American History Midterm Review Sheet PDF

American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim Unit 1 Looking at history Teleology: ​ All events neatly ordered with a predetermined outcome ​ In historical or philosophical discussions, teleology often refers to interpreting history...

American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim Unit 1 Looking at history Teleology: ​ All events neatly ordered with a predetermined outcome ​ In historical or philosophical discussions, teleology often refers to interpreting history or life as if they are moving towards a particular, predetermined goal, as if there’s an ultimate purpose guiding them. Contingency: ​ Multiple contested possibilities that exist when no one knows the outcome ​ In history, contingency highlights that events could have unfolded in many different ways based on particular actions, decisions, or unforeseen occurrences. For example, the outcome of a battle or a political decision may depend on many contingent factors, like weather, leadership choices, or accidents, showing that history is not inevitable but shaped by these variables. How do these terms impact the study of history? -​ Because if you study history through a teleological lens, you may not appreciate all of the uncertainties of the moment, and can better sympathize with the people going through that time. -​ The danger of teleology is that it can oversimplify history by making it seem like events were destined to happen, leaving little room for alternate possibilities or acknowledging the role of individuals and circumstances. It also risks projecting present-day values or outcomes back onto historical events, giving them a sense of purpose or inevitability they may not have had at the time. -​ By focusing on contingency, historians acknowledge the complexity of the past, showing that nothing was inevitable. Small decisions or random events—such as weather conditions during battles or a leader’s sudden death—can drastically change the course of history. -​ Contingency helps avoid deterministic interpretations and opens up space to explore how and why different outcomes were possible. -​ There needs to be a balance between both while studying history Explain Alan’s approach/rationale ​ Taylor tries to provide a balanced perspective that understands the importance of both the eventual unfolding of the United States and the diverse experiences and possibilities that shaped colonial America. ​ He also justifies some of the actions the Europeans and Indians took that we view as cruel and aggressive, saying how that was the norm of that time period, and we shouldn’t judge their actions through a contemporary perspective. FOUR THEMES – Religion, Commerce, Renaissance, and Scientific Revolution ​ Religion: ○​ Christianity was the main religion until Islam fully took over in 1453 ○​ It could spread easily through flat land and rivers. ○​ Religion affects decision, belief system, and social class ​ Commerce: ○​ Trading and buying with other regions ○​ This was easiest to do through rivers ○​ Trade was a big motivation to do things in these times ○​ Affects relationships with other nations 1 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim ○​ Northern Europe had less trade due to their mountainous terrain ​ Renaissance: ○​ Following the Black Death ○​ Originating in Italy, a period in European civilization that was marked by a revival of Classical learning and wisdom ○​ Everyone had YOLO mindset which led to explosion of new ideas, discoveries, and questions ○​ Means rebirth in French ​ Scientific Revolution ○​ Overlaps with Renaissance ○​ New science discoveries and progressions What is the difference between a telephoto and wide lens? How does this apply to history? ​ Telephoto: Zooming into an exact moment, only examining what happened without context, one point of view ​ Wide lens: Zooming out to see the full picture, and seeing how past events shaped the outcome and how future events were affected. ○​ Applies to history because we can look at the bigger picture or the smaller details. ○​ Historians have to balance both lenses RELIGION Christianity ​ BC: Before Christ ​ AD: Anno Domini “In the year of our Lord” ​ BCE / CE: (Before) common era ○​ Non-Christians use BCE/CE ​ Christians are people who believe in the divinity of Jesus ○​ Believe Jesus is Messiah Constantine impact ​ Roman Emperor ​ Adopts Christianity in Byzantine Empire (330 CE) ​ Christianity gets HUGE overnight ​ Roman Empire Capital moved from Rome to Istanbul AKA Constantinople Geography impact on Christianity ​ Christianity spreads throughout Europe and Mediterranean ​ Cultural and regional differences emerge among Christians Islam ​ Spreads through Northern Africa and Middle East ​ View Jesus as a prophet Mohammed ​ They believe that Allah is God and Mohammed is His prophet. Timeline ​ 570: Mohammed born ​ 610: Visit by angel Gabriel ​ 622: To Medina - beginning of Islamic calendar ​ 630: Returns to Mecca ​ 633: Mohammed dies Great Schism 1054 ​ Christian world splits 2 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim ​ Mountains dividing them Roman Catholic VS Eastern Orthodox ​ Roman Catholic: ○​ Believe in authority of Pope over all bishops, kings, and emperors ○​ Focus is on Rome ○​ Services conducted in Latin ○​ Priests cannot marry ○​ Divorce isn’t allowed ​ Eastern Orthodox: ○​ Patriarch and other bishops lead the church as a collective group ○​ Services conducted in Greek or local languages ○​ Priests may marry ○​ Divorce is allowed under certain conditions Crusades ​ Pope Urban conducted Christians to liberate the Holy Land from the Muslims “infidels” ​ 1st time Europeans left home ​ When they traveled they found new products, people, etc. ​ Since they were exposed to these new things, it lead to desire for more trade and travel Papacy ​ Power controlled by Pope ​ Papacy granted a remission of sins Who went / Why did they go? ​ 100,000s of men (people who wanted to explore, people who did bad things and wanted their sins to be wiped away, people who didn’t have anything to lose, etc.) ​ Remission of sins ​ To help fellow Christians ​ To earn favor with English lord ​ Win land maybe ​ Adventure ○​ It was a bad harvest year and there was a famine in Europe, so people wanted an excuses to get out Unexpected results? ​ Exposure to new ideas/cultures ​ Introduction to eastern products/market TRADE / MARKETS Trade Routes ​ New trade routes emerge within Europe ​ Roman Empire/Byzantine Empire Evolution of routes / products ​ Trade routes were preferably by river but overland as well ​ More and more people wanted to trade after being exposed ​ Motivated politically since Islam is moving in and they’re traders (competition) ​ Religiously motivated because of Islam? ​ Agriculture improves ○​ We eat better and are healthier, and live longer 3 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim ​ Population increases ○​ More people so they need new places to live ​ If people live in close proximity to each other there’s more access to trade ​ Cities emerge ○​ Now people don’t live in farms ​ Demand for resources Impact of trade routes/products on different areas ​ Trade routes expand between Europe, Asia, and Africa ○​ New products and new markets ○​ Builds wealth for anyone involved ○​ Links cultures ○​ Through trade routes Role of: ​ Middle East ○​ Crucial to expanding trade system ○​ Every road goes through there (MIDDLE East) ○​ Flat, so you can get to Europe and Asia ​ Indian Ocean ○​ Massive trade network ○​ Sets up link between Asia and Africa, spreads religion, commerce and disease ​ Diseases spread from Asia to Africa to Europe and these microbes have developed over years and led to immunity. This is important to note when the Europeans colonized in America, the Indians were decimated due to not having immunity ○​ Traded cinnamon, rugs, sugar and diamonds ​ Asia ○​ Silk Road linked West to Far East ​ Africa ○​ Cairo was a hub for Indian Ocean trade/Islamic authority ○​ Ethiopia was Christian and very wealthy ○​ Mogadishu/Mombasa were major trade centers ​ AKA Spice Trade -​ Muslims start to take over these areas because they were the traders, and take control of the silk road and there is a big trading industry there -​ Northern and Western Europe is left out -​ Muslims and Christians are in battle -​ Opened up Crusades Products: ​ Africa = Coffee, gold, salt, slaves, beads, cloth ​ Asia = Pepper, silk, rugs, sugar, spices Commercial Revolution: Why Mediterranean key trade zone? ​ Geographic location: The Mediterranean was a crossroads between Europe, Asia, and Africa, making it ideal for trade between these regions, with easy access to key markets. ​ Connection to major trade networks: It linked the Silk Road from Asia and the trade routes from Africa, making cities like Venice and Genoa important commercial centers. ​ High-value goods: The region traded in luxury items like spices, silk, and textiles, which were in high demand in Europe, making Mediterranean merchants wealthy and powerful. ​ Impact of the Crusades: The Crusades opened up new trade opportunities in the Eastern Mediterranean, boosting demand for Eastern goods in Europe and expanding Mediterranean trade networks. 