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Chapter 1 Stakeholders: Players in the Systems Game THE CONTEXT OF SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND A stakeholder is any person who has an interest DESIGN METHODS in an existing or proposed information s...

Chapter 1 Stakeholders: Players in the Systems Game THE CONTEXT OF SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND A stakeholder is any person who has an interest DESIGN METHODS in an existing or proposed information system. Stakeholders can be technical or nontechnical A Framework for Systems Analysis and Design workers. They may also include both internal and An information system (IS) is an arrangement of external workers. people, data, processes, and information technology that interact to collect, process, store, Information workers are those workers whose and provide as output the information needed to jobs involve the creation, collection, processing, support an organization. distribution, and use of information. Information technology is a contemporary term Knowledge workers are a subset of information that describes the combination of computer workers whose responsibilities are based on a technology (hardware and software) with specialized body of knowledge. telecommunications technology (data, image, and voice networks). Stakeholders’ Perspectives on an Information System A transaction processing system (TPS) is an information system that captures and processes data about business transactions. A management information system (MIS) is an information system that provides for management- oriented reporting based on transaction processing and operations of the organization. A decision support system (DSS) is an information system that either helps to identify decision making opportunities or provides information to help make decisions. An expert system is an information system that captures the expertise of workers and then simulates that expertise to the benefit of nonexperts. A communications and collaboration system is an information system that enables more effective communications between workers, partners, System owners – an information system’s sponsor customers, and suppliers to enhance their ability to and executive advocate, usually responsible for collaborate. funding the project of developing, operating, and maintaining the information system. An office automation system is an information system that supports the wide range of business System users – a “customer” who will use or is office activities that provide for improved work flow affected by an information system on a regular between workers. basis – capturing, validating, entering, responding to, storing, and exchanging data and information. – Internal users Where Do Systems Analysts Work? Clerical and service workers Technical and professional staff Supervisors, middle managers, and executive managers Remote and mobile users (internal but disconnected) – External users System designer – a technical specialist who translates system users’ business requirements and constraints into technical solutions. She or he designs the computer databases, inputs, outputs, screens, networks, and software that will meet the system users’ requirements. Skills Needed by the Systems Analyst System builders – a technical specialist who Working knowledge of information technology constructs information systems and components Computer programming experience and expertise based on the design specifications generated by General business knowledge the system designers. General problem-solving skills Good interpersonal communication skills Systems analyst – a specialist who studies the Good interpersonal relations skills problems and needs of an organization to Flexibility and adaptability determine how people, data, processes, and Character and ethics information technology can best accomplish improvements for the business. The Systems Analyst as a Facilitator A programmer/analyst (or analyst/programmer) includes the responsibilities of both the computer programmer and the systems analyst. A business analyst focuses on only the nontechnical aspects of systems analysis and design. The Systems Analyst as a Problem-Solver True problem situations, either real or anticipated, that require corrective action Opportunities to improve a situation despite the absence of complaints Directives to change a situation regardless of whether anyone has complained about the current situation The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics Business Process Redesign 1. Thou shalt not use a computer to harm other people. Globalization of the Economy 2. Thou shalt not interfere with other people’s Global Economy brings computer work. – New and expanded international markets 3. Thou shalt not snoop around in other people’s – New international competitors computer files. 4. Thou shalt not use a computer to steal. Impact on information systems 5. Thou shalt not use a computer to bear false – Require support of multiple languages, currency witness. exchange rates, business cultures 6. Thou shalt not copy or use proprietary software – Require consolidation of international data for which – Demand for players who can communicate, orally you have not paid. and in writing, with management and users that 7. Thou shalt not use other people’s computer speak different languages resources without authorization or proper compensation. Electronic Commerce and Business 8. Thou shalt not appropriate other people’s E-Commerce – the buying and selling of goods intellectual output. and services by using the Internet. 