or the question under study. Historical Thinking Skills The study of history includes the use of many thinking skills. Of these, AP® courses focus on six. 1. Developments and Processes The ability to identify and explain historical concepts, developments, and processes is fundamental to the analysis of historical evidence. For example, “salutary neglect” has proved a useful concept to describe and explain British behavior toward the American colonies before the 1750s. During that period colonists were relatively autonomous. That is, the British allowed colonies to govern themselves with minimal interference. Students need to be able to explain the historical concepts and developments and provide specific historical evidence to illustrate or support such a historical concept or development. For example, a multiple-choice question on the AP® exam might ask “Which of the following is the best example of British salutary neglect in the American colonies before 1750?” Introduction xxix  2. Sourcing and Situations The use of historical evidence involves the ability to explain and evaluate diverse kinds of primary and secondary sources, including written works, data, images, and artifacts. Students need to be able to explain (1) the historical setting of a source, (2) its intended audience, (3) its purpose, and (4) the point of view of the original writer or creator. For example, an AP® exam question might ask “Which of the following best reflects the point of view expressed by the author?” Another possible question is “Briefly explain ONE characteristic of the intended audience for this image.” For secondary sources, this skill also involves understanding how particular circumstances might influence authors. Historians can “rewrite” history because their personal perspective or society’s perspective changes, because they discover new sources and information, and, above all, because they ask new questions. 3. Claims and Evidence in Sources The analysis of either primary or secondary sources also includes the ability to identify the author’s argument and the evidence used to support it. For example, an AP® question might provide short quotations from two secondary sources about the causes of the American Revolution. The reading might be evaluated by a multiple-choice question such as “Which of the following would best support the argument of historian A?” A short-answer question might ask “Briefly explain ONE major difference between historian A’s and historian B’s historical interpretations.” Questions can also ask students to discover patterns or trends in quantitative data found in charts and graphs. 4. Contextualization The skill of contextualization involves the ability to accurately and explicitly explain how a historical event, policy, or source fits into the broader historical picture, often on the regional, national, or global level. Placing the specifics of history into their larger context gives them additional usefulness and significance as historical evidence. Contextualization is evaluated through questions such as this: “(The excerpt) best reflects which of the following developments in U.S. foreign policy?” or “The conditions shown in the image depict which of the following trends in the late 19th century?” 5. Making Connections This skill involves identifying and analyzing patterns and connections between and among historical developments and processes, and how one development or process relates to another. Making connections on the AP® exam will use the three reasoning processes of comparisons, causation, and continuity and change (see below). For example, the developments of large-scale industrial production, concentration of wealth, and the labor movement were taking place during the same period from 1865 to 1900. Are any patterns and connections common among these developments? The exam could ask an essay question such as this: “To what extent was the rise of labor unions related to the development of large corporations during the period from 1865 to 1900?” xxx UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION  6. Argumentation Developing an argument includes the skill of using evidence effectively to make a point. Students need to recognize that not all evidence has equal value in support of a position. Writers need to select examples that are accurate and relevant to their argument. Making judgments about the use of relevant historical evidence is an essential skill in free-response questions on the AP® exam. Again, the focus of the question will be not on the simple recall of facts but on a conceptual understanding of the evidence and the ability to link that understanding to the argument. For example, to support the argument about the impact of technology from 1865 to 1900, it is not enough to describe the technologies of the period. In addition, one should explain the connection of specific new technologies, such as railroads or electric power, to the changes in the economy. The AP® exam also values the use of diverse and alternative evidence to qualify or modify an argument in order to develop a more complex insight into history. Reasoning Processes The study of history includes the use of several reasoning processes. Of these, AP® courses focus on three very important ones. 1. Comparison Thinking about comparison involves the ability to describe and evaluate similarities and differences between two or more historical developments. The developments might be in the same era or in different ones. This process also asks one to explain the relative significance of similarities and differences between historical developments and to study a given historical event or development from multiple perspectives. The ability to make a comparison is evaluated in questions such as “The ideas expressed in the excerpt were most similar to those of which of the following?” or “Compare and contrast views of the United States’ overseas expansion in the late 19th century.” Expect AP® questions to test similarities and differences of conceptual understandings rather than simple recall. 