4 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim BLACK DEATH How it spread: ​ Following trade routes ​ Started in Italy since every trade went through there, and from there it spread Death toll ​ 30-60% Europe's population dead ​ 450 million people ​ ⅓ of Italian population Role in societal change ​ Social upheaval, terror, and economic collapse ​ People started looking for reasons of why this was happening, questioned G-d, wanted answers (start of Renaissance!!) ​ Survivors faced death and are gonna live it up, YOLO!!! Long term impact ​ Decrease in population led to ○​ Increase in food production ○​ Decline in food prices ○​ More money to spend ○​ Specialization in products ​ If you survived the Black Death ○​ Revival of population and economic activity ○​ Increased demand goods from East ​ Spices, flavor and perfumes, medicines, dyes RENAISSANCE Means “rebirth” in French Cause? ​ Exposed to new ideas on crusades ​ Survived the plague and want to live life to the fullest Location ​ Started in Italy since they were hit hardest with the Bubonic Plague, so they were the most questioning and YOLO ​ Port cities were there and was the center of movement Medici family impact ​ Family that got wealthy through trade ​ Gave money to fund art ​ Laid the groundwork to make Florence a cultural hotspot Individualism ​ The Church rule is spiritual--NOT civil society ​ Increasing value in personal success (mostly wealth) ○​ Being wealthy meant that God loves you and you were G-dly ​ Moral/ethical decisions part of secular society Humanism ​ Places humans, not G-d or faith, as center of attention ​ Focus on individual pursuit of knowledge for each person Secularism ​ Not everything is about G-d ​ Celebration of society without G-d ​ Humans are equal to G-d Creativity ​ More intricate and detailed paintings of MAN ​ Signatures on paintings 5 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim ​ More questioning led to more discoveries (overlap with scientific revolution) Questioning ​ Questioning spirit and the world ​ Religion and nature become separate ​ People questioned traditional and religious teachings ○​ Reformers tackle issues within the Catholic church ○​ Protestant reformation: A religious reform movement that resulted in the creation of a branch of Christianity called Protestantism, a name used collectively to refer to the many religious groups that separated from the Roman Catholic Church due to differences in doctrine. Classicism ​ Greco-Roman culture (pinnacle of society) reintroduced ​ Intellectual movement that sought to mimic the literature, rhetoric, art and philosophy of the ancient world Trade ​ If you were in the trade business you were very wealthy ​ With money they would patron art and architecture How does Renaissance “bridge the gap”? ​ Time period that bridges the gap between Middle Ages and modern day civilization ​ Sparked a revival in art, science, and thought that laid the foundation for many aspects of the modern world. SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION -​ The Renaissance enabled a scientific revolution which let scholars look at the world in a different light. Religion, superstition, and fear were replaced by reason and knowledge Geocentric / Heliocentric ​ Geocentric: Belief that the Earth is in the center of the universe and everything else surrounds it ​ Religious belief ○​ “the Lord set the earth on its foundations; it can never be moved” -Psalms 104:5 ​ Heliocentric: Belief that the sun is the center of solar system and Earth and other planets are just orbiting around it ​ Goes against the bible Galileo ​ Copernicus discovered Heliocentric and Kepler discovered the laws of planetary but none of them brought it forward due to the hate they would receive, but Galileo did ​ Was called a heretic at the time but is now referred to as the father of physics and astronomy ​ Was arrested and killed for his discovery Scientific Method ​ Discovered by Bacon ​ All about questioning which is theme of renaissance/scientific revolution Why is the Scientific Revolution so important? ​ Considered most important thing in humanity ​ It’s the real origin of the modern world and the modern mentality ​ Customary periodization of European history has become old fashioned and an encumbrance 6 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES: These advancements came out of the Scientific Revolution Printing Press / Moveable type ​ Ideas (religious, scientific, technological) could spread faster and farther Gutenberg bible ​ First book ever printed Caravel / Lateen Sails ​ Better for exploration ○​ More sails ○​ Switchback: different winds in different directions Astrolabe / compass ​ The Chinese made compass first, but Europeans didn’t have access to it ​ Astrolabe calculated latitude, but not longitude ○​ Longitude = political (lines could be anywhere) ○​ Latitude = scientific (equator - north south) ○​ Latitude created in mid 1700’s COMMERCIAL REVOLUTION Expanding Ottoman Empire ​ Ottoman Empire (Muslims) takes over land routes ​ Muslims in charge of trade ​ Expansions frightens Europe Constantinople ​ THE trade crossroads ​ Becomes Istanbul ​ Ottoman armies control overland trade routes to the east in Ottoman hands ​ Major port, controlled sea routes Why is it concerning if Constantinople is under Muslim control? ​ Because it’s the main trading hub and so they make a lot of money and control everything and their is no way to get around the Muslims if they are in the mid ○​ As Ottoman Empire is expanding, Christianity is dying Impact on Italy? Explain … ​ European trade flew into the Mediterranean through Italy in 1480 Venice or Genoa? Why? ​ Venice was a crossroad in the trading routes which means that they got all the people trading there and their economy grew ○​ Crusader kingdoms increase power ○​ Specialized luxury golds and slaves ○​ Victory in Spice trade wars ​ Genoa wasn’t on a crossroad which resulted in them being less successful in trading ans used for financial reasons ○​ anyone who wanted funding went here ○​ Later financed the exploration of the Atlantic ​ Venice and Genoa were the middlemen in trading ​ Venice and Genoa were not allies, rather competitors that were mutually beneficial ​ Great wealth flowed in Genoa and and Venice ○​ Funding Medici family ○​ Corrupting church Make connections back to the four themes of unit AND forward to era of exploration ​ Political: Become a world power through gaining wealth and land, power (Glory) 7 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim ​ Economic: Search for new trade routes with direct access to Asian/African luxury goods would enrich individuals and their nations, money (Gold) ​ Religious: spread Christianity and weaken Middle Eastern Muslims, spread Christianity (God) Commercial Revolution – Three “Gs” ​ Trade explodes in known world ○​ Gold ○​ Glory ○​ God ​ These 3 motives support each other Why is western Europe so eager to explore? ​ They are on the outskirts of civilization ​ Left out so being seeking their own path to riches of the East ​ The 3 G’s motivated outskirt European countries to do crazy things to compete with Italy Portugal Explores Africa ​ Western Europe (Portugal) seeks a part of the wealth ○​ Emerging nations want in on spice trade ○​ Resented Venetian dominance ○​ Can seek treasure and spread Catholic teachings IBERIAN PENINSULA – Portugal / Spain -​ Portugal didn’t want to have to go through Africa in trade, so tried to find a way to get to the Indian Ocean by themselves Prince Henry the Navigator ​ Establishes the school of navigation ○​ Studies new information and technologies ○​ Sailors and mapmakers could learn their trades ​ Encouraged exploration and directed many important expeditions ○​ Mainly focused on Africa ​ Sent explorers to sea almost every year Bartolomeu Dias ​ Hired by Henry ​ First European to go around southern tip of Africa ​ Died in a storm at sea ​ Established trade centers along west coast of Africa ​ Encountered Cape of Torment ○​ Renamed Cape of Hope so someone would go through it DaGamma ​ Set sail with four ships ​ Rounded africa’s southern tip and sailed up east coast and crossed Indian Ocean ​ Obtained loads of cinnamon and pepper, but lost half his ships at sea ​ Returned back to Portugal ​ Profit of trade = 60 x expenses of 27,000 mile journey COLUMBUS “Enterprise of the Indies” ​ Christopher Colombus’ theory that the Far East could be reached by sailing westward across the Atlantic Ocean ○​ Born in 1451 in Genoa, Italy ○​ Spent youth near seaports listening/learning Spain – Isabella / Ferdinand 8 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim ​ All of a sudden Portugal is doing well in trade (Iberian Peninsula) and now Spain is in competition with them ​ Spain is interested in Columbus' idea since they want to reach Asia to be a part of the trading business after being cut off from trade ​ Since they thought the trip would be a few days, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella were willing to fund such a long shot ○​ 3 ships: Nina, Pinta, and Sante Maria ○​ A few supplies ​ If Columbus is successful he becomes