Politics and Society PDF

Class 2: What Is Politics? Siyaset: sa-se—seyis— at-karmak (horsemenship, herding) (dealing with animals Shepparding them) Se-yasa / Three laws / The law of Chengiz (hunting, army, postmanship) «Man is by nature political (zoon politikon).» (Aristo) man is a Po...

Class 2: What Is Politics? Siyaset: sa-se—seyis— at-karmak (horsemenship, herding) (dealing with animals Shepparding them) Se-yasa / Three laws / The law of Chengiz (hunting, army, postmanship) «Man is by nature political (zoon politikon).» (Aristo) man is a Political animal whether you're actively engaged in politics or not you need some kind of social political side to develop, even if you avoid it,it will affect you Medeniyyun bi’t-tab’: tabiatı gereği medeni. means it is an essential part of us not optional it's definitive it's what makes us human Politike episteme – ilm-i medenî Oikos(houeshold) VERSUS Polis (~medîne: deyn, dîn) Is politics ever conceivable for Robinson Crusoe? (economics = oikos + nomos) Politics—polis (Πολιτικά ) State Common life Cooperation Defining Politics – Basic distinctions Cooperation VS Conflict Economics (distribution; profit) VS War (us - them / friends – enemies) some people define Politics in economics terms Special (particular spheres) VS General (everywhere) for certain type of people vs for everyone Space VS Process David Easton: «Authoritative allocation of scarce resources – of values» economically based definitions Conflict vs Cooperation based Harold Laswell: «who gets what, when, and how?» Siyasa/policy & siyasi topluluk/polity Dissensus is the root of politics. If harmony, no need for politics. Politics covers the processes of cooperation, negotiation, and conflict within and between societies. Defining Politics Art of ruling (or government) Raison d’etat(reason of state), hikmet-i hükümet (absolutism) (historically formed politics) implies rulers and the ruled confined to some people not everybody political reason acts in different type of morality beyond morality beyond law which is controversial (Monarchy) Rulers/kings/sultans, State, deep state, bureaucracy, great men, statesmen, lordship, power figures, grandi (rical-i devlet, devletlu)… Rulers & the ruled Public affairs (self-administration) Civil art, civil philosophy (republicanism) republican understanding of politics democratic Participation of free equal citizens (Democracy and constitutional Monarchy) Public sphere, common good, civil society… Participation of free and equal citizens in ruling and in being ruled (equality in ruling and being ruled) Participation is a good in itself Consensus and compromise (economistic type of understanding politics not just about ruling the ruled, mostly modern concept) *most civilizations in the past didn't see trade as a noble thing to do unlike now modern times trade made countries rich and powerful *kinda organizes people *lets not clash lets understand and trade *liberal economistic understanding of politics Bargaining, deal-making, negotiation, give & take, arbitration (liberal-rationalist) – interest arbitration, comparative advantages Art of the possible Power struggle politics is everywhere and its about domination and Hegemony unlike the first type the ruler and the ruled not divided *like a power grid network of power *politics is pervasive as in domination *radical critical understanding of politics Struggle over scarce resources – a field saturated with domination Class conflict (Marxism) Personal is political (Feminism) Klasik bonus mostly test Class 3: State (Word & Concept) State (stato, status, etat…): an old word, a new meaning – standing De-ve-le (dulet, tedavül…): an old word, a new meaning – cycling (cyclical) – circulate *implies the circulation of power and decline and rise of it among all people *we have a fixed understanding of state in modern days the state is like a abstract legal corporate existence that is independent from any family or group of people Polis, civitas, regnum, res publica, commonwealth Political forms: 1-city-states; 2-empires; 3-fragmented administration (feudalism); 4-nation-state (most modern and recent) State Non-state societies – State societies Statelessness = Historilessness ? (Hegel argued that only way to become a political actor is to form a state) State roughly 5000 years old (neolithic revolution) (the emergence of state is related to the invention of agricultural production) *agriculture facilitated surplus of wealth unlike before it with hunting so it requires distribution and management to sustain it therefore it needed political power to be managed Modern state roughly 400 years old (Monarchies) Nation-state roughly 200 years old State is «the main actor of the international system» (Jervis) The dominant form of political community The number of states over the world: –1945: 51 states –1970: 121 states (decolonization) –2020: 193 member states 2 observatory, 16 disputed sovereign What is state? (modern) Weber’s definition: «a human community that successfully claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory» 1–Force (army, physical force) 2–Territory 3–Legitimacy 4–Community *definition not based on purposes of state but social function Montevideo Convention (1933): 1) a permanent population 2) a defined territory 3) a government 4) the capacity to conduct international relations Territorially sovereign unit. Exclusive capacity & right to govern a specific territory. Sovereignty as a property of the modern state Sovereignty –Internal: domestic rule – predominant within territorial boundaries. –External: independent.