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ASIAN HISTORY Unit 3: Empires of Asia Reading Packet Comparison & Contrast: HanComparison andEmpire, Dynasty, Abbasid Contrast of Empire Mongol the Abbasid Dynasty and Mongol Empire  Asian History 9...

ASIAN HISTORY Unit 3: Empires of Asia Reading Packet Comparison & Contrast: HanComparison andEmpire, Dynasty, Abbasid Contrast of Empire Mongol the Abbasid Dynasty and Mongol Empire  Asian History 9 Unit 3 Key Terms Assimilation Caliph and caliphate Calligraphy Centralized government Civil service Clan and kinship Displacement Empire Extortion House of Wisdom Khan and khanate Mihna Monopoly Pastoralists Pax Mongolica Shi’a (Shiite) v. Sunni Steppe Tax farm Tribute Warlord Useful language for comparing and contrasting Comparing Contrasting also although as well as besides both but similarly compared to in the same way or the same as even though in addition however like more than just as nevertheless too on the other hand World History for Us All Big Era 5 Landscape 5.1 Lesson 1 Student Handout 1.1—What is an empire? High school version An empire is the political rule of one group of people over other people who may have differing languages and customs. In contrast, a kingdom is a smaller political state composed of people who often share a common set of cultural characteristics. If a kingdom is well organized and powerful enough to rule over other lands, it can become an empire. Throughout history, empires were often built through conquest, and conquered peoples were forced to become subjects of the empire. But occasionally, people in neighboring territories saw benefits to being part of a larger, more complex political and economic organization. So they joined an empire willingly. Either way, empires were made up of kingdoms, at least in part, in much the same way that modern countries are made up of states or provinces. Empires were much more difficult than kingdoms to organize and sustain. A massive bureaucracy was needed to govern diverse peoples under a single administration. Language and cultural barriers had to be overcome. (The language of the ruling power often became the official language used for government and trade throughout the empire.) Extensive transportation and communication networks had to be built, maintained, and protected, so that the natural riches of the empire’s far-flung provinces could be brought to the ruling center. Long distance trade, the economic lifeblood of an empire, had to be regulated and a common currency established. Taxes needed to be collected and legal systems established. Much effort and money had to be devoted to maintaining the military so that it could protect trade, enforce laws, and defend the empire from its enemies, both external and internal. All this had to be accomplished in a balanced fashion. For example, enough tax money had to be collected to pay for the roads, armies, and bureaucracies needed to run the empire. But if the tax rate was too high, it could impoverish people, ruin commerce, and actually reduce the amount of money flowing into the treasury. This type of economic blunder could lead to rebellion. Similarly, government officials needed authority to do their jobs effectively, but they had to be closely monitored to ensure that they did not abuse their positions of power and enrich themselves at the expense of the empire and its people. Widespread corruption could also anger an empire’s subjects and incite them to rebellion. Imperial powers tried to win the loyalty of their subjects by granting privileges such as citizenship and local autonomy and by sharing knowledge and technology. At the same time, they had to be careful that subject peoples did not gain so much power and knowledge that they could break away from or overthrow the government. Such equilibrium was difficult to maintain. Empires had to be flexible enough to adapt to changing circumstances and challenges, while keeping everything in balance. Several large empires in Afroeurasia maintained this balance for long periods of time. But from the third to seventh centuries, three of the most powerful and enduring empires began to weaken and disintegrate. Principal reference: Howard Spodek, The World’s History, second ed., vol. 1 (Upper Saddle River NJ: Prentice Hall, 2000) http://worldhistoryforusall.sdsu.edu/ Page 9  3 Han Emperors in China MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES ETHICAL SYSTEMS The Han The pattern of a strong central Han Dynasty civil service Dynasty expanded China’s government has remained a centralized monopoly borders and developed a permanent part of Chinese life. government assimilation system of government that lasted for centuries. SETTING THE STAGE Under Shi Huangdi, the Qin Dynasty had unified China. Shi Huangdi established a strong government by conquering the rival kings who ruled small states throughout China. After Shi Huangdi died in 210 B.C., his son proved to be a weak, ineffective leader. China’s government fell apart. TAKING NOTES The Han Restore Unity to China Outlining Use an outline to organize main ideas Rumblings of discontent during the Qin Dynasty grew to roars in the years after and details. Shi Huangdi’s death. Peasants were bitter over years of high taxes, harsh labor quotas, and a severe penal system. They rebelled. Rival kings were eager to Han China regain control of the regions they had held before Shi Huangdi. They raised I. The Han Restore Unity to China armies and fought over territory. A. Liu Bang Founds the Han Dynasty During the civil war that followed, two B. powerful leaders emerged. Xiang Yu (shee ANG yoo) was an aristocratic general C. who was willing to allow the warlords to keep their territories if they would II. A Highly g acknowledge him as their feudal lord. Liu Bang (LEE oo bahng) was one of Structured Society Xiang Yu’s generals. III. Han Technology, g Eventually, Liu Bang turned against Xiang Yu. The two fought their final bat- Commerce, and Culture tle in 202 B.C. Liu Bang won and declared himself the first emperor of the Han Dynasty. The Han Dynasty, which ruled China for more than 400 years, is ▼ Emperor Liu divided into two periods. The Former Han ruled for about two centuries, until Bang A.D. 9. After a brief period when the Han were out of power, the Later Han ruled for almost another two centuries. The Han Dynasty so influenced China that even today many Chinese call themselves “people of the Han.” Liu Bang’s first goal was to destroy the rival kings’ power. He followed Shi Huangdi’s policy of establishing centralized government, in which a central authority controls the running of a state. Reporting to Liu Bang’s central government were hundreds of local provincials called commanderies. To win popular support, Liu Bang departed from Shi Huangdi’s strict legalism. He lowered taxes and softened harsh punishments. People throughout the empire appreciated the peace and stability that Liu Bang brought to China. 