governor of any land discovered and keeps 10% of the wealth Trade Winds ​ Columbus was a great mariner and learned the use of trade winds ​ These winds carried his three ships all across the Atlantic, a distance of 12,500 miles, in 33 days ○​ Thought it would be 3500 miles ​ Plan: Goes south, and when reach Cape Verde, catch tailwind to go west Cimpango (Japan) ​ Thought he would end up in Cimpango, an island in Japan Toscanelli Map ​ Believed to be the map Columbus used Voyage – understand journey ​ Estimated 30 days, took 33 ​ Crew thought they haven’t traveled far enough, but Colombus had his own personal log that had the real amount they had traveled (still not accurate) ​ Life at sea was difficult ○​ Rationed food and drink ○​ Sea sickness ○​ Malnutrition ○​ Typhus ​ Disease from body lice ​ Rashes ​ Delirious ​ Die ○​ Scurvy ​ No vitamin C ​ Spongy gums ​ Teeth fall out ○​ Dysentery ​ Explosive diarrhea ​ No nutrition ​ death ○​ Malaria ​ Fever from parasite from mosquito ​ Oct 10: Men wanted to turn back, near mutiny ​ Oct 12: “Tierra, Tierra, Tierra” San Salvador / Arawak ​ Found land on Oct. 12, 1492, “San Salvador” ○​ Means Holy Savior ​ Colombus thought this was his divine mission and G-d has saved him and he fulfilled his destiny ​ He believed he was in India somewhere (actually in Caribbean) ​ Thought island of Cuba was part of China ​ Thought he was in Undies so called the natives Indians ○​ Arawak and Tiano people were the people of the Indies Admiral of Seas ​ Columbus returned to spain with tobacco, turkey, spices, natives as slaves ​ Names Admiral of the Seas ​ He made 4 voyages to the New World 9 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim -​ Columbus is convinced he’s in India but can’t find the gold everybody was talking about -​ King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella want him to bring back something of value “Discovery of America” ​ Skepticism / romanticism ○​ We always have to approach history with skepticism because we don't know what's real. People can always say Columbus was an amazing person who found America. We also know, however, that he murdered thousands of Indians brutally. ​ Skepticism: Method of suspended judgment, systematic doubt, or criticism that is characteristic of skeptics ​ Romanticism: deal with or describe in an idealized or unrealistic fashion; make (something) seem better or more appealing than it really is ​ History / legend ○​ There should be a separation between what happened in history and what is believed to have happened in the past ​ Fact / Myth ○​ Ex. Columbus discovered America is a myth ○​ He was not the first one, and he stole from the Indians, discounting 1000’s of years of Indian history, culture, development, and life Columbus – Leadership Style ​ Viewed Indians as good slave material, he was using them, looked down on them, and immediately took control over them ​ After returning to Spain after his first voyage, Ferdinand and Isabella supplied him with 17 ships and 1200 men for his next expedition ○​ Pressure on him to deliver riches ​ Columbus was desperate to fulfill the promises he had made to king and queen ​ Gold was not as bountiful as expected (or as he had suggested to the king and queen!!) ​ Columbus increases demands ​ Natives work gold mines to the point of exhaustion ○​ Natives over 14 required to supply at least a thimble of gold dust every three months ○​ If they didn’t fulfill their obligations, their hands were cut off and tied around their necks while they bled to death ​ This was for the other natives to see as a warning of what would happen to you if you didn’t listen to Columbus and get gold ○​ Estimated 10,000 dies handless ​ Anyone who opposed Columbus was beheaded or their ears were cut off Black Legend emerges ​ There were several accounts of cruelty and murder ○​ Spaniards testing sharpness of blades on native people by cutting them in half ○​ Beheading Natives in contests ○​ Throwing natives into vats of boiling soap ○​ Some accounts state that infants were taken from their mothers by Spainiards, only to be dashed headfirst into large rocks ○​ Native women enslaved as sex slaves for Spainiards, some as young as 9 years old ​ Columbus' leadership was almost universally disliked ○​ In two years, 250,000 Indians on Haiti dead ​ Mass suicides ​ Intentional poisonings ​ Mothers killing their babies to avoid persecution ​ Black legend emerges, (The concept that Spanish invaders killed, enslaved, and infected countless natives) it spread around Europe and was exaggerated ​ Brandished Spanish reputation ​ Ferdinand and Isabella find out about this and brought back Columbus to Spain in chains ​ Colmbus arrested in Santo Domingo ​ Stripped of his titles ○​ Eventually pardoned, and Colmbus sailed for his fourth and final voyage 10 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim Amerigo Vespucci ​ Sailor who voyaged with Columbus on one of his first voyages ​ He had been to India before and noticed vast differences between Asia and America, plants and animals ​ Concluded this land must be a new continent, previously unknown to Europe ○​ Sends a letter to his family explaining his theory “Mundus Novus” ​ Latin for “New World” Waldesmueller’s map 1507 ​ Made by famous German mapmaker ​ First map showing “New World”/America as a great mass of land west of the Atlantic, surrounded by water, not connected to Asia ○​ Controversial and shocking ○​ No one believed him ​ He begged viewers to back off and knew he was right Old World / New World ​ Old world = Europe ○​ Western Europe now middle of trade ○​ Shifted into a position of power in transatlantic trade ​ New World = Americas CYCLE OF CONQUEST The order of settling in America Explorers ​ In charge of finding land, resources, trade routes, etc. Conquistadors ​ Their job is to fight off other empires in the land and conquer the land there Missionaries ​ Their job was to subjugate the other religion/culture ​ Start teaching about Christianity Settlers ​ Once the natives started forgetting about their culture and adopting to Christianity, Spain (followed by Europe) send settlers to permanently stay there Colony ​ Settlers set up first official European colony Tensions among people ​ Aztec Empire ​ Central/southern Mexico ○​ Capital city: Tenochtitlan (population 250,000) ​ Dominant empire - est 5-10 million people ​ Superpower known for their military ○​ Conquered many neighboring peoples ​ Very advanced society ○​ Agricultural system with irrigation and swampland restoration ○​ Artificially constructed islands in the middle of great lake ○​ Temples, aqueducts, botanical gardens ​ Perfect environment for empire ​ Spanish murdered them when they got really sick, essentially murdering them on their deathbeds Incan Empire ​ Largest Empire on earth (bigger than China or Russia or Ottoman) ○​ Population est 15-20 million ​ Land: rainforest, desert, and mountain 11  American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim ​ Ran South American coast ​ Advanced agricultural cities built on top of mountains (terrace farming) ​ Many palaces, temples, and fortifications ​ First real well organized government in South Americas ○​ Good army ○​ Governors ○​ Taxes ○​ Forced resettlement programs ○​ Public works ​ Road system had over 3000 km of roads with tunnels and vine bridges ​ When they were attacked they evacuated to Machu Picchu IMPACT OF EUROPEAN INTERACTION Spaniards vs Natives ​ Spain had much more advanced technology and weaponry ​ More organized governments. Europeans ​ Introduced diseases, animals, and crops that changed the local environment and weakened native societies. Census results / implications ​ Whole tribes wiped out due to disease Impact of Disease - how / why? ​ Native Americans lacked immunity to Old World diseases because they didn’t engage in long-distance trade as frequently as Europeans, who were regularly exposed to various pathogens. ​ Europeans had developed immunity to diseases common in urban areas, whereas Native Americans had little exposure to such widespread illnesses ​ The Indians had no immunities whatsoever to these diseases and it killed thousands COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE – Foods / diseases exchanged ​ The Columbian Exchange was the exchange of products between Europe and America that were new and unknown. While there was some good in getting new foreign products, it brought unknown diseases that killed many Indians and barely any Europeans. Unit 2 CONTEST FOR EMPIRE- CATHOLIC CHURCH Portugal / Spain – Iberian Peninsula ​ Portugal and Spain were both Catholic countries ​ (they had different political leaders but the same spiritual leader, the Pope ​ Pope didn’t want Catholic countries (Portugal and Spain) fighting over pagan lands ​ Pope establishes Rules of “Engagement” for new lands, essentially a policy for how Catholics operate ​ Also known as a Papal Bull 12 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim ○​ A church law made with implied divine intention (“from God”) ​ These rules of engagement gave European Christian rulers official church blessing to claim their right of discovery over lands/people not held by Europeans