(as in not colonized not determined by any other political entity) –No internal competitor, no external superior The principle of non-intervention: prohibits a State from intervening by coercive means in matters within another State’s area of sovereignty. –Both a responsibility and a right Absolute authority, indivisible Sovereign equality –UN Charter Article 2: The Organization and its Members, in pursuit of the Purposes stated in Article 1, shall act in accordance with the following Principles. 1. The Organization is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its Members. The State before modernity The State before modernity The roots of the modern state as we know it today: early modern Europe In premodern times sovereignty was fragmented and consisted of overlapping jurisdictions: Holy Roman German Empire (800) –Emperor > King > Baron > Knight > Subject (people) –Pope >Archbishop >Bishop >Priest >Subject (people) In theory, the authority of the emperor was universal and eternal over all the kings and feudal lords In practice, more than 300 administrative units: principalities, pontificates, free cities, lordships etc. Boundaries blurred… more like frontiers… *nowadays post Sykes-Picot we have clear cut borders between countries The Peace of Westphalia (1648) 30 years war was considered one of the bloodiest wars in history but it was the roots of the modern nation-state No single universal authority like the emperor or the papacy. Sovereign statehood: exclusive jurisdiction over a defined territory, maintaining their own interests. A pragmatic solution but led to a new notion of international order. Instead of a hierarchical order of Powers, balance of Powers among soveregin equals. Recognized and defined the sovereign authority of the kings: conscription, taxation… (Absolute monarchy – 1st mode of modern state) Seeds of secularism (separation of Religion and state so the political authority is above the religious authority) emergence of Statistics and bureaucracy in the state to better rule the people The Modern State System The Peace of Westphalia (1648): sovereign equality, territoriality, autonomy (defining elements of the modern state) Till the 2nd WW sovereign equality was a privilege of the «civilized» nations –No rights of sovereignty for non-European peoples because of Colonization Decolonization and the globalization of the Westphalia –UN Charter Are they really sovereign? “Sovereignty: organized hypocrisy” (S. Krasner)=Only the big Powers Carl Schmitt: “Sovereign is the one who decides on the exception.” Political theology > miracle Capacity to surpass the ordinary laws or rules Transformation of Sovereignty Is it really hypocrisy or is it a transformation period? Sub-state and supra-state formations –EU – Brexit case (uk leaving the EU) –Proxy states, state collapse, war lords Globalization brought about “De-territorialization” (how the technology affected the international community) –International capital and info flows –International finance –Crypto currencies –Pandemics, nuclear risks, climate change, the ozone layer (supra-state threats) Conditional sovereignty –Responsibility to protect (R2P) *the international community responsibility to protect the weaker states from the more powerful states –Universal human rights Interdependence, international regulations Challenges from above & from below anti-state sentiment: Nietzsche: «the coldest of all the cold monsters» refers to state(Thus Spoke Zarathustra) Anarchism Socialism (With or without state? State and revolution) Liberalism (minimal state, watchdog, nightwatchman) Christianity – Catholic communitarianism (Church versus state)  Islam(ism)? (Saving the state? Hit or haunted by the state?) *dilemma of using state power or being used or overtaken by the state A New Idol (Nietzsche, Zarathustra) A state? What is that? Well! open now your ears unto me, for now will I say unto you my word concerning the death of peoples. A state, is called the coldest of all cold monsters. Coldly lieth it also; and this lie creepeth from its mouth: "I, the state, am the people." It is a lie! Creators were they who created peoples, and hung a faith and a love over them: thus they served life. Destroyers, are they who lay snares for many, and call it the state: they hang a sword and a hundred cravings over them. "On earth there is nothing greater than I: it is I who am the regulating finger of God."