200 Chapter 7  The Empress Lü When Liu Bang died in 195 B.C., his son became emperor, but in name only. The real ruler was his mother, Empress Lü. Although Lü had not been Liu Bang’s only wife, she had powerful friends at court who helped her seize power. The empress outlived her son and retained control of the throne by naming first one infant and then another as emperor. Because the infants were too young to rule, she remained in control. When Empress Lü died in 180 B.C., people who remained loyal to Liu Bang’s family, rather than to Lü’s family, came back into power. They rid the palace of the old empress’s relatives by executing them. Such palace plots occurred often throughout the Han Dynasty. Traditionally, the emperor chose the favorite among his wives as the empress and appointed one of her sons as successor. Because of this, the palace women and their families com- peted fiercely for the emperor’s notice. The families would make alliances with influential people in the court. The resulting power plays distracted the emperor and his officials so much that they sometimes could not govern efficiently. Vocabulary Martial means The Martial Emperor When Liu Bang’s great-grandson took the throne, he con- warlike. tinued Liu Bang’s centralizing policies. Wudi (woo dee), who reigned from 141 to 87 B.C., held the throne longer than any other Han emperor. He is called the “Martial Emperor” because he adopted the policy of expanding the Chinese empire through war. Wudi’s first set of enemies were the Xiongnu (shee UNG noo), fierce nomads known for their deadly archery skills from horseback. The Xiongnu roamed the steppes to the north and west of China. They made raids into China’s settled farm- land. There they took hostages and stole grain, livestock, and other valuable items. The early Han emperors tried to buy off the Xiongnu by sending them thousands of pounds of silk, rice, alcohol, and money. Usually, the Xiongnu just accepted these gifts and continued their raids. N 40° 100°E 120° 140 Han Dynasty, 200 B.C.–A.D. 220 °E E MONGOLIA T JAPAN 60°E ER 80°E DES GOBI Kuqa Dunhuang l l o g He Ctesiphon Merv w R.) Kashgar KA N Yellow PERSIA TAKLIMART Sea an DESE H u( Y e. Lanzhou Luoyang ASIA sR Ch'ang-an Nanjing du (Xi'an) Former Han, 200 B.C. R. g ze ian H PACIFIC ) ASIA J IM g an t AL Ch ang OCEAN AYAS (Y Ganges R Nanhai °N. Han Empire at its wR e (Guangzhou) ll o ng H.) Pataliputra greatest extent, A.D. 220 Luoyang Yellow ua H e Sea Han protectorate (influence) Y Ch'ang-an ( (Xi'an) South Xiongnu regions 0 1,000 Miles China Great Wall g ian Silk Road g J R.) Sea an gtze 0 2,000 Kilometers an PACIFIC (Y h C OCEAN GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps 1. Place What was the approximate size, in square miles, of the Han Empire at 0 500 Miles South China its greatest extent? 0 1,000 Kilometers Sea 2. Location Along which border did the Chinese build the Great Wall? Why did they build it there and not in other places?  When Wudi realized that the bribes were simply making the Xiongnu stronger, he sent more than 100,000 soldiers to fight them. To help defeat the Xiongnu, Wudi also made allies of their enemies: PRIMARY SOURCE The Xiongnu had defeated the king of the Yuezhi people and had made his skull into a drinking vessel. As a result the Yuezhi... bore a constant grudge against the Xiongnu, though as yet they had been unable to find anyone to join them in an attack on their enemy.... When the emperor [Wudi] heard this, he decided to try to send an envoy to establish relations with the Yuezhi. SIMA QIAN, Records of the Grand Historian After his army forced the nomads to retreat into Central Asia, Wudi attempted to make his northwest border safe by settling his troops on the Xiongnu’s former pastures. Although this tactic succeeded for a time, nomadic raiders continued to cause problems during much of China’s later history. Wudi also colonized areas to the northeast, now known as Manchuria and Korea. He sent his armies south, where they conquered mountain tribes and set up Chinese colonies all the way into what is now Vietnam. By the end of Wudi’s reign, the empire had expanded nearly to the bounds of present-day China. A Highly Structured Society Chinese society under the Han Dynasty was highly structured. (See Social History below.) Just as Han emperors tried to control the people they conquered, they exerted vast control over the Chinese themselves. Because the Chinese believed their emperor to have divine authority, they accepted his exercise of power. He was the link between heaven and earth. If the emperor did his job well, China had peace Chinese Society Under the Han Dynasty, the structure of Emperor Chinese society was clearly defined. At the top was the emperor, who was considered semidivine. Next came kings and governors, both appointed by the emperor. They King Governor governed with the help of state officials, nobles, and scholars. Peasant farmers came next. Their State Nobles & production of food was considered vital to Officials Scholars the existence of the empire. Artisans and merchants were below them. Near the bottom were the soldiers, who guarded the empire’s frontiers. At the bottom were enslaved persons, who were Peasants usually conquered peoples. Artisans Merchants INTERNET ACTIVITY Create a photo exhibit Soldiers on Chinese society today. Include pictures of people from various walks of life. Go to classzone.com for your research. Slaves 202 Chapter 7  and prosperity. If he failed, the heavens showed their displeasure with earthquakes, floods, and famines. However, the emperor did not rule alone. Structures of Han Government The Chinese emperor relied on a complex bureaucracy to help him rule. Running the bureaucracy and maintaining the impe- rial army were expensive. To raise money, the government levied taxes. Like the farmers in India, Chinese peasants owed part of their yearly crops to the govern- ment. Merchants also paid taxes. Besides taxes, the peasants owed the government a month’s worth of labor or mil- itary service every year. With this source of labor, the Han emperors built roads and dug canals and irrigation ditches. The emperors also filled the ranks of China’s vast armies and expanded the Great Wall, which stretched across the northern frontier. Confucianism, the Road to Success Wudi’s government employed more than 130,000 people. The bureaucracy included 18 different ranks of civil service jobs, which were government jobs that civilians obtained by taking examinations. At times, Chinese emperors rewarded loyal followers with government posts. However, another way to fill government posts evolved under the Han. This method involved testing applicants’ knowledge of Confucianism—the teachings of Confucius, who had lived 400 years before. The early Han emperors had employed some Confucian scholars as court advis- ers, but it was Wudi who began actively to favor them. Confucius had taught that gentlemen should practice “reverence [respect], generosity, truthfulness, diligence Making [industriousness], and kindness.” Because these were exactly the qualities he Inferences wanted his government officials to have, Wudi set up a school where hopeful job Why would applicants from all over China could come to study Confucius’s works. Wudi want his After their studies, job applicants took formal examina- officials to have tions in history, law, literature, and Confucianism. In theory, qualities such as diligence? anyone could take the exams. In practice, few peasants could afford to educate their sons. So only sons of wealthy landowners had a chance at a government career. In spite of this flaw, the civil service system begun by Wudi worked so efficiently that it continued in China until 1912. Han Technology, Commerce, and Culture The 400 years of Han rule saw not only improvements in education but also great advances in Chinese technology Papermaking and culture. In addition, the centralized government began People in ancient China wrote on Vocabulary pottery, bones, stone, silk, wood, and Commerce is the to exert more control over commerce and manufacturing. buying and selling bamboo. Then, about 2,000 or more Technology Revolutionizes Chinese Life Advances in years ago, the Chinese