and Christians Papal Bulls There were 3 Papal Bulls: ​ FIRST: Dum Diversas - 1452 ○​ Happened at the time that Constantinople fell and Islam was taking over, encouraging people to go somewhere else ○​ This Bull was made to assert Christian superiority ○​ Pope Nicholas V told Christians to attack non-Christians, enslave all non-believers, and take their property and things ○​ “Bring the light of the Church and civilization to backward and pagan peoples” (promote and spread Christianity) ○​ People did it because it was from God ○​ Europeans and Christians were superior, and non-Europeans/pagans/heathens ​ NEXT: Romanus Pontifex - 1455 ○​ Was made to justify Christian expansion into new lands ○​ They had to find NEW lands because Muslims are are strong and scary ○​ Europeans and Christians took over new land and people ○​ This Bull allowed Catholic nations to take dominion over discovered lands, discounting who the original inhabitants were and how long they had been there ○​ Approved/blessed the seizure of non-Christian lands ○​ Encouraged enslavement of native, non-Christian people in Africa (eventually the New World) ○​ This was justified because it was “FROM GOD” ​ LAST: Inter Caetera - 1493 ○​ This was made to keep Christian nations from destroying one another/maintaining peace throughout Christians ○​ Directed at Portugal and Spain who fought over the New World ○​ This made the rule that one Christian nation didn’t have the right to establish dominion over lands previously dominated by another Christian nation, thus establishing the Law of Nations Treaty of Tordesillas 1494 – rationale and impact ​ Pope Alexander VI solves this issue by drawing a line down the New World where the western side was controlled by Spain and the eastern side was controlled by Portugal ​ Portugal complains that Pope’s initial line was too small, so in 1494 line was modified so Portugal could have more land ○​ Pope is based because he got help through Spain ​ This line separating the two countries’ lands was called the Treaty of Tordesillas ○​ The treaty divided the non-European world into Spanish and Portuguese influence, which shaped colonization patterns for centuries. ○​ Spain established a large empire in the Americas, while Portugal focused on Brazil and parts of Africa. ○​ The treaty influenced cultural and linguistic boundaries in the New World. ​ For example, all Latin American nations are predominantly Spanish-speaking countries, except for Brazil where Portuguese is the national language. ○​ The treaty ignored the millions of people already living in established communities in the Americas, and the resulting conquest and colonization proved disastrous for civilizations, such as the Inca, Taino, and Aztec. DOCTRINE OF DISCOVERY ​ The three Papal Bulls are collectively known as the doctrine (perspective) of discovery ​ responsible for the catastrophic death toll in Latin America ​ All in the name of empire expansion 13 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim and religious righteousness ​ Established a process and justification for European domination: ○​ Required Spanish read the history of the Christian world to natives and read the document that explained that the natives had to be ruled by the superior Christian nation ○​ AKA requiremento ​ They didn’t understand them since it wasn’t in their language, so this was useless and just for show ○​ Natives were given a choice: dominance and subjugation or violence and getting killed ○​ If the natives chose to reject Christ, the Spanish were “justified” to wage a “just war” ○​ “We gave you a chance and you rejected” scenario ​ Waged to right an injustice by another nation ​ According to Christains, not being Christian was unjust SPANISH IMPERIALISM – AMERICAS -​ Spanish conquistador - claims for New Spain (new colony area) Administration of the Spanish Empire ​ Aztecs attacked by Fernando Cortez ○​ Cortez reached Tenoclitan (city) with 600 soldiers after searching for weeks ○​ The king of the Aztecs, Montezuma II is convinced that Cortez was an Aztec god, Quetzalcoatl ○​ Montezuma II shows Cortez the Aztecs gold and agrees to share ○​ Cortez instead enslaves the Aztecs and forces them to dig for more gold ○​ Even though Aztecs army was very strong, they were too sick to fight and then killed ○​ Aztecs also thought this was just god's will ○​ In 1521 Cortez joins with Aztec enemies to victory ​ Incas attacked by Francisco Pizarro ○​ Pizarro originally greeted as a friend in 1531 ○​ After defeating the Incas in brutal war, Pizarro formed an alliance with Incan enemies ○​ Took King Athualpa for ransom ​ Had to fill a room full of gold ​ Even though the Incas paid the ransom, Pizarro killed the king anyway Administrative Phase/Encomienda System: ​ In the Old World Spanish relied on council to run government in New World ​ This council was the Council of the Indies ○​ Supreme governing body of Spanish ○​ Appointed by King/Queen of Spain ​ 100% Spanish blood ​ In the New World there were viceroys ○​ Governors of an assigned area ○​ Treated as a province of Spain ○​ Was a diplomacy ​ Spanish blood ​ Mixed with native blood ​ Royalty/nobles saw an opportunity to colonize, known as the Enconmiendera ○​ Prominent Spainiard awarded title of “Encomienda” to a grant of land ​ Land included indigenous communities and families that lived there ○​ It was expected from the natives that they provide tribute to Ecomindera ​ Gold, silver, crops, animals, etc. ○​ And to work for specified amount of time on a sugarcane plantation or in a mine ○​ In return, the Encomiendera would provide protection and Christian education and teach Spanish to native communities ​ The Spanish forced natives to pay tribute in exchange for unwanted culture and protection Encomienda System ​ System of forced and unpaid labor adopted by Spanish in Americas 14 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim ​ Spanish established quotas for time requirements for production ​ Unreasonable demands quickly led to abusive situations ○​ Native people forced to choose between fulfilling quotas and starving to death for failing to meet quotas ​ Natives forced to work in mercury mines for weeks at a time, often by candlelight in deep shafts ○​ These lethal conditions were done by negligence ​ The Spanish don’t protect the Indians and they get sick and die -​ The Spanish claimed that the encomienda system would benefit both settlers and Indians. It didn’t work out that way. PLAN REALITY Spanish settlers protect, care for, and Christianize Indians die from disease and harsh living and Indians working conditions Indians work a portion of their time for Spanish Spanish settlers force long labor, don’t pay Indian settlers workers, fail to protect Indians, and seize Indian lands -​ Encomienda ends after the clergy protests and Indians revolt. Abuses continue under replacement repartimiento IMPACT OF EUROPEAN INTERACTION Cause / impact ​ Began as peaceful interactions ​ Spainiards move in and displaced native peoples ​ Spainiards need laborers so they enslaved native peoples ​ Natives begin resisting ○​ Passively (not working) ○​ Moving further away ○​ All out conflict begins Native American depopulation in Florida Census results / impact ​ Entire people destroyed ​ Population of Mexico declined 90% during this period ○​ Disease, weak, tired, overworked ​ Arwak nation completely gone in span of 60 years (1496-1555) COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE – ​ The exchange of plants, animals, diseases, and other items between the Americas, Europe, and 15 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim Africa Foods / diseases exchanged: ​ Americas → Europe & Africa ​ Europe & Africa → Americas ○​ Tobacco ○​ Coffee bean ○​ Quinine ○​ Peach ○​ Sweet potato ○​ Pear ○​ Avocado ○​ Olive ○​ Peppers ○​ Citrus fruits ○​ Cassava ○​ Banana ○​ Peanut ○​ Sugar cane ○​ Potato ○​ Honeybee ○​ Tomato ○​ Onion ○​ Corn ○​ Grains: wheat, rice, barley, oats ○​ Beans ○​ Livestock: cattle, sheep, pig, horse ○​ Vanilla ○​ Turnip ○​ Pumpkin ○​ Grape ○​ Turkey ○​ Disease: Smallpox, Malaria, ○​ Squash Influenza, Diphtheria, Typhus, ○​ Pineapple Whooping cough, Measles ○​ Cacao bean Increased trade and food production across the globe impact ​ When Old World gained new staples crops (potatoes, sweet potatoes, maize, and cassava), it ended centuries of famine and malnourishment ​ Tobacco was used as substitute for currency in many parts of the world ​ domesticated animals improved productivity of farms in New and Old World ​ Sugar and coffee availability increased drastically ​ Disease exchanged (downside) ○​ More in New World than Old World ​ Increased nutrition led to worldwide population growth ​ Started Europe’s economic shift towards capitalism ○​ We use this system today ​ Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade/Middle Passage: Enslaved 12.5 million people from Africa and brought them to the Americas between 1525 and 1866 ○​ Europeans needed people to work for them ○​ Natives are dead ○​ Africans had antibodies ​ Spainiards thought Africans were physically stronger because they didn’t understand disease DEBATE BETWEEN SEPULVEDA and LAS CASAS -​ 