—thus roareth the monster. Class 5: Ideology:Three Senses Science of ideas (ideology=eidos+logos): a new empirical science (a new name for a new science) *represents a positive sense and this sense disappeared Narrow-mindedness; dangerous radicalism; false consciousness (Marx) – negative sense *ideology misrepresents the world this sentiment is still valid Political doctrine (liberalism, socialism, nationalism etc.) – neutral sense *modern terms of ideology and it's what we tackle in the class ideology Political ideology ≠ Political philosophy, theory, or thought ideologies are Action-oriented political ideas unlike political philosophy, theory and thought Practical focus (even though philosophically based) Lenin: «what is to be done?» Priority of action Thesis 11 (Marx) says that philosophers always interrupted the world but the point is to change it (contemplated the world instead of working on it) In this class: liberalism, socialism, conservatism, fascism, nationalism liberalism The mainstream ideology (or even culture which implies a pervasive effect even if you avoid it, it affects you) of modernity. *ehli sunnet of the modern world Developed together with all the well-known processes or aspects of modernization: market economics, industrialization and technology, modern state, reformation and secularization, colonalism, Enlghtenment... Alasdair MacIntyre: «in the modern era the debate is among radical liberals, conservative liberals, and liberal liberals» The end of the Cold War, F. Fukuyama: «the end of history» with liberalism as the victor… *last historical era bearing a name the cold war adventures of liberalism liberalism wasn't always winning there was a war between it and Marxism The end of the 20th century: triumph of liberal ideology (post cold-war times) The beginning of the 20th century: liberalism on the defensive (unlike today) Mussolini: «today, all the political experimentations are anti-liberal… our age is the age of authority, the age of the right, a fascist age…» (1930’s…) Today? Liberal modernity: a theory, an ideology, a culture (pervasive) Liberalism’s Others (Or, liberalism as a counter-ideology) Absolutism (unlimited political power unlike liberalism which prefers a limited power) while liberalism: Constitutionalism Separation of powers Representative government Clericalism (theocracy) (rule of Religion church based) while liberalism: Church – state Toleration (religious pluralism) Liberalism: Major Themes and Ideals core beliefs in all types of liberalism Liberty (Liber-alism) (freedom and authenticity) people were connected thro chains of subordination but liberalism believes in emancipation of all subordination legal insurance and liberty Individualism(a non divisible entity)(atomism) priority of the individual over the collective and all other aren't real they are delusion like society (sociological dimension) political dimension priorities the individual good over the collective unless there is an exceptional case which is always controversial Equality & justice (what about the common good? is liberty enough to establish equality and justice) *some liberals pursue this issue through the market (capitalism) however market isn't always enough to establish justice Toleration & pluralism/diversity (separation of church and state) Progress (progressivist optimism) *embraced an optimistic outlook on human progress that technologies we'll bring good 30 Kasim sinavlar Liberalism:Three types due to ideologies always developing you can't pin it down all in details but we can identify them in general terms Classical Liberalism Modern Liberalism (Keynesian Liberalism) Neoliberalism (today's modern understanding) Classical Liberalism Individualism: The most fundamental unit of politics, the basic constitutive unit of society… Politics is an activity for the sake of providing and protecting the basic rights and liberties of individuals. Social contract - contractualism (consent based authority) main actor:John Locke (1632-1704): The essential purpose of the state is to protect «life, liberty, and property» Market economics… Adam Smith: «laissez-faire» (let them do). State intervention in the market/economy is wrong. The state is to secure law and order, protect rights and liberties, deal with the issues of basic public services and national defense. The rest is the business of (civil) society. Self-regulating mechanism of the market (the balance of supply and demand) is the best model for a well-functioning, competitive, and thus productive economy. Invisible hand of the market… Self-regulating and spontaneous order of the market (supply and demand provides what is needed by society ordering economic life) Minimal state («night watchman state»). Big state slides to authoritarianism Civil society (in order for society to function it does not always need state to organize affairs) *classical form of liberalism aka 19th century liberalism Liberty: the ability of individuals to act on the basis of their own preferences without the interference and pressure of state or society  Modern Liberalism (Keynesian Liberalism) 1929 The great depression… Capitalism in crisis… Market economics on trial… Any alternative within capitalism? John M. Keynes (1883-1946)… *Could capitalism be revived? modern liberalism aka social liberalism=classical liberalism reformed To save the market from collapse, the state must intervene in the economy and create demand. To solve the unemployment problem, the state should invest in public projects. Economic planning is required.