invented of goods. technology influenced all aspects of Chinese life. Paper was paper. They began to use plants, invented in A.D. 105. Before that, books were usually writ- such as hemp, to make thin paper. ten on silk. But paper was cheaper, so books became more In A.D. 105, Ts’ai Lun, a Han official, produced a stronger paper by mixing readily available. This helped spread education in China. mulberry bark and old rags with The invention of paper also affected Chinese government. hemp fiber. Formerly, all government documents had been recorded on The art of papermaking slowly strips of wood. Paper was much more convenient to use for spread to the rest of the world. First, record keeping, so Chinese bureaucracy expanded. it moved east to Korea and Japan. Then, it spread westward to the Another technological advance was the collar harness for Arab world in the 700s, and from horses. This invention allowed horses to pull much heavier there to Europe. loads than did the harness being used in Europe at the time. India and China Establish Empires 203  The Chinese perfected a plow that was more efficient because it had two blades. They also improved iron tools, invented the wheelbarrow, and began to use water Making mills to grind grain. Inferences Agriculture Versus Commerce During the Han Dynasty, the population of China Which of these inventions helped swelled to 60 million. Because there were so many people to feed, Confucian to feed China’s scholars and ordinary Chinese people considered agriculture the most important huge population? and honored occupation. An imperial edict written in 167 B.C. stated this philoso- phy quite plainly: PRIMARY SOURCE Agriculture is the foundation of the world. No duty is greater. Now if [anyone] personally follows this pursuit diligently, he has yet [to pay] the impositions of the land tax and tax on produce.... Let there be abolished the land tax and the tax on produce levied upon the cultivated fields. BAN GU and BAN ZHAO in History of the Former Han Dynasty Although the same decree dismissed commerce as the least important occupa- tion, manufacturing and commerce were actually very important to the Han Empire. The government established monopolies on the mining of salt, the forging of iron, the minting of coins, and the brewing of alcohol. A monopoly occurs when a group has exclusive control over the production and distribution of certain goods. For a time, the government also ran huge silk mills—competing with private silk weavers in making this luxurious cloth. As contact with people from other lands increased, the Chinese realized how valuable their silk was as an item of trade. Silk Roads Why would anyone struggle over mountains and across deserts to buy fabric? Ancient peoples valued silk because it was strong, lightweight, and beautiful. Traders made fortunes carrying Chinese silk to the West. Because of this, the caravan trails that crossed Asia were called Silk Roads, even though many other valuable trade goods were also carried along these routes. The Silk Roads also encouraged cultural diffusion. Camel Caravans ▲ No trader traveled the whole length of the Silk Roads. Mediterranean merchants went partway, then traded with Central Asian nomads—who went east until they met Chinese traders near India. Many traders traveled in camel caravans. From this point, ships carried silk and spices to Rome. The Romans paid a pound of gold for a pound of Chinese silk! 204 Chapter 7  Because of this, the techniques of silk production became a closely guarded state secret. Spurred by the worldwide demand for silk, Chinese commerce expanded along the Silk Roads to most of Asia and, through India, all the way to Rome. The Han Unifies Chinese Culture As the Han empire expanded its trade networks, the Chinese began to learn about the foods and fashions common in foreign lands. Similarly, expanding the empire through conquest brought people of different cultures under Chinese rule. Unification Under Chinese Rule To unify the empire, the Chinese government encouraged assimilation, the process of making conquered peoples part of Chinese culture. To promote assimilation, the government sent Chinese farmers to settle newly colonized areas. It also encouraged them to intermarry with local peoples. Government officials set up schools to train local people in the Confucian philoso- phy and then appointed local scholars to government posts. Several writers also helped to unify Chinese culture by recording China’s history. Sima Qian (SU MAH chee YEHN), who lived from 145 to 85 B.C., is called the Grand Historian for his work in compiling a history of China from the ancient dynas- ties to Wudi. To write accurately, Sima Qian visited historical sites, interviewed eye- witnesses, researched official records, and examined artifacts. His book is called Records of the Grand Historian. Another famous book was the History of the Former Han Dynasty. Ban Biao (BAHN bee OW), who lived from A.D. 3 to 54, started the project. After his death, his son Ban Gu (bahn goo) and later his daughter Ban Zhao Patterns of Interaction Traded Gold ▲ Trade Connects the World: Silk Roads and the Pacific Rim Gold was an important trade good. The object to the right is Throughout history, the desire for material goods led to the a Chinese gold dagger handle development of long-distance trade routes such as the Silk Roads. from the Zhou Dynasty. Many In turn, trade caused cultural diffusion. Similarly today, trade in the artifacts found along the Silk Pacific Rim has helped spread many products across the globe. Roads show a mix of Greek, Central Asian, and Indian styles. This indicates that ideas traveled as well as objects. The Silk Road split in two to skirt the edges of the Taklimakan Desert. Both routes 1. Hypothesizing How might patterns had oases along the way. of trade and cultural diffusion have differed if Rome, not China, had learned the secret of making silk? See Skillbuilder Handbook, Page R11. 2. Comparing What are China’s top three exports today, and which countries buy those products? 205  (bahn jow) worked on it. Ban Zhao also wrote a guide called Lessons for Women, which called upon women to be humble and obedient but also industrious. Women’s Roles—Wives, Nuns, and Scholars Although Ban Zhao gained fame as a historian, most women during the Han Dynasty led quiet lives at home. Confucian teachings had dictated that women were to devote themselves to their families. However, women made important contributions to their family’s eco- nomic life through duties in the home and work in the fields of the family farm. Some upper-class women lived much different lives. As explained earlier, a few empresses wielded great power. Daoist—and later, Buddhist—nuns were able to gain an education and lead lives apart from their families. Women in aristocratic and land- owning families also sometimes pursued education and culture. Some women ran small shops; still others practiced medicine. The Fall of the Han and Their Return In spite of economic and cultural advances, the Han emperors faced grave prob- lems. One of the main problems was an economic imbalance caused by customs that allowed the rich to gain more wealth at the expense of the poor. The Rich Take Advantage of the Poor According to custom, a family’s land was divided equally among all of the father’s male heirs. Unless a farmer could afford to buy more land during his lifetime, each generation inherited smaller plots. With such small plots of land, farmers had a hard time raising enough food to sell or even to feed the family. Because of this, small