1550: Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain halted Spanish conquests in Americas -​ Priests started hearing about the horrible things happening in New World -​ Hold a debate about the justification for war to Spread Christianity Arguments: DEBATE QUESTION: Was war and subjugation a “just means” to spread of Christian truth? ​ Juan Gines Sepulveda argues Spain has a right to kill all the Indians ​ Believed Indians were natural slaves ​ Indians = lower chain on the Great Chain of Being ○​ Spanish humanist ○​ Classical greek scholar ​ Bartolome LasCasas argues that the Indians are good people and they should not violently teach them ​ Believed Indians had souls and could be civilized ​ Indians = primitive Christians 16 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim ○​ Spanish Priest of New World ○​ Sailed with Columbus ○​ Friend of the Indian ​ Sepuveda won debate ​ Conquest and cruelty continued Later… ​ 1573: Philip II of Spain issued an ordinance regulating all future discoveries by land or sea. It banned the word CONQUEST, recommending PACIFICATION (make Indians agree just in a less violent way) instead. In it’s own way, that was a modern response to the question, too Other nations enter the race ​ Once Spain started colonizing and getting these products and wealth, all of Europe wants in ○​ What about the Treaty of Tordesillas? ​ Only affects Catholic nations, not Protestants or Eastern Orthodoxy ​ Redefines trade across globe - becomes contest for empire Types of Government ​ Anarchy ○​ No publicly enforced government ○​ Voluntary, non-hierarchical participation ​ chaos ​ Autocracy ○​ A single person with supreme power who isn’t limited by laws or elections ○​ Absolute power by one monarch or dictator ​ Confederation ○​ Union of independent nations for common purpose ○​ Weak central government ​ Monarchy ○​ Nation ruled by family ○​ Predetermined leader through hereditary lines ​ Nowadays monarchs usually are symbols with no actual power ○​ Kings, emperors, sultans ○​ Advisors help ○​ Divine right (absolute power by ruler) overtime turned into constitutional (shared power w/ elected legislature, people have traditional and protected rights) ​ Oligarchy ○​ Power in a small group of people ○​ Could be based on: ​ Wealth ​ Family ​ Religion ​ Nobility ​ Military ties ​ Socialism (not officially government type) ○​ belief/practice that goods and services should be owned and regulated by government as a whole ​ Ex. kibbutz ​ Theocracy ○​ Ruled by religious leader ○​ No legal separation between church and state ○​ Type of oligarchy ​ Plutocracy ○​ Nation governed by wealthy people ​ Aristocracy ○​ Class system ○​ High class makes decisions 17 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim ​ Those holding hereditary titles or offices ○​ Translation from Greek = the best ​ Ancient Greece (565-508 BCE) ○​ Polis ​ Means city state ​ Center of life ​ Athens small polis where democracy was born ​ Greece = collection of 1500 separate city-states, lots of islands ○​ Aristocracy ruled Athens ○​ Archons ​ 5 member council made decisions ○​ Solon & Citizenship ​ Solon was born to Athenian parents who lost all their money but were still nobles, they just lived among normal people ​ Befriended common citizens and saw how the poor were looked at as criminals because they don’t have money. If they had money they wouldn’t have to be criminals~ ​ He thought of new meaning of citizenship ​ All citizens, rich and poor, are responsible for achieving common good ​ To earn the title of a citizen you must be invested in the success of your community ​ Debt was a big problem for poor so he cancel all debts ​ It’s hard to get out of poverty because no land = no money ​ There was no land for common people so he took land from rich and redistributed it to the needy ​ Equal chance ​ Only aristocracy had real political power so he created 4 classes: top 2 control most but Assembly membership was allowed to all (even poor) citizens ​ Sharing power more with others ​ He made laws less severe and fairer for all - straight justice ​ Laws creating “wills” which allowed people to leave property to loved ones ​ Criminal laws revamped: robbery, murder, etc. ​ Laws prohibiting dowries ○​ Women’s family provide dowry fiance, which made women from rich families more likely to get married and be rich which wasn’t good for poor ​ Laws granting court system with equal rights access to all citizens ​ Laws regulating water supply ​ Laws last over 100 years ​ Not yet a democracy but moving in that direction ​ Citizens feel better invested and want more voice ○​ Cleisthenes ​ Considered the father of Athenian democracy ​ Took the reforms that Solon introduced, credited for inventing democracy ​ Democracy = demos (mob) ocracy (rule) ​ This “mob” aspect shows that democracy can be great but it has its limits ​ If everyone disagrees or uneducated people come to power it creates chaos ​ Creates direct democracy ​ One citizen, one vote ​ …citizenship limited: Adult male citizens of double descent participate in government ​ Legislative body if 400 run by individuals chosen by lottery ​ Swear an oath to do what's best for the people ​ reorganized the assembly to balance power of rich and poor ​ Let all citizens submit laws for debate and passage, which increased the power of the assembly ​ Created Council of Five Hundred 18 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim ​ The size of Athens was only 400 people which was assumed to be the largest democracy could grow ​ Rome (509 BCE) ○​ Control most of mediterranean ○​ Representative democracy ​ Founded on principle of elected officials rule on people's behalf ○​ Republican government = Roman Senate = representative democracy ​ Heavily influenced by Aristocracy (best educated and most well funded ruled) ○​ Created two party system ​ Patricians vs Plebeians ​ The patricians had all the power and passed laws that were only from their use.. The plebeian assemblies acquired the right to pass laws for all Romans and nominated consuls, tribunes and members of the Senate. ​ Checks and balances: monitor government power ​ Branches of government that have different powers than each other ​ Keep each other in check ​ They had written laws ​ Women could be citizens Greece VS Rome ​ Greece: ○​ Direct democracy ○​ One citizen, one vote ○​ Lot less people ○​ Geography allowed it to be easier to vote ○​ 507 BCE ​ Rome: ○​ Elected officials represent citizens ○​ More people ○​ Too far to vote directly ​ VASTLY DIFFERENT TOPOGRAPHIES ENGLAND Late middle ages, England is on the edge of European world ​ Feudal System ○​ A system for structuring society around relationships derived from the holding of land in exchange for service of labor ○​ Based on hierarchy 1)​ KING -​ Highest authority, controls all land, ultimate power, expects loyalty from all below him 2)​ LORD/BARON -​ Noble who received land/manor from king, responsible for providing military support and managing land, oversees peasants on manor 3)​ KNIGHT -​ A person who received a fief/land from a lord and pledged loyalty and military service in return -​ Don’t use land since they’re fighting all the time 4)​ PEASANT/SERF -​ Lowest social class, working the land on a lord’s manor and providing labor and produce in exchange for protection ○​ Born into your class ○​ System lasts almost 1000 years in Europe ○​ Easier to move down than up ○​ Europe = monarchies ○​ Land awarded to helpful people ○​ Military obligation 19 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim ​ King John - 1215 ○​ Thinks the Catholic church is too rich and taxes them ○​ Heavily taxes barons and made arrests without lawful judgment ○​ Lost most of the land that England previously controlled in France ○​ Has lots of enemies all over the world ​ Asks lords & knights to fight for him but they refuse ​ King John in vulnerable situation ○​ Angry nobles forced King John to sign the Magna Carta ​ Means THE document ​ Lists of rights guaranteed to British nobles ​ “Have and enjoy all liberties and immunities of free and natural subjects” ​ King could not deny these rights ​ King accepted these limits (desperate for them to fight) ​ THIS LEADS TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF PARLIAMENT (legislature in England) ​ Created a system where they officially advise king ​ King John bound himself and heirs forever ​ Limits executive power ​ First time we see a king accepting limitation ​ Model Parliament - 1295 ○​ England’s first legally elected legislature ○​ Assembly included clergy, aristocracy, and representatives from countries and boroughs ○​ This parliament was summoned by King Edward I to gain consent for new taxes, a key purpose at the time. ○​ King Edward I wanted to formalize parliament ○​ Established Power of the Purse: It established the principle of parliamentary control over finances (the "power of the purse"), meaning that the government needed Parliament's approval to levy taxes and spend money. ​ This principle became foundational in later democratic systems. ○​ Whoever controls the money controls everything, and the king gave that power to the parliament ○​ "What touches