(unlike the classical liberalism so its moderated and reformed) Liberty is not enough, provision of benefits and opportunities is needed to be able to use liberty social order requires state regulation Increased (progressive) taxation for social spending(for social welfare to protect and help the poor and weak) by the state Welfare state: state support for the disadvanteged groups in society – social security benefits… Unemployment benefits Public health Public education Social services Benefits for the elderly Neoliberalism was developed in the last quarter of the 20th century during the superpower rivalries Economically speaking, return to classical liberalism (due to social spending is tiresome) Friedrich Hayek: (1944) The Road to Serfdom: Greater state role in the economy tends to constrain individual initiative and liberty, and leads to economic inefficiency Free market self-regulates, distributes the resources efficiently, and secures liberty (private choice) (market fundamentalism) Politics and econ needs to be kept separate (econ has its own logic different from political) Social security and benefits all put a heavy burden on the state, create voluntary unemployment, breeds irresposibility and free-riding traits in the people, stifles free initiative *market principles of crime(regulation of drug use) , art etc Margaret Thatcher: «There is no society, only individuals and the sum of their interests» Thatcher and Reagan («Reagonomics») Their goals since 1970s: Cut down all welfare spending (causes laziness in people) Reduce taxation Privatization (of state-owned enterprises to normal people) Deregulation (lifting any control on prices and market) Free trade among nations This whole program is also called «the Washington Consensus» *emerged in the late 20th century and start of 21th century (2000s) 2008 world economic crisis – Covid 19 pandemics and neoliberalism? The crisis of liberalism today? decline of liberalism Two-dimensional crisis of liberalism? 1.Dissolution of the liberal international order 2.Populist backlash in liberal democracies Class 6: Socialism: Is the distinction btw the right and the left still valid? (refers to the political spectrum socialism is left wing ideology) Why still bother with the topic: socialism? -”socialism no longer sound bad”, yapan bir kelime değil «millenium generation…»(popular among the millennials) -global crises (post cold-war Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez: the youngest ever female member of the congress(b. 1989) the new star of the left in US(comics protagonist) The College-Degree Divide Is Becoming a Chasm (2024) As analysts began digging into Donald J. Trump’s dominant victory this week, a key theme from the past two presidential elections emerged yet again: College-educated voters are on an island. Exit polls released by NBC News early Wednesday suggested a widening chasm between voters with a college degree and those without. Only 41 percent of college graduates voted Republican, compared to 54 percent of voters without a degree. (Chronicle of Higher Education) *people without a college degree tended to vote for trump more The Democrats are now the party of high education and high income voters. Just 12 years ago, the inverse was true. (Patrick Flyyn) Socialism and Communism: Platon’s Republic; Moore’s Utopia *Socialism seeds were there from long ago even since plato in his book there were some communist class described as guardians and moore rewrote plato's work into utopia *private ownership root of all evil in socialist thinking *utopia means either the non existing place or the good place Basic principles of socialism: collectivism; solidarity; fellowship; fraternity; cooperation. Social Equality. *the exact opposite to liberalism liberalism represents liberty while socialism represents equality french revolution slogans: liberty, equality, fraternity Critique: In modern times socialism emerged as a reaction against the industrial capitalism. how to move from only a critique of capitalism to real change in reality Utopia: Aims to destroy capitalism and institute common ownership/property Strategy: It was initially revolutionary. Later emerged factions advocating parliamentary ways to socialism like Reformist socialism and Eduard Bernstein’s Revisionist socialism. *instead of fighting the system work with it to establish socialism Today’s social democracy Revolutionary socialists (like Lenin and the Bolsheviks in general) called themselves as communist, while others who remained in constitutional politics turned towards social democracy. Marxism(revolutionary socialism) a form of Historical materialism which means looking at history through materialistic outlook Humans are both the products and the producers of historical processes Karl Marx“Men make history but not under the conditions of their own choosing” Historical developments are reflections of economic developments in society: staged