farmers often went into debt and had to borrow money from large landowners, who charged very high interest rates. If the farmer couldn’t pay back the debt, the landowner took possession of the farmer’s land. Large landowners were not required to pay taxes, so when their land holdings increased, the amount of land that was left for the government to tax decreased. With less money coming in, the government pressed harder to collect money from the small farmers. As a result, the gap between rich and poor increased. Wang Mang Overthrows the Han During this time of economic change, politi- cal instability grew. At the palace, court advisers, palace servants, and rival influ- ential families wove complex plots to influence the emperor’s choice of who would Comparing Two Great Empires: Han China and Rome Han Dynasty—202 B.C. to A.D. 220 Roman Empire—27 B.C. to A.D. 476 Empire replaced rival kingdoms Empire replaced republic Centralized, bureaucratic government Centralized, bureaucratic government Built roads and defensive walls Built roads and defensive walls Conquered many diverse peoples in regions Conquered many diverse peoples in bordering China regions of three continents At its height—area of 1.5 million square At its height—area of 3.4 million square miles and a population of 60 million miles and a population of 55 million Chinese became common written language Latin did not replace other written throughout empire languages in empire Ongoing conflict with nomads Ongoing conflict with nomads Empire fell apart; restored by Tang Dynasty Empire fell apart; never restored in 618 ▲ Chinese warrior SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Charts ▲ Roman soldier 1. Drawing Conclusions How long did each empire last? When did they both exist? 2. Comparing and Contrasting How were Han China and the Roman Empire similar? Different? 206 Chapter 7  succeed him as ruler. From about 32 B.C. until A.D. 9, one inexperienced emperor replaced another. Chaos reigned in the palace, and with peasant revolts, unrest spread across the land as well. Finally, Wang Mang (wahng mahng), a Confucian scholar and member of the Vocabulary court, decided that a strong ruler was needed to restore order. For six years, he had A regent is a been acting as regent for the infant who had been crowned emperor. In A.D. 9, Wang person who rules Mang took the imperial title for himself and overthrew the Han, thus ending the temporarily while Former Han, the first half of the Han Dynasty. a monarch is too young. Wang Mang tried to bring the country under control. He minted new money to relieve the treasury’s shortage and set up public granaries to help feed China’s poor. Wang Mang also took away large landholdings from the rich and planned to redistribute the land to farmers who had lost their land. But this plan angered powerful landholders. Wang Mang’s larger supply of money disrupted the econ- omy, because it allowed people to increase their spending, which encouraged mer- chants to raise prices. Then, in A.D. 11, a great flood left thousands dead and millions homeless. The public granaries did not hold enough to feed the displaced, starving people. Huge peasant revolts rocked the land. The wealthy, opposed to Wang Mang’s land poli- Recognizing cies, joined in the rebellion. The rebels assassinated Wang Mang in A.D. 23. Within Effects two years, a member of the old imperial family took the throne and began the sec- How did Wang ond period of Han rule—called the Later Han. ▲ Silk was the Mang’s policies trade good that The Later Han Years With peace restored to China, the first decades of the Later help cause his own linked the Han downfall? Han Dynasty were quite prosperous. The government sent soldiers and merchants and Roman westward to regain control of posts along the Silk Roads. But this expansion could empires. This not make up for social, political, and economic weaknesses within the empire fragment of silk itself. Within a century, China suffered from the same economic imbalances, polit- was found along the Silk Roads. ical intrigues, and social unrest that had toppled the Former Han. By 220, the Later Han Dynasty had disintegrated into three rival kingdoms. In the next chapter, you will learn about the early civilizations and kingdoms that developed in Africa. SECTION 3 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. Han Dynasty centralized government civil service monopoly assimilation USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. What was the most lasting 3. How did Wudi encourage 6. IDENTIFYING PROBLEMS What problem do you think was development of the Han learning? most responsible for weakening the Han Dynasty? Explain. Empire? Explain. 4. What role did women play in 7. ANALYZING CAUSES How important were Confucian Han China Han society? teachings in the lives of people of the Han Empire? I. The Han Restore Unity to China 5. How did the Han Chinese Provide details to support your answer. A. attempt to assimilate 8. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS Why was agriculture considered B. C. conquered peoples? the most important and honored occupation in Han China? II. A Highly g 9. WRITING ACTIVITY RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL SYSTEMS Review Structured Society the five qualities Confucius said gentlemen should have. III. Han Technology, g Commerce, and Write one sentence for each describing the action a Culture government official could take to demonstrate the quality. CONNECT TO TODAY CREATING AN ORGANIZATIONAL CHART Research information about the current government of the People’s Republic of China. Then create an organizational chart showing its structure. India and China Establish Empires 207 Fast Facts - The Fall of the Han Dynasty The collapse of the Han Dynasty (206 BCE-221 CE) was a setback in the history of China. The Han empire was such a pivotal era in the history of China that the majority ethnic group in the country today still refer to themselves as “the people of Han.” Despite its undeniable power and technological innovation, the empire’s collapse sent the country into disarray for nearly four centuries. The Han Dynasty in China (traditionally split into Western [206 BCE - 25 CE] and Eastern [25 - 221 CE] Han periods) was one of the world's great classical civilizations. The Han emperors oversaw great advances in technology, philosophy, religion, and trade. They expanded and solidified the economic and political structure of a vast area of over 6.5 million square kilometers (2.5 million square miles). Nevertheless, after four centuries, the Han Empire crumbled away, falling apart from a mixture of internal corruption and external rebellion. Internal Forces: Corruption The astonishing growth of the Han empire began when the seventh emperor of the Han dynasty, Emperor Wu or also called Han Wudi (ruled 141-87 BCE), changed tactics. He replaced the previous stable foreign policy of establishing treaty or tributary relationships with his neighbors. Instead, he put in place new and central governmental bodies which were designed to bring the frontier regions under imperial control. Subsequent emperors continued that expansion. Those were seeds of the eventual end. By the 180s CE, the Han court had grown weak and increasingly cut off from local society, with debauched or disinterested emperors who lived only for amusement. Court eunuchs vied for power with scholar-officials and army generals, and political intrigues were so vicious that they even led to wholesale massacres within the palace. In 189 CE, the warlord Dong Zhuo went so far as to