all, should be approved of all, and it is also clear that common dangers should be met by measures agreed upon in common." This emphasizes that decisions affecting everyone should be made collectively, a step towards more inclusive governance ○​ Moving towards democratic thinking but not there yet Christianity evolves ​ Christianity = belief in divinity of Jesus and he is Messiah ​ After the Great Schism… ○​ Western - Latin​ ​ Roman Catholicism, Pope, etc ○​ Eastern - Greek ​ Eastern Orthodox, Patriarch ​ Doesn’t affect growth of America ​ Christianity = Catholicism ​ In eastern Europe there was a devoted following who gave all their money to the church ​ Most powerful Catholic nation = Italy because of trade and they get money ​ Catholic church not healthy when God/morality equal to money Catholicism in 1400s – issues / abuses ​ Roman Catholic church = influential, extravagant, etc. 20 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim ​ Some people felt that church was straying from it’s spiritual roots ○​ Dissatisfaction: priests abusing their position of power, were corrupt, there was heavy church taxation in addition to government taxation (people had to pay because otherwise they wouldn’t get into heaven) ​ People's respect for religious figures weakened ○​ Financing Basilica: Pope Leo X approved sale of indulgences (release form all or part od the punishment for sin) ○​ Pardons reduced a soul’s time in purgatory (middle between heaven and hell) ​ Instead of praying for forgiveness it’s bought and the priests gives a blessing in return ○​ Working off sins: Catholics believe dead went to purgatory, worked off sins committed ○​ Sales on indulgences widely criticized ○​ Government separate from the church ​ “Once you hear the money’s ring, the soul from purgatory is free to spring” - Tetzel (CORRUPT!) REFORMATION Martin Luther ​ German religious reformer who initiated the Protestant Reformation ○​ Didn’t understand indulgence ​ Nailed his “95 Theses” to church door (95 problems about Catholic church) ○​ Hoped to spur a renewal in Catholic church ​ A call to purify Catholic church and a belief that the Bible, not tradition, should be sole source of spiritual authority ​ Instead in 1521 he gets excommunicated (essentially spiritual death) ​ Afterward, he continued his reforms by translating the Bible into German, allowing ordinary people to read and interpret it for themselves ​ He also developed the concept of the "priesthood of all believers," which suggested that all Christians had equal access to God without the need for intermediaries like priests ​ In 1524 German peasants revolted inspired by Luther ○​ Protest of Catholic church hegemony (absolute control): ​ People read/interpret bible for themselves ​ Popes = corrupt and have too much power ​ Conflicts with Catholic believers and nations ​ German citizens and Luther protest and want to reform to religion ○​ PROTESTantism ○​ LUTHERanism ​ People who follow Luther and his ways ○​ REFORMation ​ Protestants = people who challenge Catholic church Protestant Reformation impact ​ Religious Fragmentation: The Reformation led to the rise of Protestant denominations (e.g., Lutheranism, Calvinism) and a permanent split from the Catholic Church. ​ Decline of Papal Authority: It weakened the Pope’s political and religious control, fostering the development of nation-states with more centralized power. ​ Promotion of Literacy: Bible translations into vernacular languages encouraged literacy and allowed people to interpret the Bible independently. John Calvin **side note: Calvinists are the first ppl to come to America ​ theologian, pastor and reformer ​ Had similar issues with Catholic church but ○​ Believed in the elect: only a very small chosen few would go to heaven ○​ Predestination: man’s free will was much restricted by God ​ God is perfect ​ Made man ​ Free will, but God knows your whole life already 21 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim ​ Predetermined outcome of heaven or hell ​ If you are determined to go to heaven you are part of elect ○​ Grace alone: stronger emphasis on the idea that an is saved by grace ​ Starts in Switzerland, small pockets of followers emerge there and in Netherlands and Scotland Spread of Protestantism ​ Spreads across Europe ​ Regional distinctions appear ○​ Causes spiritual upheaval ○​ Economic crisis ○​ Governments toppled ○​ Empires collapse ​ They don’t know where the power structure is! Difference between Protestant, Catholic, Christian ​ Christianity is the overarching faith that believes in the divinity of Jesus, including Catholics, Protestants, and other denominations like Eastern Orthodoxy. ​ Catholics follow both scripture and church tradition, have seven sacraments, and are led by the Pope. ​ Protestants emerged from the Reformation, focusing on scripture alone and typically recognize only two sacraments: Baptism and Communion. ​ Catholicism emphasizes the authority of the Pope and structured rituals, while Protestants believe in the priesthood of all believers, meaning individuals can interpret the Bible personally. HOUSE OF TUDOR: England isn’t powerful so king marries other countries Henry VIII ​ Henry was younger brother of Arthur Tudor, who was married to Catherine of Aragon ​ When Arthur was killed as a teen, Henry married Catherine (Who was part of the powerful Spanish Hapsbrug family, daughter of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella) to maintain the political alliance ​ Catherine of Aragon gave birth to a daughter, Mary, but Henry VIII needed a male heir to secure the Tudor dynasty ​ Since Caherine couldn’t produce a son, Henry sought a new wife, which led to his interest in his handmaid, Anne Boleyn ​ She said she would only have relations with him is they were married ​ Initially, Henry defended the Catholic Church and was titled “Defender of Faith” by Pope Clement VII. ​ This means, however, that he can’t divorce Catherine and marry Anne since Catholicism doesn’t permit divorce ​ Henry VIII breaks from Catholic church to form a new English Christian church (in order to permit divorce) ​ 1543 Henry brings reformation to England ​ Henry’s decision to break from the Catholic church was not just for personal reasons but also political and economic. He declares himself final authority on church matters, closes monetaries and claims church lands, and gives English bible to people ​ Has 7 wives: ○​ Catherine of Aragon ​ Married ​ Baby: Mary ​ Divorced ○​ Anne Boleyn ​ Affair ​ Married ​ Baby: Elizabeth 22 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim ​ Protestant “witch” ​ Divorced ​ Beheaded ○​ Jane Seymour: ​ Married ​ Baby: Edward ​ Died in childbirth ○​ Anne of Cleves ​ Agreed to marry without meeting ​ German alliance ​ Found out she’s ugly but didn’t want to lose alliance like he did with Spain ​ Made her his sister ​ He’s head of his own church he can do whatever ○​ Catherine Howard ​ 18 years old ​ Affair ​ Married ​ She had affair with someone else ​ Beheaded ​ Catherine Parr ○​ Married ○​ Older ○​ Took care of Henry until death Next heir: ​ Edward ○​ Henry’s only son, son of Mary ○​ Becomes king at 9 ○​ However, he’s very sick and dies before 16 ○​ Edward tries to get his cousin Jane to become the next queen, but is only queen for 9 days, and got put in the tower of England ​ Mary of England is next heir ○​ Daughter of Catherine (wife 1) ○​ Therefore very Catholic ○​ Brings Catholicism back ○​ Threatens anyone who practice protanstance with a burning death ○​ Got nicknamed “bloody mary’ ○​ Mary dies after a few years of being queen ​ Elizabeth I – Virgin Queen ○​ Assumes throne after Mary ○​ Devout protestant (like mom) ○​ Never marries (virgin queen) ​ Feared it would compromise England’s position and become Catholic or to lose power ​ Philip II of Spain wanted to marry her (for the power) ​ Elizabeth doesn’t want to get on his bad side but also vowed to not marry ○​ Establishes Protestant England ○​ Sends explorations to America ​ Her goal was to assert England as international power ​ Invests in naval fleet (that’s how Spain got rich) ​ England doesn’t have the money for a navy so they hire privateers ​ AKA legal pirates ​ Private individuals granted government permission to use ships in war, especially to capture enemy merchants ​ Attacked Spanish ships and got riches from the New World ​ Spanish called English pirates “Sea dogs” ​ Target was also Philip since he’s part of Spanish navy 23 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim ​ Knights Drake (see more about him below) ○​ Greatest English monarch ○​ Dies without an heir… last Tudor Francis Drake ​ Wants to impress queen ​ Sea captain who leads attack against Spanish galleon ​ Conquers ship full of gold it was practically sinking (Golden Hind) ​ Got emeralds for queens crown ​ Burned Spanish towns and looted Catholic churches ​ Went west around South America ​ First Englishman to circumnavigate the globe since he didn’t want to return by passing by Spain again and getting attacked ​ 1581 Queen Elizabeth knighted him England Attempts Establishing [illegal] Colonies ​ Sea Dog colonies - land is designated for Spanish but England isn’t Catholic so they don’t care Roanoke Island ​ First attempted English colony by Raleigh ​ Sails for Elizabeth ​ Sets up first English outlook ​ Named Virginia (after Elizabeth) ​ However due to the war (below) he doesn’t come back for years ​ When he does, he finds everyone dead with only one clue: the word “croatoan” on a tree ​ STILL a mystery Spanish Armada ​ Phillip is furious: been stolen from and Drake knighted: he’s been played ​ Phillip sent the Spanish Armada - largest ship battle until WWII, with 30000 men, 130 ships, 2400 guns, etc. ​ England had no navy to fight back so they were expected to lose and be completely crushed ​ As the ships rounded Ireland, a huge hurricane comes and destroys Spanish at sea ○​ Only 67 ships and ~10000 men survived ​ 1588 - defeat armada Protestant Wind ​ This hurricane was referred to as Protestant Wind ​ To many this proved that God intervened and proved that Protestantism was the true religion ​ Beginning of Spanish decline and English ascent Middle Way ​ Queen Elizabeth established Protestantism in England ​ Attempts to create balance/middle way between Catholicism and Lutheranism ○​ “Follow your heart if you’re not Protestant, we won’t kill you, but Protestantism is the main religion” Motivation of English Colonization Late to colonization so they know what’s coming ​ GOLD ○​ Profit & make money ​ GLORY ○​ Establish colonies before Spain or France and so on (power) ​ GOD ○​ Keep North America from Catholics ○​ First Protestant to colonize west ​ A lot of people want to colonize because life sucks ○​ Poor people desperate to get land and get out ○​ Noble 2nd sons want new reputation since they get no inheritance Real Wages ​ Real Wages are the buying power of the check, not necessarily what it says on the check ​ Buying power you have with money 24 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim Year Pound Sterling 1500 100 1550 50 1600 40 1650 38 1700 55 (Went up -- why?) ​ 1500-1700: economy is expensive, lot of poverty, disease, violence, lack of supplies ​ People are dying young so there’s disease and money issues Enclosure movement: ​ Parliament law expanding “private property” ○​ Traditionally British farmers planted crops in small strips of land while allowing animals to graze on common fields shared collectively ​ Wealthy farmers buy up large sections of land and create larger farms ​ Smaller farmers are forced to sell land since they can’t afford it, many move to cities to work ○​ People congregate in urban centers ​ Crime ​ Disease ​ money Primogeniture ​ English law made oldest son heir to family estate if head of family died without a will ​ Intended to preserve large estates in aristocratic England ​ Capitalism - land now not public Social crisis in England ​ Increase in the number of poor and to a social crisis ○​ Crowded ○​ Poor people ○​ unemployment ​ “Unruly poor” encouraged to leave for New World ​ Masterless men: View that America was land where a man could control his own labor and thus gain economic independence, particularly though ownership of land (they want land but can't get in England since no $) James VI / James I ​ After Queen Elizabeth’s death, the Tudor dynasty ends ​ Her nephew James next in line ​ Closet Catholic but has to convert to Protestantism in order to assume throne ​ Goes from James VI of Scotland to James I of England ​ Succeeded in the first permanent colonies in America ○​ Jamestown 1st official colony STUART DYNASTY ​ Colonized in New World ​ Economics of Colonization: ○​ Mercantilism ○​ Joint Stock Companies ○​ Proprietary Colonies/Charter Colonies ​ How did this tiny island with no resources and social problems end up ruling the planet? ○​ MERCANTILISM *MERCANTILISM 25 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim ​ Merchant Capitalism ○​ Set of evolving policies ​ Economic system based on having and developing colonies ​ Nations want a positive balance of trade ○​ *Export vs Import: Export more products than import to get revenue ○​ If you sell more you gain more money ○​ England took money to build up military navy, take over more colonies, and produce even more ○​ Trading nation needs to have control overseas (land is slower and expensive) ○​ England's resources came from Americas 1)​ …Navy conquers colonies 2)​ Get resources there 3)​ Export more 4)​ Revenue more 5)​ Put $ into the military… Repeating cycle ​ “The sun doesn’t set on the British empire” ​ They conquered EVERYWHERE (Asia, Africa, Mid. East, Americas) Raw materials ​ England gets raw materials from colonies (unlimited resources they don’t need to pay for and needed since England doesn’t have enough) ​ Take these raw materials back to factories in England, make products, sell them for money ○​ Ex. Get beaver pelts, back in England converted into trendy hat, sold to other markets and get revenue ​ Mother country = England ○​ Develops raw materials ○​ Sells finished products back to colonies and abroad for $$ Goal under mercantilism ​ Nations become self-sufficient (not importing) so they don’t have to depend on other countries for good System for Financing Colonization ​ Joint stock companies ​ group/individual apply form a Company - need money ​ Apply to king for charter/royal permission ○​ “Set up colony for YOU, King” ​ Company sells stock to raise money for journey ​ Get multiple investors/stockholders ○​ Stockholders buy stock ○​ Own a percentage of company (shareholders) ○​ Gets a share in profits (invested in company so they get money back) Virginia Company ○​ Joint stock company ○​ Named in honor of VIRGIN queen Elizabeth (Not Mary because she’s too Catholic) ​ London Company and Plymouth company - divisions of Virginia Company ​ Overlap between them because geography wasn’t clear to them back in the day ​ Given north and and south point and everything to the west (didn’t know how far west it went) ​ England claims whole continent (not recognized by other countries though) since they weren’t actually there, but this was their justification for other people who want to colonize because it’s already “taken” System for Colonization ​ *Proprietary Colony ○​ Colony given by king to individual to develop ○​ Can do whatever they want with it - they own it ​ Ex. Cecil Calvert: Maryland given to his family ​ Catholic @ heart, opened up land to Catholics 26 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim ​ MD flag = Calvert family crest ​ *Charter colony ○​ Royal permission given to colonists ○​ Guaranteed all rights of Englishmen (run it like it’s England) ​ Ex. Rhode Island, Connecticut ​ Royal Colony ○​ King can take profiting colonies for himself ○​ Kings always want money MAP: Chronology of key events: 500’s BCE: Ancient Rome and Greece 400-1200: Feudal System 1054: Great Schism 1215: Magna Carta 1295: Model Parliament 1450’s-90’s: Papal Bulls & Doctrine of Discovery 1517: Start of Protestantism 1534: Protestantism brought to England 1520’s-30’s: Spain Conquest of America, Ecomienda, etc. 1550: Debate between Sepulveda VS LasCasas 1572: English Privateers 1588: Spanish Armada 1603: Queen Elizabeth dies 1640’s: Mercantilism Unit 3 English Colonies 13 colonies ​ New England Colonies: New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut ○​ Hard rocky land ○​ Cold climate ○​ Long winters ○​ Poor area for larger farming operations ○​ Algriculture - sustenance farming ​ Enough to survive and live off of but no extra ○​ Fishing and whaling ○​ Many ports ○​ Colonists congregate in small towns and became craftsmen or merchants ○​ Manufacturing eventually emerged ​ Focused on shipbuilding due to abundance of lumber ​ Middle Colonies: New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Deleware ○​ Best of both worlds: farming and fishing ​ Grew corn, vegetables and grain ​ Wealthy farmers grew cash crops and raised livestock ○​ Warm climate 27 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim ○​ Fertile soil ○​ Flat land ○​ Easily navigable rivers ○​ Wide valleys ○​ Mined iron ore ○​ Cities grow - urban merchants sold and traded goods with other colonies ​ Exported algricultural products and natural resources ​ Imported manufactured goods ​ Southern Colonies: Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia ○​ Rich and fertile soil ○​ Broad coastal plains ○​ Economy based SOLELY on agriculture ​ Exceptional farming soil ​ Warm climates ​ Long growing season ​ Flat lands ○​ Plantation alrgiculture - Focused on one or two cash crops (Tobacco, rice, indigo) ​ Required large labor force ​ Poor English (indentured servants) and enslaved Africans ○​ Smaller farms = subsistence farming ○​ No manufacturing so all goods needed were imported from trader New England Middle Southern -​ Founded on religion -​ Diversity -​ Social order: (Puritan faith) -​ Religious tolerance 1)​ Plantation owners -​ “City Upon a Hill” -Winthrop -​ Fast growth: 2)​ Poor farmers -​ Strong sense of faith, family -​ Westward expansion 3)​ Slaves Society and community -​ Philadelphia = largest colonial city -​ Wealthy = gentry -​ Very strict -​ Social order: -​ Tutors or private school -​ Massachusetts = 1st public 1)​ Merchants -​ Poor = home school education 2)​ Craftsmen, retail, businessmen, -​ 1st 2 colleges: Harvard 3)​ Sailors, unskilled workers, some & Yale artisans New England Middle Southern -​ Mayflower Compact: -​ Toleration -​ House of Burgesses 1)​ Plymouth -​ Indian treaties 1)​ Jamestown (1619) 2)​ Elected legislature -​ Eventually became royal colonies 2)​ 1st Representative body in 3)​ Gov of the people (governor control) colonies - Representative gov Politics -​ Town meetings -​ Eventually became royal colonie - Ultimately power in hands (governor control) of church - Fundamental orders of 28 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim Connecticut: Gov power from “free consent of the people” New England Middle Southern -​ Puritan church -​ Greater social and religious diversity -​ Colonies founded for economic -​ Church central to colonial -​ Pennsylvania rather than religious reasons life -​ Founder: William Penn -​ Exception: -​ All settlers had to attend -​ Quakers -​ Maryland (Catholic) Religion and support the church -​ Religious tolerance -​ Planters = Church of England -​ Banishment for -​ Presbyterians (Anglican) non-committed -​ Lutherans -​ Poor Settlers = Baptist and -​ Mennonites Methodists -​ Jews = New York New England Middle Southern Geography -​ Farthest north -​ Temperate climate: -​ Warmest climate: -​ Cooler climate -​ Warm summers -​ Helped colonists -​ Shorter growing -​ Cold winters survive winter season -​ Landforms: -​ Warm, moist climate -​ Helped prevent -​ Coastal plain carries disease disease -​ Piedmont -​ Broad coastal plain -​ Cold winter killed (rolling hills) -​ Hilly and forests many -​ Mountains -​ RIch farmland, forest -​ Mostly hills & rocky -​ Good harbors and fish soil -​ Ideal for -​ Natural resources algriculture more important than agricultural -​ crops Colonial Expidition ​ English colonial expeditions were often led by second sons of noble families who could not inherit property (law of primogenence) ​ 2nd sons traveled to new world because they had no money from their father ​ Puritan merchants, dissenters from the Church of England, became key investors in New World colonies: 29 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim ○​ Many Puritans had capital for investment. ○​ Increased motivation to leave under Catholic-leaning Stuart monarchs. ​ Joint-stock companies became the primary vehicle for funding English colonies: ○​ Enabled a broader base of investors and workers. ○​ Relied on England’s surplus landless population as laborers ​ Stuart dynasty was the beginning of English foray into Colonization ○​ 1606: First Virginia charter ○​ Motivation: Economic ​ Settlers offered food, travel, & land ownership in exchange for seven years of labor for colony (looking for wealth, profit, gold) ​ 104 men set out for Virgina in December of 1606 Jamestown 1st Permanent English settlement - 1607 ​ Location: Safe but swampy ○​ Established settlement 32 miles inland (stealing land from Spain) ​ Easy to defend ​ Avoid Spanish ships patrolling east coast ​ Good soil ​ Cons: Poor planning and organization ○​ Mosquitoes and malaria ​ Mosquitoes carry disease and live in water ○​ Brackish water ​ Tidewater area: fresh water mixed with salt water ​ Not good for you ​ In high tides the water overflows to land (flat coastal planes results in bad floods) ​ Captain Christopher Newport: English privateer, ship captain, and adventurer who helped to establish the first permanent English colony in North America at Jamestown in 1607 ​ 104 Englishmen arrived ○​ Many soldiers/adventurers seeking fortune and fame ○​ Few with skills and knew little about establishing a settlement ○​ Some ‘gentlemen” don’t do manual labor ○​ Few building homes or making plans for winter …many search for gold ​ Powhatan Confederacy: Indian tribe (the English mistakenly call ALL tribes Powahatan) ○​ 19 days after English arrival, Powhatans attack Jamestown ○​ After attack, settlers recognize need for protection ○​ Construct large triangular fort ​ EVERYONE lived inside ​ John Smyth: English militant/explorer ​ The reason why Jamestwon doesn’t become Roanoke ○​ Explored Chesapeake much of his first year looking for gold with soldiers ○​ Returns to Jamestown and finds 60 of 214 settlers survived ○​ Asserts authority/absolute power in 1608 and established MARTIAL LAW ​ “He that does not work does not eat” ​ Church 2x a day ​ This wasn’t for religious reasons, rather to keep track of everyone 30 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim ​ Curfews (Fine: public whipping, prison) ​ motivation for settlers to follow rules ○​ Structure led to good environment ○​ John went to negotiate/trade with the Powahatans, ended up being captured ○​ According to John: 11 year old Pochahontas, chiefs daughter, spared his life. He stayed with the Powhatans and learned to communicate with them. He stimulated productive trade between settlers and natives. This was crucial to Jamestown’s winter survival ○​ John kept one of the best diaries from this period ​ In 1608 first two women arrived ​ Slowly, relations between Powhatans and settlers improve ​ Only 38 origional colonists had survived by 1608 ​ Another 70 arrive in January ​ Smyth injured in explosion - returns to England in 1609 for 5 years ​ 1614 Returns to New England (not Virginia) ​ Out of 500 arriving colonists, only 60 survive by spring of 1610 1609-1610: Starving Times ​ Jamestown colonists resort to eating horses, then rats, mice, dogs, cats, snakes and …boots ​ Some colonists dig their own graves and layed down in them (resigned to death) ​ Boiled fancy collars for the starch ○​ George Percy: describes a “worlde of miseries” inclused hunger-crazed colonists digging up dead, and one man who killed, salted, and carved up his pregnant wife for food ○​ By March 1610, more than half (some say 80%) of settlers died ○​ Chop marks found on skull of 14 year old English girl (body was eaten by starving colonists at Jamestown) ​ Governor De La Warr: arrived 1610 ○​ Brought supplies and skilled builders ○​ Colony survives ○​ There for short time and leaves ​ John Rolfe: arrived later in 1610 ○​ Fell in love with Pochahontas ○​ Pochahontas taught him about tobacco ○​ Introduced new strain of tobacco suited to European taste ○​ Very successful export business by 1612 ○​ “CASH CROP” ​ Tobacco made Virgina a stable colony ○​ Marries Pochahontas in 1614 ​ Given large parcel of land by Powhatan (her father) ​ Have son Thomas in 1615 ​ “Peace of Pochahontas” lasts until 1617 (Between English and Powhatans) ○​ Travel to England in 1616, Pocahontas = celebrity bc royalty, meets Queen Anne ​ Was seen as scandal: commoner marries princess ​ Race doesnt exist yet, only class ○​ Pochahontas gets ill and dies in 1617 ​ Tobacco: Wonder product ○​ “Cure any disease” ○​ Establish strong economic base ○​ Damaging to soil if over produced and had to change plots constantly (long term issue) ○​ Because it’s so valuable VA continues to produce tobacco and is trapped in a one-crop production 31 American History Midterm Review Sheet​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rimonne Zakheim ​ 1618: 20,00 lbs of tobacco ​ 1622: 60,00 lbs of tobacco ​ 1627: 500,00 lbs of tobacco ​ 1629: 1,500,000 lbs of tobacco ○​ Virgina colony expands (steal land from natives) ​ Looking for more acreage to grow ​ Provide lands for new stellers ​ Relations with natives lands are overrun ​ Relations turn sour, conflicts arose ​ Virginia House of Burgesses (1619): ​ Burgess: person with rigfhts and reponisblities of citizens ​ “Every man will more willingly obey laws to which he has yeileded his consent” ​ First representative government in New World ​ Growing political power at local government level ○​ Virginia House of Burgesses (two house) ​ Assembly: representative from beginning, much like House of Commons ​ Council: 22 members (11 wealthy plantations), Burgess person with privileges of citizenship, much like house of Lords ​ Only white, land-owing males could vote for burgesses ○​ Control fincances, militia, initiates legislation ​ Virginia emerges as economic success Headright System: ​ 50 acres of land awarded per person ​ To the person paying passage from England to Virginia ○​ This gets the 2nd abd 3rd sons and poor people to come ○​ Natives will get mad ​ Ex: George Menefie (1638) - first to claim a large number of headrigths for one shipment of slaves ​ Obtained 1.150 acres for 23 slaves and 37 otehr white servants ​ By 1617 over 2000 arrived …Jamestown population only 400 Labor for Plantations: ​ Indentured servants: 4-7 year contract of servce in exchange for passage ○​ Only 1 in 10 will outlive contract ○​ If ine outlives their contract, they get 50 acres of land OR their master owned the land (if your owner owned your land then they owned you too) ​ Often marked to tell apart from rest of population ○​ Head shaved ○​ Ears notched ​ The system was corrupt: many were left without options at the end of tehir service ○​ Could buy land on credit ○​ Become a squatter ○​ Find unclimaed land on the edge of settlement ○​ Work for someone else in exchange for support and wages ​ Examples of qualification for indentured servants: educators, doctors, gardeners Escalation in conflicts: ​ Increasing tensions be