9. Thou shalt think about the social consequences of the program you are writing or the system you E-Business – the use of the Internet to conduct are designing. and support day-to-day business activities. 10. Thou shalt always use a computer in ways that insure consideration and respect for your fellow Types of e-commerce and e-business human – Marketing of corporate image, products, and services Other Stakeholders – Business-to-consumer (B2C) External Service Provider (ESP) – a systems – Business-to-business (B2B) analyst, system designer, or system builder who sells his or her expertise and experience to other Impact on information systems businesses to help those businesses purchase, – Most new information systems are being develop, or integrate their information systems designed for an Internet (or intranet) architecture solutions; may be affiliated with a consulting or – Since the only client-side software is a web services organization. browser, the choice of client operating system is becoming less important Project Manager – an experienced professional who accepts responsibility for planning, monitoring, An Electronic Commerce Storefront and controlling projects with respect to schedule, budget, deliverables, customer satisfaction, technical standards,and system quality. Business Drivers for Today’s Information Systems Globalization of the Economy Electronic Commerce and Business Security and Privacy Collaboration and Partnership Knowledge Asset Management Continuous Improvement and Total Quality Management A Electronic Commerce Procurement Storefront the recipient. Knowledge Asset Management – Recognizes that data, information, and knowledge are critical business resources – Asks: “How can the organization manage and share knowledge for competitive advantage?” – Strives to integrate the data and information that can create and preserve knowledge Continuous Improvement and Total Quality Management Security and Privacy Business Processes – Tasks that respond to Security business events (e.g., an order). Business – How will the business continue in the event of a processes are the work, procedures, and rules security breach, terrorist attack, or disaster? required to complete the business tasks, – How can the business protect its digital assets independent of any information technology used to from outside threats? automate or support them. Privacy Continuous process improvement (CPI) – The – Consumer demands for privacy in e-commerce continuous monitoring of business processes to transactions effect small but measurable improvements in cost – Government requirements reduction and value added. Impact on information systems Total quality management (TQM) – a – Need to incorporate stringent security and privacy comprehensive approach to facilitating quality controls improvements and management within a business. Collaboration and Partnership Organizations seek to break down the walls that Business process redesign (BPR) is the study, separate organizational departments and functions. analysis, and redesign of fundamental business processes to reduce costs and/or improve value Organizations collaborate with outside business added to the business. partners and even competitors. – More substantial changes and improvements than CPI Knowledge Asset Management – Usually complemented by CPI Data – raw facts about people, places, events, and things that are of importance in an organization. Technology Drivers for Today’s Information Systems Information – data that has been processed or Networks and the Internet reorganized into a more meaningful form for Mobile and Wireless Technologies someone. Object Technologies Collaborative Technologies Knowledge – data and information that is further Enterprise Applications refined based on the facts, truths, beliefs, judgments, experiences, and expertise of Networks and the Internet Collaborate technologies are those that enhance Networks include mainframe time-sharing systems, interpersonal communications and teamwork. network servers, and a variety of desktop, laptop, – E-mail and handheld client computers. – Instant messaging – Groupware The most pervasive networking technologies are – Work flow based on the Internet. – xHTML and XML Enterprise Applications – Scripting languages – Web-specific programming languages – Intranets – Extranets – Portals – Web services Mobile and Wireless Technologies Some mobile and wireless technologies – PDAs – Smart phones – Bluetooth – Wireless networking Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) – a Impact on information systems software application that fully integrates information – Wireless connectivity must be systems that span most or all of the basic, core assumed business functions. – Limitations of mobile devices and screen sizes must be accommodated An ERP solution is built around a common database shared by common business functions. Object Technologies Object technology – a software technology that Representative ERP vendors: defines a system in terms of objects that – Baan consolidate data and behavior (into objects). – J. D. Edwards – Objects are reusable – Oracle – Objects are extensible – Peoplesoft – Object-oriented programming languages include – SAP AG (the market leader) C)), java, Smalltalk, and Visual Basic.net Enterprise Applications - SCM Supply Chain Management (SCM) – a software Object-oriented analysis and design – a application that optimizes business processes for collection of tools and techniques for systems raw material procurement through finished product development that will utilize object technologies to distribution by directly integrating the logistical construct a system and its software. information systems of organizations with those of their suppliers and