assassinate the 13-year-old Emperor Shao, placing Shao’s younger brother on the throne instead. Internal Causes: Taxation Economically, by the latter part of the Eastern Han, the government experienced sharply decreasing tax revenue, limiting their ability to fund the court and to support the armies that defended China from external threats. The scholar-officials generally exempted themselves from taxes, and the peasants had a sort of early- warning system by which they could alert one another when the tax collectors came to a particular village. When the collectors were due, the peasants would scatter to the surrounding countryside, and wait until the tax men had gone. As a result, the central government was chronically short on money. One reason that the peasants fled at the rumor of tax collectors is that they were trying to survive on smaller and smaller plots of farmland. The population was growing quickly, and each son was supposed to inherit a piece of land when the father died. Thus, farms were quickly being carved into ever-tinier bits, and peasant families had trouble supporting themselves, even if they managed to avoid paying taxes. External Causes: The Steppe Societies Externally, the Han Dynasty also faced the same_threat that plagued every indigenous Chinese government throughout history -- the danger of raids by the nomadic peoples of the steppes. To the north and west, China borders on desert and range-lands that have been controlled by various nomadic peoples over time, including the Uighurs, the Kazakhs, the Mongols, the Jurchens (Manchu), and the Xiongnu. The nomadic people had control over the extremely valuable Silk Road trade routes, vital to the success of most Chinese governments. During prosperous times the settled agricultural people of China would simply pay tribute to troublesome nomads, or hire them to provide protection from the other tribes. Emperors even offered Chinese princesses as brides to the “barbarian” rulers in order to preserve the peace. The Han government, however, did not have the resources to buy off all of the nomads. The Weakening of the Xiongnu One of the most important factors in the collapse of the Han Dynasty, in fact, may have been the Sino-Xiongnu Wars of 133 BCE to 89 CE. For more than two centuries, the Han Chinese and the Xiongnu fought throughout the western regions of China -- a critical area that Silk Road trade goods needed to cross to reach the Han Chinese cities. In 89 CE, the Han crushed the Xiongnu state, but this victory came at such a high price that it helped to fatally destabilize the Han government. Instead of reinforcing the strength of the Han empire, weakening Xiongnu allowed the Qiang, people who had been oppressed by the Xiongnu, to free themselves and build coalitions which newly threatened Han sovereignty. During the Eastern Han period, some of the Han generals stationed on the frontier became warlords. Chinese settlers moved away from the frontier, and the policy of resettling the unruly Qiang people inside the frontier made control of the region from Luoyang difficult. In the wake of their defeat, over half of the Xiongnu moved west, absorbing other nomadic groups, and forming a formidable new ethnic group known as the Huns. Thus, the descendants of the Xiongnu world be implicated in the collapse of two other great classical civilizations, as well -- the Roman Empire, in 476 CE, and India's Gupta Empire in 550 CE. In each case the Huns did not actually conquer these empires, but weakened them militarily and economically, leading to their collapses. Peasants and local scholars began to form religious associations, organizing into military units. In 184, a rebellion broke out in 16 communities, called the Yellow Turban rebellion because its members wore headdresses showing their allegiance to a new anti-Han religion. Although they were defeated within the year, more rebellions were inspired. The Five Pecks of Grain established a Daoist theocracy for several decades. End of the Han By 188, the provincial governments were far stronger than the government based at Luoyang. In 189 CE, Dong Zhuo, a frontier general from the northwest, seized the capital of Luoyang, kidnapped the boy emperor, and burned the city to the ground. Dong was killed in 192, and the emperor was passed from warlord to warlord. The Han administrative area was now broken into eight separate regions. The last official chancellor of the Han dynasty was one of those warlords, Cao Cao, who took charge of the young emperor and held him virtual prisoner for 20 years. Cao Cao conquered the Yellow River, but was unable to take the Yangzi; when the last Han emperor abdicated to Cao Cap's son, the Han Empire had gone, split into Three Kingdoms. Aftermath For China, the end of the Han Dynasty marked the beginning of a chaotic era, a period of civil war and warlordism, accompanied by the deterioration of climate conditions. The country eventually settled into the Three Kingdoms period, when China was divided among the kingdoms of Wei in the north, Shu in the southwest, and Wu in the center and east. China would not reunify again for another 350 years, during the Sui Dynasty (581-618 CE).  2 Islam Expands MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES EMPIRE BUILDING In spite of Muslims’ influence on three caliph Sufi internal conflicts, the Muslims continents produced cultural Umayyads Abbasids created a huge empire that blending that has continued Shi’a al-Andalus included lands on three into the modern world. Sunni Fatimid continents. SETTING THE STAGE When Muhammad died in 632, the community faced a crisis. Muslims, inspired by the message of Allah, believed they had a duty to carry his word to the world. However, they lacked a clear way to choose a new leader. Eventually, the issue of leadership would divide the Muslim world. Muhammad’s Successors Spread Islam TAKING NOTES Summarizing Use a table Muhammad had not named a successor or instructed his followers how to choose to summarize develop- one. Relying on ancient tribal custom, the Muslim community elected as their ments that occurred in leader Abu-Bakr, a loyal friend of Muhammad. In 632, Abu-Bakr became the Islam during each ruler’s first caliph (KAY lihf), a title that means “successor” or “deputy.” period in power. “Rightly Guided” Caliphs Abu-Bakr and the next three elected caliphs—Umar, Rulers Period Developments of Rule in Islam Uthman, and Ali—all had known Muhammad. They used the Qur’an and Rightly guided Muhammad’s actions as guides to leadership. For this, they are known as the caliphs “rightly guided” caliphs. Their rule was called a caliphate (KAY lih FAYT). Umayyads Abu-Bakr had promised the Muslim community he would uphold what Abbasids Muhammad stood for. Shortly after the Prophet’s death, some tribes on the Arabian Peninsula abandoned Islam. Others refused to pay taxes, and a few indi- viduals even declared themselves prophets. For the sake of Islam, Abu-Bakr invoked jihad. The word jihad means “striving” and can refer to the inner strug- gle against evil. However, the word is also used in the Qur’an to mean an armed struggle against unbelievers. For the next two years, Abu-Bakr applied this meaning of jihad to encourage and justify the expansion of Islam. When Abu-Bakr died in 634, the Muslim state controlled all of Arabia. Under Umar, the second caliph, Muslim armies conquered Syria and lower Egypt, which were part of the Byzantine Empire. They also took parts of the Sassanid Empire. The next two caliphs, Uthman and Ali, continued to expand Muslim ter- ritory. By 750, the Muslim Empire