2. Causation The study of causation is the primary tool of historians to explore the connections—both causes and effects—among events. Historians are often challenged to make judgments between primary and secondary causes and between short-term and long-term effects for developments such as the American Civil War or the Great Depression. Students will need to not only identify causes or effects but also explain the relationship between them. For example, it will not be enough to state that either imperialist attitudes or idealistic beliefs led to U.S. involvement in the War in Vietnam. One must be able to explain the connections of specific evidence to one’s position. At the AP® level, a causation question might ask “Which of the following most strongly influenced A?” or “B contributed most directly to which of the following trends?” The use of causation as a reasoning process is used with all historical thinking skills. Introduction xxxi  3. Continuity and Change The study of history also involves the ability to describe and explain patterns that reveal both continuity and change over time. The study of themes especially lends itself to discovering continuity and change in varying lengths of time from a few decades to hundreds of years. For example, one might argue that President Washington’s foreign policy from the 1790s continued as the standard for American foreign policy into the mid-20th century. The AP® exam might evaluate the understanding of continuity and change by asking “Which of the following developments best represents the continuation of A?” or “Which of the following best represents a later example of the change B?” A more complex essay question can ask “Evaluate the extent to which C contributed to maintaining continuity as well as fostering change in D.” Responding to this item involves understanding not only an event but also its significance in longer trends in United States history. Thematic Learning Objectives Just as historians combine the use of multiple historical thinking skills and reasoning processes, they address multiple themes in their work. Questions on the AP® exam will focus on one or more of eight themes that recur throughout U.S. history. Following are analyses of each of the eight. The quotations are from the AP® U.S. History Course and Exam Description. 1. American and National Identity (NAT) “This theme focuses on how and why definitions of American and national identity and values have developed among the diverse and changing population of North America as well as on related topics, such as citizenship, constitutionalism, foreign policy, assimilation, and American exceptionalism.” Students should be able to explain how identities related to American values and institutions, regions, and societal groups developed in response to events and how they have affected political debates. For example, the American Revolution changed the identity of Americans from British colonial subjects to citizens of a free and independent republic. 2. Work, Exchange, and Technology (WXT) “This theme focuses on the factors behind the development of systems of economic exchange, particularly the role of technology, economic markets, and government.” Students should understand how the economy has shaped society, labor systems, government policy, and innovation. For example, the transportation revolution in the 1800s transformed the economy and the lives of farmers, workers, and consumers. 3. Geography and the Environment (GEO) “This theme focuses on the role of geography and both the natural and human-made environments in the social and political developments in what would become the United States.” Students need to examine how geography and climate have contributed to regional differences and how debates over the use and control of natural resources have impacted different groups and government policies. For example, how did the frontier experience shape early settlers’ attitudes toward the natural environment? xxxii UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION  4. Migration and Settlement (MIG) “This theme focuses on why and how the various people who moved to and within the United States both adapted to and transformed their new social and physical environments.” Students should be able to answer questions about the peoples who have moved to and lived in the United States. For example, they should be able to explain how Irish and German Catholics in the 19th century, southern and eastern Europeans in the early 20th century, and Hispanics and Asians in recent decades have each affected U.S. society. 5. Politics and Power (PCE) “This theme focuses on how different social and political groups have influenced society and government in the United States, as well as how political beliefs and institutions have changed over time.” Students need to understand the debates over power between branches of government, between the national and state governments, and among voters and special interest groups. For example, the debate over government policies in Congress during the 1790s led to the development of political parties in the United States. 6. America in the World (WOR) “This theme focuses on the interactions between nations that affected North American history in the colonial period and on the influence of the United States on world affairs.” Students need to understand key developments in foreign policy as well as domestic debates over these policies. For example, they need to understand how the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars challenged U.S. efforts to remain neutral and ultimately contributed to U.S. involvement in the War of 1812. 7. American and Regional Culture (ARC) “This theme focuses on how and why national, regional, and group cultures developed and changed as well as how culture has shaped government policy and the economy.” It also addresses how various identities, cultures, and values have shaped the lives of citizens, politics, and the economy. Students should be able to explain why and how cultural components both hold constant and change over time, as well as the conflicts between traditional and modern values. For example, “In what ways did artistic expression change in response to war and to the growth of industry and cities from 1865 to 1898?” 8. Social Structures (SOC) “This theme focuses on how and why systems of social organization develop and change as well as the impact that these systems have on the broader society.” It involves the study of the roles of men, women, and other categories of family and civic units, and how they have been maintained, challenged, and transformed throughout American history. This theme could be evaluated with questions such as “To what extent were the roles of women in the United States transformed during the period from 1890 to 1945?” Another question might ask “In what ways did government policies change the role of children in American society during the Progressive Era?” Introduction xxxiii  Using the Themes The tracing of multiple themes through each period of U.S. history is an effective way to study and review content throughout the course. A thematic approach encourages one to think about specific events in a larger framework and to make judgments about comparison, causation, and continuity and change over time. A theme also provides a frame in which to view issues. Students can use themes to organize an essay. Historical Periods The content of AP® U.S. History is also organized by the AP® unit framework of nine chronological periods. Period 1: 1491–1607 The period from before Columbus