distributors. Agile development – a system development strategy in which system developers are given the Representative SCM vendors: flexibility to select from a variety of tools and – i2 Technologies techniques to best accomplish the tasks at hand. – Manugistics – SAP – SCT Supply Chain Enterprise Application Integration Enterprise Applications - CRM Customer Relationship Management (CRM) – a A Simple System Development Process software application that provides customers with System development process – a set of activities, access to a business’s processes from initial inquiry methods, best practices, deliverables, and through postsale service and support. automated tools that stakeholders use to develop and maintain information systems and software. Representative CRM vendors: – BroadVision A general problem-solving approach – E.piphany 1. Identify the problem. – Kana 2. Analyze and understand the problem. – Nortel/Clarity 3. Identify solution requirements or expectations. – Peoplesoft/Vanitive 4. Identify alternative solutions and choose the – Siebel (the market leader) “best” course of action. 5. Design the chosen solution. Enterprise Applications - EAI 6. Implement the chosen solution. Enterprise Application Integration (EAI) – the 7. Evaluate the results. If the problem is not solved, process and technologies used to link applications return to step 1 or 2 as to support the flow of data and information between appropriate. those applications. Systems Development and Problem Solving Middleware – software (usually purchased) used to translate and route data between different applications. Representative EAI vendors: – BEA Systems – IBM (MQSeries) – Mercator Software – TIBCO Software System Development Process Overview Chapter 2 System initiation – the initial planning for a project INFORMATION SYSTEM BUILDING BLOCKS to define initial business scope, goals, schedule, and budget. Front- and Back-Office Information Systems Front-office information systems support System analysis – the study of a business business functions that extend out to the problem domain to recommend improvements and organization’s customers (or constituents). specify the business requirements and priorities for – Marketing the solution. – Sales – Customer management System design – the specification or construction Back-office information systems support of a technical, computer-based solution for the internal business operations of an organization, as business requirements identified in a system well as reach out to suppliers (of materials, analysis. equipment, supplies, and services). – Human resources System implementation – the construction, – Financial management installation, testing, and delivery of a system into – Manufacturing production. – Inventory control Project and Process Management Information System Applications Project management – the activity of defining, A transaction processing system (TPS) is an planning, directing, monitoring, and controlling a information system that captures and processes project to develop an acceptable system within the data about business transactions. allotted time and budget. A management information system (MIS) is an Process management – the ongoing activity that information system that provides for management- defines, improves, and coordinates the use of an oriented reporting based on transaction processing organization’s chosen methodology (the “process”) and operations of the organization. and standards for all system development projects. A decision support system (DSS) is an Sequential versus Iterative Development information system that either helps to identify decision making opportunities or provides information to help make decisions. An Executive Information System (EIS) is an information system designed for top-level managers that integrates data from all over the organization into “at-a-glance” graphical indicators and controls. An expert system is an information system that captures the expertise of workers and then simulates that expertise to the benefit of nonexperts. A communications and collaboration system is an information system that enables more effective communications between workers, partners, customers, and suppliers to enhance their ability to collaborate. – Data requirement – a representation of users’ data in terms of entities, attributes, relationships, An office automation system is an information and rules independent of data technology. system that supports the wide range of business office activities that provide for improved work flow System designers’ view between workers. – Data structures, database schemas, fields, indexes, and constraints of Information System Applications particular database management system (DBMS). System builders’ view – SQL – DBMS or other data technologies Views of PROCESS System owners’ view – Concerned with high-level processes called business functions. – Business function – a group of related processes that support the business. Functions can be decomposed into other subfunctions and eventually into processes that do specific tasks. – A cross-functional information system – a system that supports relevant business processes Information systems architecture - a unifying from several business functions without regard to framework into which various stakeholders with traditional organizational boundaries such as different perspectives can organize and view the divisions, departments, centers, and offices. fundamental building blocks of information systems. System users’ view Focuses for Information Systems – Concerned with work that must be performed to Knowledge — the raw material used to create provide the appropriate responses