stretched 6,000 miles from the Atlantic Ocean to the Indus River. (See the map on page 261.) Reasons for Success The four “rightly guided” caliphs made great progress in their quest to spread Islam. Before his death, Muhammad had expressed a desire to spread the faith to the peoples of the north. Muslims of the day saw their vic- tories as a sign of Allah’s support and drew energy and inspiration from their faith. They fought to defend Islam and were willing to struggle to extend its word. The Muslim World 269  The Muslim armies were well disci- plined and expertly commanded. However, the success of the armies was also due to weakness in the two empires north of Arabia. The Byzantine and Sassanid empires had been in conflict for a long period of time and were exhausted militarily. Another reason for Muslim success was the persecution suffered by people under Byzantine or Sassanid rule because they did not support the official state reli- gions, Christianity or Zoroastrianism. The persecuted people often welcomed the invaders and their cause and chose to accept Islam. They were attracted by the appeal of the message of Islam, which offered equality and hope in this world. They were also attracted by the economic benefit for Muslims of not having to pay Analyzing Causes a poll tax. Why were Muslims successful Treatment of Conquered Peoples conquerers? Because the Qur’an forbade forced con- version, Muslims allowed conquered peoples to follow their own religion. Christians and Jews, as “people of the book,” received special consideration. They paid a poll tax each year in exchange for exemption from military duties. However, they were also subject ▲ From 632 to 750, to various restrictions on their lives. Before entering the newly conquered city of highly mobile Damascus in the northern Arabian province of Syria, Khalid ibn al-Walid, one of troops mounted on camels were Abu-Bakr’s chief generals, detailed the terms of surrender: successful in conquering lands in PRIMARY SOURCE the name of Allah. In the name of Allah, the compassionate, the merciful, this is what Khalid ibn al-Walid would grant to the inhabitants of Damascus.... He promises to give them security for their lives, property and churches. Their city wall shall not be demolished, neither shall any Muslim be quartered in their houses. Thereunto we give to them the pact of Allah and the protection of His Prophet, the Caliphs and the believers. So long as they pay the tax, nothing but good shall befall them. KHALID IBN AL-WALID, quoted in Early Islam Tolerance like this continued after the Muslim state was established. Though Christians and Jews were not allowed to spread their religion, they could be offi- cials, scholars, and bureaucrats. Internal Conflict Creates a Crisis Despite spectacular gains on the battlefield, the Muslim community had difficulty maintaining a unified rule. In 656, Uthman was murdered, starting a civil war in which various groups struggled for power. Ali, as Muhammad’s cousin and son-in- law, was the natural choice as a successor to Uthman. However, his right to rule 270 Chapter 10  was challenged by Muawiya, a governor of Syria. Then, in 661, Ali, too, was assas- sinated. The elective system of choosing a caliph died with him. A family known as the Umayyads (oo MY adz) then came to power. The Umayyads moved the Muslim capital to Damascus. This location, away from Mecca, made controlling conquered territories easier. However, the Arab Muslims felt it was too far away from their lands. In addition, the Umayyads abandoned the simple life of previous caliphs and began to surround themselves with wealth and ceremony similar to that of non-Muslim rulers. These actions, along with the lead- ership issue, gave rise to a fundamental division in the Muslim community. Sunni–Shi’a Split In the interest of peace, the majority of Muslims Basic Differences Between accepted the Umayyads’ rule. However, Sunni and Shi’a Muslims a minority continued to resist. This Sunni Shi’a group developed an alternate view of Believe that the first four Believe that Ali, the Prophet’s the office of caliph. In this view, the caliphs were “rightly guided” son-in-law, should have caliph needed to be a descendant of the succeeded Muhammad Prophet. This group was called Shi’a, meaning the “party” of Ali. Members Believe that Muslim rulers Believe that all Muslim rulers of this group are called Shi’ites. Those should follow the Sunna, or should be descended from who did not outwardly resist the rule Muhammad’s example Muhammad; do not recognize of the Umayyads later became known the authority of the Sunna as Sunni, meaning followers of Claim that the Shi’a have Claim that the Sunni have Muhammad’s example. Another group, distorted the meaning of distorted the meaning of the Sufi (SOO fee), rejected the luxu- various passages in the Qur’an various passages in the Qur’an rious life of the Umayyads. They pur- sued a life of poverty and devotion to a Percentage Today of Sunni and Shi’a spiritual path. Muslims Worldwide Shi’a Vigorous religious and political 16% Sunni Other opposition to the Umayyad caliphate 83% 1% led to its downfall. Rebel groups over- Summarizing threw the Umayyads in the year 750. What are three groups within Islam The most powerful of those groups, the and how do they Abbasids (uh BAS IHDZ), took control differ? of the empire. Control Extends Over Three Continents When the Abbasids came to power in 750, they ruthlessly murdered the remaining members of the Umayyad family. One prince named Abd al-Rahman escaped the slaughter and fled to Spain. There he set up an Umayyad caliphate. Spain had already been conquered and settled by Muslims from North Africa, who were known as Berbers. The Berber armies advanced north to within 200 miles of Paris before being halted at the Battle of Tours in 732. They then settled in southern Spain, where they helped form an extraordinary Muslim state in al-Andalus (al AN duh LUS). Abbasids Consolidate Power To solidify power, the Abbasids moved the capital of the empire in 762 to a newly created city, Baghdad, in central Iraq. The location on key trade routes gave the caliph access to trade goods, gold, and information about the far-flung empire. The Abbasids developed a strong bureaucracy to conduct the huge empire’s affairs. A treasury kept track of the money flow. A special department managed the business of the army. Diplomats from the empire were sent to courts in Europe, The Muslim World 271  Africa, and Asia to conduct imperial business. To support this bureaucracy, the Abbasids taxed land, imports and exports, and non-Muslims’ wealth. Rival Groups Divide Muslim Lands The Abbasid caliphate lasted from 750 to 1258. During that time, the Abbasids increased their authority by consulting reli- gious leaders. But they failed to keep complete political control of the immense ter- ritory. Independent Muslim states sprang up, and local leaders dominated many ▼ This 13th- smaller regions. The Fatimid (FAT uh MIHD) caliphate was formed by Shi’a century Muslims who claimed descent from Muhammad’s daughter Fatima. The caliphate miniature shows began in North Africa and spread across the Red Sea to western Arabia and Syria. Arab traders navigating the However, the Fatimids and other smaller states were still connected to the Abbasid Indian Ocean. caliphate through religion, language, trade, and the economy. Muslim Trade Network At this time, two major sea-trading net- works existed—the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean. Through these networks, the Muslim Empire could engage in sea trade with the rest of the world. The land network connected the Silk Roads of China and India with Europe and Africa. Muslim Recognizing merchants needed only a single language, Arabic, and a single Effects currency, the Abbasid dinar, to travel in the empire. Why would a To encourage the flow of trade, Muslim money changers set up single language and a single currency be banks in cities throughout the empire. Banks offered letters of such an advantage credit, called sakks, to merchants. A merchant with a sakk from a to a trader? bank in Baghdad could exchange it for cash at a bank in any other city in the empire. In Europe, sakk was pronounced “check.” Thus, using checks dates back to the Muslim Empire. At one end of the Muslim Empire was the city of Córdoba in al- Andalus. In the tenth century, this city had a population of 200,000; Paris, in contrast, had 38,000. The city attracted poets, philosophers, and scientists. Many non-Muslims adopted Muslim customs, and Córdoba became a dazzling center of Muslim culture. In Córdoba, Damascus, Cairo, and Baghdad, a cultural blending of people fueled a period of immense achievements in the arts and the sciences. SECTION 2 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. caliph Umayyads Shi’a Sunni Sufi Abbasids al-Andalus Fatimid USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. Which period of rule do you 3. How did Muslims under the 6. EVALUATING COURSES OF ACTION Do you think think was most effective? “rightly guided” caliphs treat Muhammad should have appointed a successor? Why or conquered peoples? why not? Rulers Period Developments of Rule in Islam 4. Why did the Shi’a oppose the 7. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS What attracted non-Muslims to Rightly rule of the Umayyads? Islam and Islamic culture? guided caliphs 5. What tied the Abbasid 8. MAKING INFERENCES What does opposition to the caliphate and the independent luxurious life of the Umayyads suggest about what is Umayyads Muslim states together? important to most Muslims? Abbasids 9. WRITING ACTIVITY EMPIRE BUILDING Write a one- paragraph summary in which you determine whether or not the Muslim Empire was well run. INTERNET ACTIVITY Use the Internet to find out the number of Sunni and Shi’a INTERNET KEYWORD Muslims today in Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Syria. Create a pie country studies, Sunni, Shi’a chart showing the results of your research. 272 Chapter 10  3 Muslim Culture MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES CULTURAL INTERACTION Many of the ideas developed House of calligraphy Muslims combined and during this time became the Wisdom preserved the traditions of many basis of today’s scientific and peoples and also advanced academic disciplines. learning in a variety of areas. SETTING THE STAGE The Abbasids governed during a prosperous period of Muslim history. Riches flowed into the empire from all over Europe, Asia, and Africa. Rulers could afford to build luxurious cities. They supported the scien- tists, mathematicians, and philosophers that those cities attracted. In the special atmosphere created by Islam, the scholars preserved existing knowledge and pro- duced an enormous body of original learning. Muslim Society TAKING NOTES Clarifying Use a web Over time, the influence of Muslims grew as the empire attracted people from a diagram to show the variety of lands. The many cultural traditions combined with the Arabic culture to key elements of Muslim create an international flavor. Muslim society had a sophistication matched at that culture. time only by the Tang Empire of China. That cosmopolitan character was most evident in urban centers. Science and Math City Life The Rise of Muslim Cities Until the construction of Baghdad, Damascus was the leading city. It was also the cultural center of Islamic learning. Other cities grew Muslim Culture up around power centers, such as Córdoba (the Umayyad capital), Cairo (the Arts A t andd Fatimid capital), and Jerusalem. (See the map on page 261.) Cities, which sym- Society Literaturee bolized the strength of the caliphate, were very impressive. The Abbasid capital city, Cities, A.D. 900 Baghdad, impressed all who saw it. Caliph al-Mansur Baghdad chose the site for his capital Constantinople on the west bank of the Tigris Córdoba River in 762. Extensive plan- ning went into the city’s Rome distinctive circular design, 0 500 1,000 formed by three circular pro- Population (in thousands) tective walls. The caliph’s Source: Tertius Chandler and Gerald Fox, palace of marble and stone 3,000 Years of Urban Growth. sat in the innermost circle, SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Graphs along with the grand mosque. Comparing How much larger in population was Originally, the main streets Baghdad than Córdoba? between the middle wall and The Muslim World 273  the palace were lined with shops. Later, the mar- ketplace moved to a district outside the walls. Baghdad’s population approached one million at its peak. Four Social Classes Baghdad’s population, made up of different cultures and social classes, was typ- ical for a large Muslim city in the eighth and ninth centuries. Muslim society was made up of four classes. The upper class included those who were Muslims at birth. Converts to Islam were in the second class. The third class consisted of the “pro- tected people” and included Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians. The lowest class was composed of slaves. Many slaves were prisoners of war, and all were non-Muslim. Slaves most frequently per- formed household work or fought in the military. Role of Women The Qur’an says, “Men are the managers of the affairs of women,” and “Righteous women are therefore obedient.” However, the Qur’an also declares that men and women, as believers, are equal. The shari’a gave Muslim women specific legal rights concerning marriage, family, and property. Thus, Muslim women had more economic and property rights than European, Indian, and Chinese women of the same time period. Nonetheless, Muslim women were still expected to submit to men. When a husband wanted to divorce his wife, all he had to do was repeat three ▲ In a miniature times, “I dismiss thee.” The divorce became final in three months. painting from Responsibilities of Muslim women varied with the income of their husbands. Persia, women are shown having a The wife of a poor man would often work in the fields with her husband. Wealthier picnic in a garden. women supervised the household and its servants. They had access to education, Gardens were and among them were poets and scholars. Rich or poor, women were responsible seen as earthly for the raising of the children. In the early days of Islam, women could also par- representations of paradise. ticipate in public life and gain an education. However, over time, Muslim women were forced to live increasingly isolated lives. When they did go out in public, they were expected to be veiled. Muslim Scholarship Extends Knowledge Muslims had several practical reasons for supporting the advancement of science. Rulers wanted qualified physicians treating their ills. The faithful throughout the empire relied on mathematicians and astronomers to calculate the times for prayer and the direction of Mecca. However, their attitude also reflected a deep-seated curiosity about the world and a quest for truth. Muhammad himself believed strongly in the power of learning: Analyzing PRIMARY SOURCE Primary Sources Acquire knowledge. It enableth its possessor to distinguish right from wrong; it lighteth According to the way to Heaven; it is our friend in the desert, our society in solitude, our companion Muhammad, what when friendless; it guideth us to happiness; it sustaineth us in misery; it is an ornament are the nine valu- amongst friends, and an armour against enemies. able results of MUHAMMAD, quoted in The Sayings of Muhammad knowledge? 