understanding= as in it goes through stages (progress) human society stages=Slavery >Feudalism> Capitalism> Socialism> Communism (staged, dialectical, progressive) distinction between Infrastructure & Superstructure Infrastructure: means and relations of production Superstructure: politics, law, culture, morality, religion (every other means of life and it's considered as secondary) Social classes as the main actors. Class conflict as the motor of historical change In the capitalist order: proletariat - bourgeoise *owners of production and workers of production *the working class and the elites A revolution in Russia was an anomaly (socialists were always predicting a revolution in capitalist countries) Marxism and state: class theory of society= «all the hitherto existing history is the history of class struggles» Under capitalism, class polarization will intensify (marxist prophecy and expectation) State is also a superstructural institution(secondary not the base) Instrumental understanding of the state: «executive organ of the ruling classes» State is not above class divisions(state isn't neutral its biased in favor of ruling classes) *they aimed to abolish the state too because it's not needed Withering away of the state under communism(stateless order due to private ownership is the root of all evil) Communism: «from each according to his ability to each according to his need". (Need-based allocation & justice) *Communism justice understanding=everyone will contribute to society according to what he's best at not to what he wants to do, and you'll get stuff according to your need not according to your value The proletariat has no country. Workers of the world unite! (Communist Manifesto) – left internationalism International conflict also caused by class divisions(why?) because capitalist need for new markets and cheap labor leads to imperialism and warfare in the periphery (nation-states are not recognized you are what you contribute not who or what you are as a race, ethnicity nationality are neglected) what is capitalism? A historically specific mode of organizing socio-economic life – a specific mode of production It is not simply the market. A system in which human labor is also commodified and bought and sold in the economy Motive of profit-maximization – private vices, public benefits (what counts as amoral can be beneficial in the market passions and interests are good in th developing of market) Capital: socially necessary means of production; but under capitalism it’s a private property of a minority in society puts the poor in a disadvantage A type of social relation Wage labor: the majority compelled (people who can only live off labor) Capitalism: market + private property (capital) + wage labor (base elements in the Socialist analysis) Social Democracy: Taming and moderating capitalism instead of more radical programs like common ownership and central planning (working within the capitalist system instead of radical change) Settling with liberalism & capitalism in that sense it’s Quite close to modern/social/welfare liberalism… *market its worth is acknowledged Market + fair distribution (taxation, social security) Trade unions, working class… (job/labor security/insurance) Welfare state End of socialism? - Bell: the end of ideologies “I am, at the Fed level, libertarian; at the state level, Republican; at the local level, Democrat; and at the family and friends level, a socialist. If that saying doesn’t convince you of the fatuousness of left vs. right labels, nothing will.” ― Nassim Nicholas Taleb Class 7: its a reaction to liberalism and socialism preliminaries: Conserve (Conservatism): why conserve? because the system at hand is better than the alternative(in order to prevent something worse to emerge) or because it's familiar or its intrinsically good or it's already tried and tested a modern ideology emerge in the aftermath of the french rev Reaction against the French Rev and its ideals French rationalism + Anticlericalism=>Ancien Regime Defense of the old order: Social order, aristocracy (nobility) King Church radical defense of all of ancien regime with its flaws Joseph de Maistre (1753-1821): against reform, hard, authoritarian, «reactionary» - monarchist/royalist moderate defense and gradual Edmund Burke (1729-1797): change/reform in order to preserve (prudential) – Reflections on the Revolution in France  Major aspects of conservatism 1-Tradition: knowledge accumulated through the generations Society is a contract between the living, the dead, and the yet unborn «democracy of the dead»(because the influence of the ancestors) Wisdom, tried and tested by time Accumulated wisdom, accumulated reason Customs and habits Heritage (predecessors-successors) *the non material wealth Bestows sense of belonging, provides stability History, community, memory Chesterton, Orthodoxy, Chapter 4: “Tradition means giving a vote to the most obscure of all classes, our ancestors. It is the democracy of the dead. Tradition refuses to submit to the small and arrogant oligarchy of those who merely happen to be walking about. All democrats object to men