to business useful information. events. Process — the activities (including management) – Business processes – activities that respond to that carry out the mission of the business. business events. Communication — how the system interfaces – Process requirements – a user’s expectation of with its users and other information systems. the processing requirements for a business process and its information systems. Views of KNOWLEDGE – Policy – a set of rules that govern a business System owners’ view process. – Interested not in raw data but in information that – Procedure – a step-by-step set of instructions adds new business knowledge and information that and logic for accomplishing a business process. help managers make intelligent decisions. – Work flow – the flow of transactions through – Business entities and business rules. business processes to ensure appropriate checks and approvals are implemented. System users’ view – View data as something recorded on forms, System designers’ view stored in file cabinets, recorded in books and – Concerned with which processes to automate binders, organized into spreadsheets, or stored in and how to automate them computer files and databases. – Constrained by limitations of application – Tend to focus on the business issues as they development technologies being used pertain to the data. – Software specifications – the technical design System builders’ view of business processes to be automated or – Concerned with the construction, installation, supported by computer programs to be written by testing and implementation of user and system builders. system-to-system interface solutions. – Middleware – utility software that allows System builders’ view application software and systems software that – Concerned with programming logic that utilize differing technologies to interoperate. implements automated processes – Application program – a language-based, Network Technologies and the IS Building machine-readable representation of what a Blocks software process is supposed to do, or how a software process is supposed to accomplish its task. – Prototyping – a technique for quickly building a functioning, but incomplete model of the information system using rapid application development tools. Views of COMMUNICATION System owners’ view Chapter 3 – Concerned with the communications scope of an INFORMATION SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT information system. Process of System Development Who (which business units, employees, System development process – a set of activities, customers, and partners) must interact with the methods, best practices, deliverables, and system? automated tools that stakeholders use to develop Where are these business units, employees, and continuously improve information systems and customers, and partners located? software. What other information systems will the system have to interface with? – Many variations – Using a consistent process for system System users’ view development: – Concerned with the information system’s inputs – Create efficiencies that allow management to shift and outputs. resources between projects – Produces consistent documentation that reduces System designers’ view lifetime costs to maintain the systems – Concerned with the technical design of both the – Promotes quality user and the system-to-system communication interfaces. The CMM Process Management Model – Interface specifications – technical designs that Capability Maturity Model (CMM) – a document how system users are to interact with a standardized framework for assessing the maturity system and how a system interacts with other level of an organization’s information system systems. development and management processes and – User dialogue – a specification of how the user products. It consists of five levels of maturity: moves from window to window or page to page, – Level 1—Initial: System development projects interacting with the application programs to perform follow no prescribed process. useful work. – Level 2—Repeatable: Project management processes and practices are established to track project costs, schedules, and functionality. – Level 3—Defined: A standard system development process (sometimes called a “methodology”) is purchased or developed. All A System Life Cycle projects use a version of this process to develop and maintain information systems and software. – Level 4—Managed: Measurable goals for quality and productivity are established. – Level 5—Optimizing: The standardized system development process is continuously monitored and improved based on measures and data analysis established in Level 4. Capability Maturity Model (CMM) Representative System Development Methodologies Architected Rapid Application Development (Architected RAD) Dynamic Systems Development Methodology (DSDM) Joint Application Development (JAD) Information Engineering (IE) Rapid Application Development (RAD) Rational Unified Process (RUP) Structured Analysis and Design eXtreme Programming (XP) Principles of System Development Impact of System Development “Process” on Get the system users involved. Quality Use a problem-solving approach. Establish phases and activities. Document through development. Establish standards. Manage the process and projects Justify systems as capital investments. Don’t be afraid to cancel or revise scope. Divide and conquer. Life Cycle versus Methodology Design systems for growth and change. System life cycle – the factoring of the lifetime of an information system into two stages, (1) systems Use a Problem-Solving Approach development and (2) systems operation and Classical Problem-solving approach maintenance. 