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Lec 1 Purpose of Scientific Writing: - Good writing is an essential skill not only for the dissemination of knowledge, but also for creating knowledge. Definition of Scientific Writing and Scientific argumentation - Scientific writing is a process of organizing and shaping information. - to actively...

Lec 1 Purpose of Scientific Writing: - Good writing is an essential skill not only for the dissemination of knowledge, but also for creating knowledge. Definition of Scientific Writing and Scientific argumentation - Scientific writing is a process of organizing and shaping information. - to actively search for all relevant results related to the subject, to put their new findings in the context of existing results, and to apply the best known methods. - Doubts are normal. Do not hide them. - “Mind the gap!” Check whether all arguments are logically coherent. - Stick to all promises. - Negative results are results. - Do not describe events. Write for the Readers (not only for yourself)! Different types of scientific texts: - Original articles reporting new results. - Reviews that summarize and discuss other work in order to guide potentially interested readers. - Survey articles, monographs, and textbooks that treat an entire field comprehensively, sometimes from a new or more general point of view. Elements of an Article Articles usually have an abstract, an introduction, and a technical part. Abstract: — The abstract is a short summary of the article. — An abstract must summarize all the body of the paper. — In particular, it usually must not contain references to any items in the paper. Conclusions: — Its important to distinguish between the abstract and the conclusion. — A conclusions section is often put at the end. — It should not merely repeat the earlier summaries, but wrap up the article, assuming that the reader is now familiar with the details and give an outlook. Introduction: The introduction should give an obvious statement about: subject + challenges + motivation-rationale + background and context + The main achievements + significance. Structuring at all Levels: some key criteria for readable articles: • The article is comprehensible. • It has a good flow of reading. • It is easy to retrieve- recover specific information later. What supports comprehensibility? - Clearly formulate in each sentence. - Do not omit facts or logical steps that look trivial- insignificant to you but are crucial for the reader to follow. - The text should tell a story. - Introduce all terminologies and Clarify abbreviations. What supports the flow of reading? - Do not make your sentences unnecessarily long.mix of short and reasonably long sentences with logical order. - When pronouns “it”, “this”, etc., are used, it must be obvious what subject “it” or “this” refers to.Use parentheses and footnotes moderately. - A paragraph should deal with one specific theme within the text. Ends of paragraphs should be the natural points where one can interrupt reading and resume later. Avoid very long and unstructured paragraphs. What supports information retrieval - recovery in an article? only sentences that are essential +Write important terms in a different font + informative and meaningful headings + Every figure, table, etc., should have a reference in the text (role in the article is clear). Plagiarism: It includes copying of material without mentioning the source, stealing ideas, stealing program code, and etc. Finalizing a Text: Use a spell checker. Lec 2 “Open educational resources”: accumulated digital assets that can be adjusted and which provide benefits without restricting the possibilities for others to enjoy them. currently most often used is “digitized materials offered freely and openly for educators, students and selflearners to use and reuse for teaching, learning and research”. OER includes: - learning content. - software tools to develop. - use and distribute content. - implementation resources such as open licenses. Advantages of using OERs - expanded access to learning - scalability. - augmentation of class materials. - enhancement of regular course content. - quick circulation. - showcasing of innovation and talent. - ties for alumni. - continually improved resources. Barriers for using or producing oer A technical barrier: lack of broadband availability. Economic barrier lack of resources to invest. difficulties for covering the costs of developing. Social barriers absence of skills. cultural obstacles Standard Boolean Logic for database searching uses 3 relationships among search terms: AND: BOTH terms included in any results. OR: Only one (NOT both) of the terms are in the results, ‘OR’ will retrieve the record if both are included. NOT: Excludes any results containing the term Steps of searching in databases: • Define keywords • (before searching) Topics Concepts Synonyms • Search building •(during searching) AND,OR,NOT • Use limiters • (after searching) Time frame, Type of Literature, Gender, age, population, language. PUBMED FIELD TAGS [au] = author [ti] = title [tw] = textword [tiab] = title and abstract [mh] = medical subject heading [dp] = date of publication [la] = language [gr] = grant number [ta] = journal name [ad] = affiliation Tags + Boolean = COMBINING FIELD SEARCHES Ex: 2005[dp] AND Hubble[au] AND ankle fractures[ti] Keep in mind: - Each database provides its own specific fields. - Each database requires a specific format to specify field searching. TRUNCATION: including the singular and plural versions of words as well as other word variations by using The ‘*’ and ‘$’. Examples of search engine: - JSTORS pecializations (Humanities-SocialSciences-Science) - Sage (Social Sciences and Human Studies - Health Sciences - Medical Sciences Engineering - Education - Forensic Science) Lec3 Aim of a citation is to provide enough bibliographic information for the reader to be able to identify and, if necessary, obtain the original resource. Quotation: is the repetition of a sentence, phrase, or passage from speech or text that someone has said or written. And it has two types: 1. A direct quote (or direct quotation) is the exact words taken from an original source (has quotation marks and in-text citation) - Rules of direct: less than three lines à “” up to 3 à in text. more than 3 à indented in its own paragraph. You add your own words à [] When can you use direct: To retain the meaning and authenticity. To lend support to a literary analysis. To capture exactly the language that supports your point. 2. Indirect quote: the idea or fact taken from an outside source and used in a second piece of writing. The student uses his own words, but the idea or facts comes from the original source. ( no “ just in text) When to use indirect: - To summarize information. - To paraphrase information. - To communicate facts or statistics. Comparison: Both: use the information from the original and need to be sited Different in: use of “” and direct quote uses the exact words, while the indirect quote does not. paraphrase and an indirect quotation are the same thing. Comparison: Citation: tells the readers where the information came from. reference : gives the readers details about the source and are listed at the end of research. Citation systems - The name-and-year system - The alphabet-number system Software used: - End note and Mendeley. Lec 4 Literature Review & Scientific writing - ‘ take note of the University Guidelines thesis’ is derived from the Greek word for ‘position’, referring to an intellectual proposition. ‘Dissertation’ comes from the Latin dissertātiō, meaning ‘discourse’. main sections: - introduction (Background - Rationale of the study - Objectives or Expected results or hypothesis) - Literature review Materials & Methods - Results presentations - Discussion and results interpretation Conclusions - Recommendations - Abstract Other important sections of the thesis Title page: Title: - The title should describe the content of the thesis accurately and concisely. - if your title is not worded effectively, your work might never reach its intended audience of fellow researchers. Introduction: - provides background information on the problem to be investigated. - describe the current state of knowledge about the problem. - conclude with a clearly stated study hypothesis and its experimental expectations. Literature Review: - Illuminates how knowledge has evolved with in the field. - Highlighting what has already been done. - What is the current state of thinking on the topic. - Literature review is conducted in the beginning stages of your research and is usually written up as a document or chapter by the same title. Materials & Method: - described in sufficient detail that they can be repeated by others. Results: Summary of the experimental outcome + concise verbal description of the outcome as well as tables and figures. Discussion: Study limitations, sources of error, and plans future work. Conclusion & Recommendation: Sums up key points in you discussion - Lecture 5 & 6 A report is typically made up of three main divisions: (1) preliminary material (title – table of content – abstract / synopsis). (2) body (everything else). (3) supplementary material (references and appendix) . - Introduction has what you researched and why. - Steps for writing a scientific report: (1) analyze what is expected of you (purpose and topic – audience – time limit – expected format). (2) Develop a rough plan (statement that clarifies the purpose - Write down anything you already know about the topic) (3) Research (Keep referring to your analysis – takes most of the time in writing – keep correct reference). (4) Draft the body ( intro (place your research in the field) – literature review (condensed and brief more than thesis, early à late, again place your research) - method (written in passive, no result or discussion) - result (no interpretation) - discussion (relate back to your literature review and your introductory statement) – conclusion (summery of significant – no new material – sometime you can mention limitations/recommendation) – recommendation (usually listed in order of priority). (5) Draft the Supplementary Material (References – Appendices (named and numbered)). (6) Draft preliminary material (title – table of content – abstract / synopsis). (7) Polish. - A research proposal outlines