being disqualified by the accident of birth; tradition objects to their being disqualified by the accident of death. Democracy tells us not to neglect a good man’s opinion, even if he is our groom; tradition asks us not to neglect a good man’s opinion, even if he is our father.” Major aspects of conservatism 2-Limited altruism(approach to human nature) we have a good side but it's limited Selfish but not merely selfish *there's also a tendency to competitive) Motive of acquisition and posession, yet at the same time Natural laziness & love of leisure (the laziness controls our selfish desires) Imperfect nature of man (critique of the idea of progress) *socialism is the most optimistic about the human nature while conservatism is pessimistic Pessimistic account of human nature A) secular interpretation (we are imperfect because of our natural limitations not because of some sin baggage, our reason is limited) B) theological interpretation: original sin(we can't escape that sin) Predisposed towards what is familiar(preserve what is familiar to us) *Need for a strong state(to keep our flaws in check to restrain us) Critique of rationalism – not anti-rationalism conservatism is not anti rationality Rationality is limited(depending on a supra individual entity”tradition” for rationality and is protected by it) Where does reason reside? Individual, community, institution, tradition? No society is built on abstract principles or ideas: abstract/theoretical/technical reason VS practical/historical reason (prefers to follow tradition and history rather than new never seen before abstract ideas) Politics and practical reason Skepticism & pragmatism (conservatism is skeptical) Need for experience, customary practices, tradition and pragmatism This is why cons is sometimes considered not as an ideology but as a «state of mind», an «attitude», or a «worldview». Natural conservatism – natural attitude of man 3-Organicism (vs mechanism) viewing society as either an organism or a machine *machine purpose is being used, while organism purpose is survival and perseveration of life *machine parts can be replaced while replacing parts of organism means harming it *in summary each view implies a different approach to maintenance *change is possible but should be gradual on an organism Community is an organic whole A living being. The fabric of community is woven by families, close-knit groups Holism: society is more than the sum of its individual parts (vs atomism in liberalism) Social harmony, balance, and unity organism naturally implies: 4-Hierarchy foot can't be head every part has its function Social status is indispensable: natural aristocracy (Why consider elitism bad?) high class is not bad it’s there to control and maintain No cause of conflict. Differentiated roles and responsibilities.(not merely domination) «noblesse oblige» (duties of the nobility). Privilege entails responsibility. Democracy as a concession from the elites (Burke: representation without election – universal suffrage) democracy without election is possible *later on electoral democracy was adapted 5-Authority loss of it is a disaster and authority doesn’t necessarily mean oppression *society needs directions from authority «Natural aristocracy» From top to bottom(unlike liberalism which is from bottom to top) Source of social harmony Culture of obedience (need for obedience?) 6-Strong state (sacred entity) - Strong executive (most important in politics) - Strong institutions *consequence of authority 7-Property private property protects and gives a: Sense of security+Independence from the state Externalization of personality (?) Property=freedom(protects from intervention on your freedom) property Entails duties as well as rights Paternalistic Conservatism views State as a father figure – benevolent, compassionate power the ones in power =Elite responsibility (aristocratic responsibility) Privilege entails responsibility(principle) Noblesse oblige (noble responsibility) to adapt to new variables emerged: Electoral realism (transformation of electoral demography) it was forced to change and address modern society to accommodate mass demands Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881) «One-nation conservatism» (against Division of the nation into the rich and the poor) Fear of social revolution(to prevent it) Economic pragmatism, middle path – conservative welfarism Two main motive of conservatism together: duty & pragmatism examples of it:1-Tories in England 2-Christian Democracy after 1945 3-German christian democrats: «social market economy» New Right (Neo-Conservatism) Conservatism was in tune with the post-45 welfare state. The new right emerged as a reaction to this in the late 70’s Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagon: reaction to the Keynesian social democracy(during the golden age of socialism+ baby boomer gen) The new right takes a classical liberal position in economic matters.