1. Study and understand the problem, its context, and its impact. System development methodology – a 2. Define the requirements that must be meet by standardized development process that defines (as any solution. in CMM Level 3) a set of activities, methods, best 3. Identify candidate solutions that fulfill the practices, deliverables, and automated tools that requirements, and select the “best” solution. system developers and project managers are to 4. Design and/or implement the chosen solution. use to develop and continuously improve 5. Observe and evaluate the solution’s impact, and information systems and software. refine the solution accordingly. Establish Phases and Activities Don’t Be Afraid to Cancel or Revise Scope Overlap of System Development Phases Creeping commitment – a strategy in which feasibility and risks are continuously reevaluated throughout a project. Project budgets and deadlines are adjusted accordingly. Risk management – the process of identifying, evaluating, and controlling what might go wrong in a project before it becomes a threat to the Manage the Process and Projects successful completion of the project or Process management – an ongoing activity that implementation of the information system. Risk documents, manages, oversees the use of, and management is drive by risk analysis or improves an organization’s chosen methodology assessment. (the “process”) for system development. Process management is concerned with phases, activities, Where Do Systems Development Projects Come deliverables, and quality standards should be From? consistently applied to all projects. Problem – an undesirable situation that prevents the organization from fully achieving its purpose, Project management is the process of scoping, goals, and/or objectives. planning, staffing, organizing, directing, and Opportunity – a chance to improve the controlling a project to develop an information organization even in the absence of an identified system at a minimum cost, within a specified time problem. frame, and with acceptable quality. Directive - a new requirement that is imposed by management, government, or some external Justify Information Systems as Capital influence. Investments Planned Projects Cost-effectiveness – The result obtained by – An information systems strategy plan has striking a balance between the lifetime costs of examined the business as a whole to identify those developing, maintaining, and operating an system development projects that will return the information system and the benefits derived from greatest strategic (long-term) value to the business that system. Cost-effectiveness is measured by a – A business process redesign has thoroughly cost-benefit analysis. analyzed a series of business processes to eliminate redundancy and bureaucracy and to Strategic information systems plan – a formal improve efficiency and value added. Not it is time to strategic plan (3-5 years) for building and improving redesign the supporting information system for an information technology infrastructure and the those redesigned business processes. information system applications that use that Unplanned projects infrastructure. – Triggered by a specific problem, opportunity, or directive that occurs in the course of doing Strategic enterprise plan – a formal strategic plan business. (3-5 years) for an entire business that defines its – Steering committee – an administrative body of mission, vision, goals, strategies, benchmarks, and system owners and information technology measures of progress and achievement. Usually, executives that prioritizes and approves candidate the strategic enterprise plan is complemented by system development projects. strategic business unit plans that define how each – Backlog – a repository of project proposals that business unit will contribute to the enterprise plan. cannot be funded or staffed because they are a The information systems plan is one of those lower priority than those that have been approved unit-level plans. for system development. The PIECES Problem-Solving Framework Logical Design P the need to improve performance Logical design – the translation of business user I the need to improve information (and data) requirements into a system model that depicts only E the need to improve economics, control the business requirements and not any possible costs, or increase profits technical design or implementation of those C the need to improve control or security requirements. Common synonyms include E the need to improve efficiency of people conceptual design and essential design. and processes S the need to improve service to customers, System model – a picture of a system that suppliers, partners, employees, etc. represents reality or a desired reality. System models facilitate improved communication between The Classic Project Phases system users, system analysts, system designers, and system builders. Analysis paralysis – a satirical term coined to describe a common project condition in which excessive system modeling dramatically slows progress toward implementation of the intended system solution. Decision Analysis Candidate solutions evaluated in terms of: – Technical feasibility – Is the solution technically practical? Does our staff have the technical expertise to design and build this solution? – Operational feasibility – Will the solution fulfill the users’ requirements? To what degree? How will Scope Definition the solution change the users’ work environment? Problem statement – a statement and How do users feel about such a solution? categorization of problems, opportunities, and – Economic feasibility – Is the solution directives; may also include