YOUR thinking and it ONLY minimize the risk, does not eliminate. Main characteristics that all proposals share: describe the problem + why it’s important + literature review + proposed method. Why do I need the proposal? For a student = an idea about everything + legal protection. For supervisor = to know if the student understands the topic + able to write about the topic + legal document and a clear plan between supervisor and student. For funders = indication that the topic is understood, feasible and worth it. For academic community = indication of the topic link to ongoing debate. Proposal has every section a report has, except the extra sections, which are: approval form Gant chart – tubulated budget. Title has to always be: concise, descriptive, and specific. Intro = provide à background, begin à general statement, focus à specific problem, followed by à rational/justification. Related literature should be integrated with, and weaved into, the section and not be simply cataloged. The review could conclude with a brief summary of the literature and its implications. Most important section = method. A good proposal help in = defined and formulate – narrow down – structure the development. - Lecture 7: - Oral research presentation should: communicate importance – show findings – induce questions. Often leadership and presentation skills go hand in hand. Most interviews by postgraduate have a presentation component. Academic interviews always have a presentation/chalk talk. Presentation skills: planning and structure (aim – audience – structure - time) – execution ( Venue and equipment - Visual Aid) – rehearsal and presentations. End or Conclusion: You could use your original introductory summary of main points to summarise Give a conclusion. Infographics are great for making complex information easy to digest. They can be helpful anytime you want to: • Provide a quick overview of a topic. • Explain a complex process. • Display research findings or survey data. • Summarize a long post or report. • Compare and contrast multiple options. • Raise awareness about an issue or cause. Hedging is a language tactic used to soften your communication and make statements sound less forceful. Good Presentations Consist of Three Key Components : structure – verbal delivery – body language and movement. Lec 8 A scientific paper is a written and published report describing original research results. Early journals published descriptive papers. second half of the 19th century, reproducibility of experiments became a fundamental principle. methods section became all important since Louis Pasteur confirmed the germ theory of disease. MRAD (INTRODUCTION, METHODS, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION) à most common structure. - If a number of methods were used to achieve directly related results à M + R = Experimental section (Note: they differ between review and experimental papers). - The results are so complex that they need to be immediately discussed à R + D = Results and Discussion section (Only disussion in review papers). Characteristics of scientific papers assess observations + repeat experiments + evaluate intellectual processes + Must have an impact + available to scientific community and regular screening by secondary services. - - Poor experimentation cannot be masked by brilliant writing; however, poor writing can mask brilliant experimentation. - paragraph is the essential unit of thought. Essential parts of a scientific paper Title: Describe concisely the core contents of the paper. Abstract: Summarize the major elements of the paper. Introduction:provide context and rationale. Materials: Describe the experimental design so it is reproducible. Methods: Describe the experimental procedures. Results: Summarize the findings without interpretation. Discussion: Interpret the findings of the study. Conclusions: Summarize the findings. Acknowledgement: Give credit to those who helped the researcher. References: List all scientific papers, books and websites that you cited. Title - Indexing and abstracting of the paper depends on the accuracy of the title. Syntax (word order) must be very carefully considered. It should contain the keywords that reflect the contents of the paper. The title could state the conclusion of the paper. NEVER contains abbreviations, chemical formulas, or terminologies. Avoid the word using. Abstract - brief summary of each of the main sections (IMRAD) of the paper: 1. State the principal objective and scope of the investigation. 