274 Chapter 10 Astronomy Muslim interest in astronomy developed from the need to fulfill three of the Five Pillars of Islam—fasting during Ramadan, performing the hajj, and praying toward Mecca. A correct lunar calendar was needed to mark religious periods such as the month of Ramadan and the month of the hajj. Studying the skies helped fix the locations of cities so that worshipers could face toward Mecca as they prayed. Extensive knowl- edge of the stars also helped guide Muslim traders to the many trading cities of the ancient world. RESEARCH LINKS For more on astronomy, go to classzone.com ▲ The device shown here is called an armillary sphere. The man standing in the center is aligning the sphere, while the seated man records the observations. Astronomers calculated the time of day or year by aligning the rings with various stars. This helped Muslims set their religious calendar. Muslim observatories were great centers ▼ of learning. This scene depicts astronomers working at the observatory in Istanbul. They are using many instruments including an astrolabe like the one shown on this page. The astrolabe was an early scientific ▼ instrument. It had a fixed “plate” and a rotating “rete.” The plate was a map of the sky and the rete simulated the daily movement of the earth in relation to the stars. Using this tool, one could calculate time, celestial events, and 1. Recognizing Effects How did fulfilling relative position. For Muslims, the religious duties lead Muslims to astron- astrolabe helped determine where omy and a better understanding of they were in relation to Mecca. the physical world? See Skillbuilder Handbook, page R6. 2. Comparing and Contrasting Muslim These pointers on the astronomers developed instruments rete represented different to improve their observations of the stars. At night, observers sky. We do the same thing today. could look at the sky, Research how modern astronomers This is the rete—it position the pointers, and make their observations and compare This is the plate. The rotated over the plate. make their calculations. their methods with early Muslim plate was etched with The rete was mostly astronomers. Write two paragraphs a map of the sky for a cut away so the map on how their methods are similar to certain latitude. beneath was visible. and different from each other. 275  The Prophet’s emphasis on study and scholarship led to strong support of places of learning by Muslim leaders. After the fall of Rome in A.D. 476, Europe entered a period of upheaval and chaos, an era in which scholarship suffered. The scientific knowledge gained up to that time might have been lost. However, Muslim leaders and scholars preserved and expanded much of that knowledge. Both Umayyads and Abbasids encouraged scholars to collect and translate scientific and philo- sophical texts. In the early 800s, Caliph al-Ma’mun opened in Baghdad a combi- nation library, academy, and translation center called the House of Wisdom. There, scholars of different cultures and beliefs worked side by side translating texts from Greece, India, Persia, and elsewhere into Arabic. Art and Sciences Flourish Scholars at the House of Wisdom included researchers, editors, linguists, and tech- nical advisers. These scholars developed standards and techniques for research that are a part of the basic methods of today’s research. Some Muslim scholars used Greek ideas in fresh new ways. Others created original work of the highest quality. In these ways, Muslims in the Abbasid lands, especially in Córdoba and Baghdad, set the stage for a later revival of European learning. Muslim Literature Literature had been a strong tradition in Arabia even before Islam. Bedouin poets, reflecting the spirit of desert life, composed poems celebrating ideals such as bravery, love, generosity, and hospitality. Those themes continued to appear in poetry written after the rise of Islam. The Qur’an is the standard for all Arabic literature and poetry. Early Muslim poets sang the praises of the Prophet and of Islam and, later, of the caliphs and other patrons who supported them. During the age of the Abbasid caliphate, lit- erary tastes expanded to include poems about nature and the pleasures of life and love. Popular literature included The Thousand and One Nights, a collection of fairy tales, parables, and legends. The core of the collection has been linked to India and Persia, but peoples of the Muslim Empire added stories and arranged them, beginning around the tenth century. Muslim Art and Architecture As the Muslim Empire expanded, the Arabs entered regions that had rich artistic The Thousand and One Nights traditions. Muslims continued these traditions but often The Thousand and One Nights is a collection of stories tied together adapted them to suit Islamic beliefs and practices. For using a frame story. The frame story example, since Muslims believed that only Allah can create tells of King Shahryar, who marries a life, images of living beings were discouraged. Thus, many new wife each day and has her killed artists turned to calligraphy, or the art of beautiful hand- the next. When Scheherezade marries writing. Others expressed themselves through the decora- the king, however, she tells him fascinating tales for a thousand and tive arts, such as woodwork, glass, ceramics, and textiles. one nights, until the king realizes that It is in architecture that the greatest cultural blending of he loves her. the Muslim world can be seen. To some extent, a building The tradition of using a frame story reflected the culture of people of the area. For example, the dates back to at least 200 B.C., when Great Mosque of Damascus was built on the site of a the ancient Indian fables of the Christian church. In many ways, the huge dome and Panchatantra were collected. Italian writer Giovanni Boccaccio also set his vaulted ceiling of the mosque blended Byzantine architec- great work, The Decameron, within a ture with Muslim ideas. In Syrian areas, the architecture frame story in 1335. included features that were very Roman, including baths using Roman heating systems. In Córdoba, the Great 276 Chapter 10 Muslim Art Calligraphy ▼ Muslim art is intricate and colorful but often Calligraphy, or ornamental does not contain images of living beings. Muslim writing, is important to Muslims leaders feared that people might worship the because it is considered a way to reflect the glory of Allah. In images rather than Allah. Thus, Muslim artists pictorial calligraphy, pictures found different ways to express their creativity, are formed using the letters as shown on this page. of the alphabet. This picture of a man praying is made up of the words of the Muslim declaration of faith. Geometric Patterns ▼ Muslim artwork sometimes focuses on strictly geometric patterns. Geometric designs can be found in everything from pottery to architecture. This mosaic is from the Jami Masjid Mosque in India (shown below) and uses intricate patterns radiating out from the central shape. ▲ Arabesque Arabesque decoration is a complex, ornate design. It usually incorporates flowers, leaves, and geometric patterns. These arabesque tiles are from the Jami SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Visual Sources Masjid Mosque. Arabesque designs are also found