constraints and an cost-effective? initial vision for the solution. Synonyms include – Schedule feasibility – Can the solution be preliminary study and feasibility assessment. designed and implemented within an acceptable time? Constraint – any factor, limitation, or restraint that – Risk feasibility – What is the probability of a may limit a solution or the problem-solving process. successful implementation using the technology and approach? Scope creep – a common phenomenon wherein the requirements and expectations of a project Physical Design & Integration increase, often without regard to the impact on Physical design – the translation of business user budget and schedule. requirements into a system model that depicts a technical implementation of the users’ business Statement of work – a contract with management requirements. Common synonyms include technical and the user community to develop or enhance an design or implementation model. information system; defines vision, scope, constraints, high-level user requirements, schedule, Two extreme philosophies of physical design and budget. Synonyms include project charter, Design by specification – physical system models project plan, and service-level agreement. and detailed specification are produced as a series of written (or computer-generated) blueprints for System Development Documentation, construction. Repository, and Presentations Design by prototyping – Incomplete but functioning applications or subsystems (called prototypes) are constructed and refined based on feedback from users and other designers. System Operation & Maintenance System support – the ongoing technical support for users of a system, as well as the maintenance required to deal with any errors, omissions, or new requirements that may arise. Cross Life-Cycle Activities Cross life-cycle activity – any activity that overlaps many or all phases of the systems development process. A Taxonomy for System Development – Fact-finding Methodologies & Strategies Fact-finding - the formal process of using research, interviews, meetings, questionnaires, sampling, and other techniques to collect information about system problems, requirements,and preferences. – Documentation and presentation Documentation – the ongoing activity of recording facts and specifications for a systems for current and future reference. Presentation – the ongoing activity of communicating findings, recommendations, and documentation for review by interested users and mangers. Repository – a database and/or file directory where system developers store all documentation, knowledge, and artifacts for one or more information systems or projects. – Feasibility analysis – Process and project management Model-Driven Development Strategy Rapid Application Development Strategy Model-driven development – a system Rapid application development (RAD) – a development strategy that emphasizes the drawing system development strategy that emphasizes of system models to help visualize and analyze speed of development through extensive user problems, define business requirements, and involvement in the rapid, iterative, and incremental design information systems. construction of series of functioning prototypes of a system that eventually evolves into the final – Process modeling – a process-centered system. technique popularized by the structured analysis and design methodology that used – Prototype – a small-scale, representative, models of business process requirements to or working model of the users’ requirements derive effective software designs or a proposed design for an information for a system. system. – Data modeling – a data-centered – Time box – the imposition of a technique used to model business nonextendable period of time, usually 60-90 data requirements and design database days, by which the first (or next) version of a systems that fulfill those requirements. system must be delivered into operation. – Object modeling – a technique that attempts to merge the data and process concerns into singular constructs called objects. Object models are diagrams that document a system in terms of its objects and their interactions. Model-Driven Development Strategy Commercial Application Package Implementation Strategy Commercial application package – a software application that can be purchased and customized to meet the business requirements of a large number of organizations or a specific industry. A synonym is commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) system. – Request for proposal (RFP) – a formal document that communicates business, technical, and support requirements for an application software package to vendors that may wish to compete for the sale of that application package and services.  – Request for quotation (RFQ) – a formal A System Maintenance Perspective document that communicates business, technical, and support requirements for an application software package to a single vendor that has been determined as being able to supply that application package and services. – Gap analysis – a comparison of business and technical requirements for a commercial application package against the capabilities and features of a specific commercial application package for the purpose of defining the requirements that cannot be met. Automated Tools and Technology Computer-aided systems engineering (CASE) Application development environments (ADEs) Process and project managers Computer-Assisted Software Engineering (CAS) Computer-aided systems engineering (CASE) – the use of automated software tools that support the drawing and analysis of system models and associated specifications. Some CASE tools also provide prototyping and code generation capabilities. – CASE repository – a system developers’ database where developers can store system models, detailed descriptions and specifications, and other products of system Hybrid Strategies development. Synonyms include dictionary and encyclopedia. – Forward engineering – a CASE tool capability that can generate initial software or database code directly from system. – Reverse engineering – a CASE tool capability that can generate initial system models from software or database code. Using a CASE Tool for System Development CASE Tool Architecture and costs), schedule activities and resources, monitor progress against schedule and budget, control and modify schedule and resources, and report project progress. Chapter 4 PROJECT MANAGEMENT Project, Project Management, and Process Management Project – a [temporary] sequence of unique, complex, and connected activities having one goal or purpose and that must be completed by specific time, within budget, and according to specification. Project management – the process of scoping, planning, staffing, organizing, directing, and controlling the development of an acceptable system at a minimum cost within a specified time frame. Process management – the activity of documenting, managing, and continually improving Application Development Environments the process of systems development. Application development environments (ADEs) – an integrated software development tool that Measures of Project Success provides all the facilities necessary to develop new – The resulting information system is acceptable to application software with maximum speed and the customer. quality. A common synonym is integrated – The system was delivered “on time.” development environment (IDE) – The system was delivered “within budget.” – ADE facilities may include: – The system development process had a minimal Programming languages or interpreters impact on ongoing business operations. Interface construction tools Middleware Causes of Project Failure Testing tools Failure to establish upper-management Version control tools commitment to the project Help authoring tools Lack of organization’s commitment to the system Repository links development methodology Taking shortcuts through or around the system Process and Project Managers development methodology Process manager application – an automated Poor expectations management tool that helps document and manage a Premature commitment to a fixed budget and methodology and routes, its deliverables, and schedule quality management standards. An emerging Poor estimating techniques synonym is methodware. Overoptimism The mythical man-month (Brooks, 1975) Project manager application – an automated Inadequate people management skills tool to help plan system development activities Failure to adapt to business change (preferably using the approved methodology), Insufficient resources estimate and assign resources (including people  Failure to “manage to the plan” Poor Expectations Management Scope creep – the unexpected and gradual growth of requirements during an information systems project. Feature creep– the uncontrolled addition of technical features to a system. Project Manager Competencies Business awareness Business partner orientation Commitment to quality Initiative Gantt chart – a bar chart used to depict project Information gathering tasks against a calendar. Analytical thinking Conceptual thinking Interpersonal awareness Organizational awareness Anticipation of impact Resourceful use of influence Motivating others Communication skills Developing others Monitoring and controlling Self-confidence Stress management Concern for credibility Flexibility Project Management Functions Scoping – setting the boundaries of the project Planning – identifying the tasks required to complete the project Estimating – identifying the resources required to complete the project Scheduling – developing the plan to complete the project Organizing – making sure members understand their roles and responsibilities Joint Project Planning Strategy Directing – coordinating the project Joint project planning (JPP) – a strategy in which Controlling – monitoring progress all stakeholders attend an intensive workshop Closing – assessing success and failure aimed at reaching consensus on project decisions. Project Management Tools & Techniques PERT chart – a graphical network model used to depict the interdependencies between a project’s tasks. Activity 1 – Negotiate Scope VIII. Conditions of Satisfaction Scope – the boundaries of a project – the areas of A. Success criteria a business that a project may (or may not) address. B. Assumptions Includes answers to five basic questions: C. Risks – Product – Quality IX. Appendices – Time – Cost Activity 2 – Identify Tasks – Resources Work breakdown structure (WBS) – a graphical tool used to depict the hierarchical decomposition Statement of work – a narrative description of the of the project into phases, activities, and tasks. work to be performed as part of a project. Common synonyms include scope statement, project Milestone – an event signifying the completion of a definition, project overview, and document of major project deliverable. understanding. A Graphical Work Breakdown Structure V. Managerial Approach (continued) D. Meeting schedules E. Reporting methods and frequency F. Conflict management G. Scope management VI. Constraints A. Start date B. Deadlines C. Budget Activity 3 – Estimate Task Durations D. Technology 1. Estimate the minimum amount of time it would take to perform the task – the optimistic duration VII. Ballpark Estimates (OD). A. Schedule 2. Estimate the maximum amount of time it would B. Budget take to perform the task – the pessimistic duration (PD). 3. Estimate the expected duration (ED) that will be needed to perform the task. 4. Calculate a weighted average of the most likely Task Splitting and Delaying duration (D) as follows: Critical path – the sequence of dependent tasks that determines the earliest possible completion date of the project. – Tasks that are on the critical path cannot be delayed without delaying the entire project schedule. To achieve resource leveling, critical tasks can only be split. Activity 4 – Specify Inter-task Dependencies Finish-to-start (FS)—The finish of one task Slack time – the amount of delay that can be triggers the start of another task. tolerated between the starting time and completion Start-to-start (SS)—The start of one task triggers time of a task without causing a delay in the the start of another task. completion date of the entire project. Finish-to-finish (FF)—Two tasks must finish at the – Tasks that have slack time can be delayed same time. to achieve resource leveling Start-to-finish (SF)—The start of one task signifies the finish of another task. Activity 6 – Direct the Team Effort Supervision resources Scheduling Strategies – The Deadline: A Novel about Project Forward scheduling – a project scheduling Management approach that establishes a project start date and – The People Side of Systems then schedules forward from that date. – The One Minute Manager – The One Minute Manager Meets the Monkey Reverse scheduling – a project scheduling strategy that establishes a project deadline and Stages of Team Maturity then schedules backward from that date. Activity 5 – Assign Resources People – includes all the system owners, users, analysts, designers, builders, external agents, and clerical help that will be involved in the project in any way. Services – includes services such as a quality review that may be charged on a per use basis. Facilities and equipment – includes all rooms and technology that will be needed to complete the project. Supplies and materials – includes everything from pencils, paper, notebooks to toner cartridges, and so on. Money – includes a translation of all of the above into budgeted dollars! Resource leveling – a strategy for correcting resource overallocations. There are two techniques for resource leveling: task delaying task splitting 10 Hints for Project Leadership C. Possible solutions Be Consistent. 1. Recommendation Provide Support. 2. Assignment of responsibility Don’t Make Promises You Can’t Keep. 3. Deadline Praise in Public; Criticize in Private. VI. Attachments Be Aware of Morale Danger Points. (include relevant printouts from project Set Realistic Deadlines. management software) Set Perceivable Targets. Explain and Show, Rather Than Do. Change management – a formal strategy in which Don’t Rely Just on [Status Reports]. a process is established to facilitate changes that Encourage a Good Team Spirit. occur during a project. Activity 7 – Monitor and Control Progress Changes can be the result of various events and Progress reporting factors including: Change management – An omission in defining initial scope Expectations management – A misunderstanding of the initial scope Schedule adjustments—critical path analysis – An external event such as government (CPA) regulations that create new requirements – Organizational changes Sample Outline for a Progress Report – Availability of better technology I. Cover Page – Shifts in planned technology that force A. Project name or identification unexpected and significant changes to the business B. Project manager organization, culture, and/or processes C. Date or report – Management’s desire to have the system do II. Summary of progress more than was originally requested or agreed to A. Schedule analysis – Reduced funding for the project or imposition of B. Budget analysis an earlier deadline. C. Scope analysis (describe any changes that may Expectations Management have an impact on future progress) Expectations management matrix – a tool used D. Process analysis to understand the dynamics and impact of changing (describe any problems encountered the parameters of a project. with strategy or methodology) E. Gantt progress chart(s) III. Activity analysis A. Tasks completed since last report B. Current tasks and deliverables C. Short term future tasks and deliverables IV.Previous problems and issues A. Action item and status B. New or revised action items 1. Recommendation 2. Assignment of responsibility 3. Deadline V. New problems and issues A. Problems (actual or anticipated) B. Issues (actual or anticipated) Lunar Project Expectations Management Schedule Adjustments - Critical Path Analysis 1. Using intertask dependencies, determine every possible path through the project. 2. For each path, sum the durations of all tasks in the path. 3. The path with the longest total duration is the critical path. – The critical path for a project is that sequence of dependent tasks that have the largest sum of most likely durations. The critical path determines the earliest completion date of the project. Typical, Initial Expectations for a Project – The slack time available for any noncritical task is the amount of delay that can be tolerated between the starting time and completion time of a task without causing a delay in the completion date of the entire project. Critical Path Analysis Adjusting Expectations Activity 8 – Assess Project Results and Experiences Did the final product meet or exceed user expectations? Changing Priorities – Why or why not? Did the project come in on schedule? – Why or why not? Did the project come in under budget? – Why or why not?