2. Describe the methods used. 3. Summarize the results, and 4. State the principal conclusions. - should not exceed 250 words. - written in the past tense. - not cite any references (except in rare cases). Introduction - Review the relevant literature. - State the method of investigation. - State the principal results of the investigation. - State the principal conclusion(s) - present tense when referring to work that has already been published, but past tense when referring to own study. - Use the active voice. - Avoid general reference works such as textbooks. - Define any specialized terms or abbreviations when appeared for the first time. Method: Write in the past tense. Materials: Avoid the use of trade names of chemicals, generic or chemical names are preferred. Results: - Results section is written in the past tense. - core or heart of the paper. - clearly and simply stated. - summarize and illustrate the findings in an orderly and logical sequence - Tables are appropriate for large or complicated data sets. - Figures are appropriate for data sets that exhibit trends, patterns, or relationships. - Do not include both a table and a figure showing the same information. Discussion: end with a short summary or conclusion regarding the significance of the work. What is an academic article? It is a piece of writing that has been written by experts in a particular field of study. Its reliable because its reviewed by other experts before they are published Importance of Writing paper: 1- Share info à opinion. 2- Use to support. What to read while skimming? Keywords , bold words, heading , titles , first and last sentence / paragraph. Lec 9 Research posters summarize information or research concisely and attractively to help publicize it and generate discussion. Layout types: Columns. Large central box. Portrait. Shapes. Lec 10 What is Ethics? The study of the ethical and moral implications of new biological discoveries and biomedical advances, specifically in the modern scientific and medical research and discoveries such as the field of genetic engineering and drug research. Importance of ethics: Medical policies and patients' rights. Scientific research and health care systems function differently than before. Scientific and medical practices now involve decision making about many new issues. Who determines the ethical framework that scientific research should be conducted within? Ethical committees which should: - Nominated by the research or medical institution authorities. - expertise in the field of the research area. - international ethical standards in the screening, monitoring, and evaluation of the research purposes, applications, and achievements. Items that contribute to unethical research: - Excessive risks compared to benefits. - Inappropriate allocation of dosages in comparison trials. - Poor selection and misallocation of participants. - Midstream changes of protocol, and failure to either monitor or record significant adverse events. Penalties for researchers who violate the ethics of scientific research (Saudi Arabia as a model): 1. The warning. 2. Suspension of the research until the effects of the violation are exceeded. 3. Preventing the principal investigator from carrying out the research in which the violation occurred. 4. A fine not exceeding 200,000 (two hundred thousand Saudi riyals). 5. Imprisonment for a period not exceeding six months. Scientific integrity: active adherence to the ethical principles and professional standards essential for the responsible practice of research. Summary of practices that achieve scientific integrity: Collegiality in scientific interactions, communications and sharing of resources. Scientific Justice: Distributive justice means the equitable distribution of the burdens and benefits of research. Investigators may not exploit vulnerable individuals or exclude without good reason eligible candidates who may benefit from a trial. Types of research: Fundamental research: Also known as basic- pure research, seeks to expand barriers of knowledge in the given area. Ex: development of research methods and propagation of new theories. Applied research: Also known as decisional research. Attempts to use existing knowledge for resolving the current problem. Ex: genetic engineering. Objectives of the research Steps of the research Define the problem and objective à design plan for data collection à implement à result interpret and report findings. Research design: Blueprint of procedures and rationales. Importance of study design: - Foundation of study - Support planning and execution - Estimation of error - Maintain control and make the study more systemic. Types of study: Exploratory research design. Conclusive research design (descriptive and causal). Three research approaches: Types of study designs: issue in study design is determination of variables there are 3 examples of variables: dichotomous variable: 2 values à there or not there ex: pass or fail. Discrete variable: categorical à ex: race , if there are numbers they have to be absolute. Continuous variable: values with given range or infinite set à ex: 0 – 100 How to select samples: Population: everything à sample is part of it. Systematic randomization: No. Population ⁄No. samples = Interval between samples Steps in developing a sampling plan: Define population à choose data collection method à sample frame à sample method àsample size à operation plan à execute sampling plan. Characteristics of research data: Quality: - measurement should be relevant and adequate. - Data must be valid (measure what you are supposed to) & reliable (when repeated gives the same result). - Obtained quickly at an affordable cost. Data reduction: establish controls àedit data à code à transcribe à create new variable à calculate and summarize. Data analysis: descriptive – bivariate – multivariate.