(free market without regulation) In social issues, it is conservative. It combines two different traditions but doesn’t offer a systemtic philosophy. Family, anti-abortion, religion, values Against the «culture of permissiveness»: fiscal and moral costs (dependency/welfare dependency, free-riding, loss of self-respect) in economy Deregulation (workfare instead of welfare) *welfare is burdensome and costly and generated laziness and low self esteem because when you don't do anything you lose self respect so it was replaced with workfare (the state help you if you work) in turkiye: Yahya Kemal, Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar, Nurettin Topçu,Turgut Özal, Erdoğan? (Debatable) «Conservative democracy» ? Must conservatism be religious? Class 8: Nationalism: The Concept «Nation» and «nationalism» From Latin «nasci» - birth (re-naissance = re-birth) «Natio»: group of people united by birth or place of birth It takes on a political meaning in the 18th century. Born during the French Revolution. It becomes a common political doctrine in the 19th century. In many ways, it can be said to be the most influential ideology of the last two centuries. *an ideology that merges with other ideologies Nationalism: Historical Roots Before the French Revolution, countries were known as kingdoms, principalities, or "realms". Identities were formed based on loyalty to the ruler or dynasty. *principle of collective attachment was not defined by where you were born it was determined by loyalty to your ruler National identities were born and shaped later. (The sense of belonging has changed orientation) The revolutionaries who rebelled against Louis XVI in France in 1789 believed that they were doing this in the name of the "French nation", the "French people". The nation was becoming a source of reference. Reference for what? Legitimacy…(for political legitimacy) *the concept of people is vague and indeterminate, so the idea of defining the people with their nationality= the people are a nation with shared history and characteristics a good response to who are “the people”? they're the nation The ideal of a «self-governing people» (Rousseau) has been influential Thus, at its birth, nationalism was a democratic and revolutionary current that advocated the transition from "subjects of the throne" to "citizens of the country". From subjects to citizens… Nation building (19th century): Italian (1870) and German (1871) national unifications. Rebellion against Spanish rule in Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia in Latin America. *nationalism started with democratic intentions only to end as an authoritarian regime later on in history Abbé Sieyès, What is the third estate? (1789) debates the position of the third state which refers to the common people in the French assembly (french assembly originally composed of 1. clergy 2. nobility 3.all other classes which was the majority) «The nation is above everything. It is the source of everything. His will(the will of people) is always lawful. The way the nation uses its will is not important; the main thing is to use it; any procedure is sufficient and his will is always the supreme law.» Nationalism: Historical Development The 19th century was the age of nationalisms Newspapers & Schooling(spread of new means of communication and extension of schooling both were the bearers of nationalist sentiment) In this process, its basic structure has also changed radically. While the liberal and progressive nationalism of the thinkers like Mazzini was dominant at first, it gradually started to include more conservative and occasionally racist ideas. socialism=The working class was an "internationalist" movement at first. it appealed to your economic position rather than your nationality Conservatism, which developed in response to this, became more nationalistic. Nationalism was no longer intertwined primarily with political freedom and democracy, but with ideas of military might and national honor. It turned into an ideology based on chauvinism and xenophobia. Each nation began to see itself as superior, exalted and unique, while seeing the other as foreign, unreliable, threatening and petty. Images of the golden age & the national heroes… National myths and legends… *each nation started to search for historic figure to claim its superiority over the other nations and it was used to build a national identity Iran: Firdawsi… Persian nationalism Turkey: Ergenekon nationalism Influenced both colonial and anti-colonial movements (incited freedom and expansionist sentiment) It aroused feelings of international skepticism and competition. The end of World War I witnessed the peak of nation-building processes. Paris Peace Conference: Wilson & the «right to self-determination» *which resulted in the end of multi ethnic empires such as: The Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires disintegrated. Finland, Hungary, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia were formed.(independent small states instead of one whole empire) Fascist governments tended to restore national dignity through imperial expansionism. (Germany, Italy, Japan). An important factor in the outbreak of both world wars was nationalism. nationalism lies Between independence and expansionism Nationalism: 20th century Nationalism born in Europe began to be used against European colonialism in Asia and Africa.(sparked independence of colonial powers) The leading cadres of the war of independence (Turkey) are referred to as "nationalists" in the British documents. 1919 Egypt. 1919 Turkey. Anglo-Afghan War 1919. Indian revolts. Nationalism in the developing world: In China, Vietnam, and in some African countries, nationalism has merged with Marxism. National liberation began to be seen as part of the social revolution. It took an anti-Western position. *that was because both aimed for social reformation and it reunited the people against a common enemy Nationalism today Contending nationalisms Secessionist/Separatist movements: Scottish, Welsh and Irish nationalisms in England. Province of Quebec in Canada. Basques in Spain. Kurds in Turkey and Iraq. Tamils ​in Sri Lanka. Kashmiri Muslims in India. After the Cold War, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia broke up. Principles of nationalism 1-Capacity for ideological coalescence: a vein that can be connected to major ideological traditions (liberal, socialist, conservative…) *advocates the overlap between nationality and politics The idea of ​the nation—the national state (nation-state): the nation should be the main legitimacy principle of political organization. But how can a nation be defined? as vague as the idea of the people the encounter being: Objective criteria vs. Subjective criteria Objective: Language, religion, race, country, common interest, common past (not subjected to choice not matters of personal choice “psassive”) Subjective: Remembering and forgetting (collective memory); consent and sense of belonging (Renan: nation is a spirit, a spiritual principle) *bound by the internal bond (“active” commitment and willingness of the people to be a part of) *which one is subjective and which is objective? !!will come up on the exam!! Active and passive principles of nationalism German nationalism: based On the purity and survival of the German language; Irish nationalism: based on religion=Catholicism; Iranian nationalism: sect (Shi'ism). Approaches to Nationalism nation is a modern form of state Primordalists/perennialists VS Modernists Primordialist/perennialist approaches: based of primal givens closer to the objective criteria a definition of a primordial nation. It is established by a strong, organic, or innate bond that makes itself felt with parameters such as language, religion, tradition, homeland and lifestyle. This perception is dominant in conservatism and fascism. Modernist approaches: Ernest Gellner: industrialization, urbanization, common education, new forms of communication such as newspapers, which brought about cultural standardization (nations are modern formations) common trade and currency common way of communication being common language *all of this standardization wasn't possible premodern times *ultimately nationality is common attributes such language and land history etc *using standard metric system clock system and calendars Benedict Anderson: imagined communities –not being a fantasy but as a non-material concept printing press, newspapers, standard time, collective simultaneity (hence, not organic) (united by the same date on the newspaper living together in the day) Eric Hobbsbawm: states and nationalisms create the nations, not the other way around (invented traditions) the state emerges and due to its emergence a nation comes out Sleeping beauty(Primordialist outlook) or Frankenstein(modernist outlook)? sleeping beauty nationalism= the nation is there just needs a catalyst to awaken Frankenstein nationalism= using available parts to create a nation not ancient not old but new Major paradigms of nationalism Primordialism -an essentialist way of looking at nations, based on: A.a sociobiological approach and B.cultural rootedness -claims that nationality is a natural feature of humans. (like smell,sight, or language) and has existed since the beginning of time; - has gained a negative reputation (fixity, essentialism, finalism). Perennialism -nations (at least some nations)have always existed, but have changed throughout history; -nations are not considered as natural,organic, or primordial; - emphasis on continuity. Modernism -nations are the result of processes of modernization and industrialization, urbanization, and capitalism; -there is nothing inherently natural or essential about nations; -Gellner,Anderson,and Hobsbawm are all "modernists." Approaches to Nationalism moral perspective: Ethnic nationalism VS Civic/Civil/Urban nationalism Ethnic: blood and soil, common ancestors, common language and culture, race given by birth not chosen (based on passive) Civic: citizenship, patriotism, common projects, contribution to the nation, loyalty to the constitution,not given but achieved (based on active) Ascribed VS Achieved Inclusive approaches: citizenship awareness. Patriotism and loyalty. Emphasis on multiethnic, multicultural and multinationality, multi-religiousness.(broadening the concept) Liberals and socialists are close to this idea Class 9: