Agricultural Extension and Communication PDF

# Agricultural Extension and Communication ## Agricultural Extension Education * A system of educating and training rural people to develop skills and abilities in farming, homemaking, and youth building. * A well-planned program of bringing results of agricultural research and technology to rural...

# Agricultural Extension and Communication ## Agricultural Extension Education * A system of educating and training rural people to develop skills and abilities in farming, homemaking, and youth building. * A well-planned program of bringing results of agricultural research and technology to rural families to help them solve problems of agricultural production, home, and community living. * A two-way process that brings agriculture and homemaking technologies from research agencies and/or universities to rural families in forms applicable to their own situations and, in turn, presents their problems in farming and homemaking for study of these institutions. * A process of getting useful information from people (communication dimension); teaching farmers' management and decision-making skills as new technology inevitably places more demand on those abilities; and helping rural people develop leadership and organizational ability so that they can better organize, operate and/or participate in cooperatives, credit unions, and other support services, and to participate actively in making their local community conducively livable. ## Objectives of Agricultural Extension ### Hierarchy of Extension Objectives - **Ultimate Objectives** (from analysis of societal problems) - **Intervention Objectives** (based on analysis of causes) - **Conditions for Effect** (based on determinants of voluntary behavior) - **Activities** (programming, implementation) - **Means** (resources, management, organization) ### Core Objectives * Emphasizes the client-centered approach. * All the efforts of extension are geared towards changing elements related to the client system, the farmers. ### Direct Objectives * What the extension system is trying to achieve in terms of specific activities that will hopefully bring the core objectives. ### Result Objectives * **End Goal** ## Four Major Paradigms of Agricultural Extension The terms **EXTENSION** and **ADVISORY SERVICES** can be used somewhat interchangeably, but the following framework gives a useful perspective on the different approaches being pursued by different countries and donors in organizing and implementing effective extension systems. ### 1. Technology Transfer * This extension model was prevalent during colonial times and re-emerged with intensity during the 1970s and 1980s when the Training and Visit (T&V) system was established in many Asian and Sub-Saharan African countries. * This "top-down" model primarily delivers specific recommendations from research, especially for the staple food crops, to all types of farmers (large, medium, and small). * The primary goal of this extension model is to increase food production, which helps reduce food costs. ### 2. Advisory Services * Both public extension workers and private-sector firms, in responding to specific farmer inquiries about particular production problems, still commonly use the term advisory services. * In most cases, farmers are "advised" to use a specific practice or technology to solve an identified problem or production constraint. * Public extension organizations should have validated information available from research about the effectiveness of different inputs or methods in solving specific problems so that inquiring farmers receive objective and validated information. ### 3. Non-formal Education (NFE) * In earlier days of extension in Europe and North America, this paradigm dominated when universities gave training to rural people who could not afford or did not have access to formal training in different types of vocational and technical agriculture training. * This approach continues to be used in most extension systems, but the focus is shifting more toward training farmers how to utilize specific management skills and/or technical knowledge to increase their production efficiency or to utilize specific management practices, such as integrated pest management (IPM), as taught through Farmer Field Schools (FFS). ### 4. Facilitation Extension * This approach has evolved over time from participatory extension methods used 20-30 years ago and now focuses on getting farmers with common interests to work more closely together to achieve both individual and common objectives. * An important difference is that front-line extension agents primarily work as "knowledge brokers" in facilitating the teaching-learning process among all types of farmers (including women) and rural young people. ## Nature or Dimensions of Extension ### Altruistic Dimension * Extension is aimed at helping farmers * A basic premise of extension that must be observed by practitioners. ### Educational Dimension * Extension is a non-formal method of adult education. * Thus, extension professionals must be imbued with knowledge on how adults learn. ### Communication Dimension * Extension is a communication intervention * Knowledge of basic communication processes and its dynamics must be adequately understood by the extension professional. ### Behavioral Dimension * Extension is aimed at inducing behavioral changes among farmers * This makes behavioral change the end goal of extension. * If a farmer has not changed his behavior (for his betterment) no extension has been done. ### Technology Dimension * Extension helps in the transfer of technology. * Extension should be able to identify technologies appropriate to clientele. * The need for alternative approaches and methods for diagnosing technical problems should be recognized. ### Research Dimension * Extension aims at linking research with farmers. * Ways to foster closer links between the farmers and the researchers need further understanding. ### Input Dimension * Provision of technical inputs plays an important linking function in the transfer of technology. * Requires that extension professionals be knowledgeable of these technical inputs. ### Income Dimension * Extension is aimed at increased income for the farmer through increased production and productivity. ### Management Dimension * Extension aims to function according to sound management principles. * Hence, requiring that the extension professional be a good manager. ## Methods for Influencing Human Behavior ### 1. Advice Used if: * Farmers agree with the extension agent about the nature of their problems and the criteria for choosing the "correct" solution. * The extension agent knows enough about the farmers’ situation and has adequate information to solve their problems in a way which has been tested scientifically or in practice. * Farmers are confident the extension worker can help them with a solution to their problems. * The extension agent does not think it necessary or possible for farmers to solve their problems themselves. * Farmers have sufficient means at their disposal to carry out the advice. ### 2. Compulsion or Coercion * Party forcing somebody to do something. * Has power and authority. * Ex: Government regulations make people conform to traffic rules, public health policies, environmental upkeep, etc. ### 3. Exchange * Exchange of goods and services between two individuals or groups * Applicable if: * Each party considers the transaction to be in their favor. * Each has the goods/services desired by the other. * Each can only deliver his/her part when the exchange goods/services have been delivered by the other. ### 4. Openly Influencing Farmer's Knowledge Level and Attitude * Applicable if we believe that the farmer can't solve his/her own problems because he/she has insufficient or incorrect knowledge and/or because his/her attitude does not match his/her goals. * We believe that the farmer can solve his/her own problems if he/she has more knowledge or has changed his/her attitudes. * We are prepared to help the farmer collect more and better knowledge or influence his/her attitudes. * The farmer trusts our expertise and motives and is prepared to cooperate with us in changing his/her knowledge and/or attitudes. ### 5. Manipulation * Influence the farmer's knowledge level and attitudes without the farmer being aware of it. * Possible if we believe: * It is necessary and desirable for the farmer to change his/her behavior in a certain direction. * It is unnecessary/undesirable for the farmer to make independent decisions. * We can control techniques for influencing farmers without them being aware of it. * Farmers don't actively object to being influenced in this way. ### 6. Providing Means Apply under the following conditions: * The farmer is trying to achieve goals which the extension agent considered to be appropriate. * The farmer does not have the means available to achieve these goals, or does not wish to risk using these means. ### 7. Providing Service * May involve taking over certain tasks from farmers. * Possible when: * We have knowledge and/or means available to perform the tasks better, or more economically than farmers. * We agree with farmers that it is useful to perform these tasks. * We are prepared to perform them for them. ### 8. Changing Farmer's Social and/or Economic Structure * We agree with the farmer that he/she could perform optimally. * But the farmer is not in a position to behave this way because of barriers in the economic and/or social structure. * Possible when: * We consider changes in this structure desirable. * We have the freedom to work toward these changes. * We are in a position to do this, either through power or by conviction. ## Philosophy of Extension Education ### What is Philosophy? * A body of principles underlying a given branch of learning or major discipline, a religious system, a human activity. * A philosophy is a background of theory, knowledge and beliefs which explains and justifies a way of life. * "View of Life" - what ought to be and its components of what is and how to bridge the gap between "what is" and "what ought to be". * A guide to a person’s actions. ### What Ought To Be (The Ideal View Of Life) ### The Gap (The Problem Area or Needs of the People) ### What Is (Actual/Current State of the People) In terms of knowledge, skills, attitudes, etc. a farmer possesses, their resources, present level of living, etc. ## Structure of Philosophy * **BELIEFS** - one's mental convictions, view of the world, or acceptance of something true or actual. * **ETHICS** - the basic principles of right actions/conduct as defined by profession, society, and nation; also referred to as the ideal of conduct. * **VALUES** - something regarded as desirable, worthy, or right. The intensity or degree of valuing something may change in time. ## Philosophy of Extension Education ### 1. An Extension Program Starts Where the People Are, with What They Have, and Improvement Can Begin From There. * This philosophy requires an extension worker to see to the suitability of the extension program to the social, cultural, financial, and intellectual levels of the target client group. This is done through identification of the target client group’s habits, beliefs, attitudes, traditions, interests, and aspirations; present agricultural and homemaking practices; and their problems and available resources. ### 2. The Classroom is Where the People Are, In Their Farm, In Their Homes, and/or Even In Their Barangays. * In extension education, the formal classroom setting is done away with. Technology can be communicated with the client group anywhere they are found available. In so doing, actual conditions are best identified, and appropriate solutions are introduced by the extension workers. ### 3. Extension Programs Are Based on People's Needs and Decided By Them. * This philosophy directs extension workers in conducting community surveys, meeting and informal talks with various groups of people. This affords the extension workers leeways to determine their needs, interests, problems, and aspirations. It is the duty of the extension workers to make people understand themselves and to explore possible solutions to their problems. Thus in the process, a well-planned extension program will surely arouse the people's enthusiasm and pour in their effort and inputs in its implementation. ### 4. People Learn to Do By Doing. * This particular philosophy urges extension workers to provide the client-group opportunities to apply what have been learned. Farmers and homemakers should be made to participate as much as possible by demonstrating to them the activities and later on making the clientele do the activities themselves. ### 5. Education is Carried on With Groups or With Individuals. * There are two ways in which extension education is carried as directed in this philosophy. The first one, is via group methods that can reach more people and promote leadership and joint actions; and the other one is more on individual approach, although expensive, is more effective in clarifying specific problems of individual client, and in establishing understanding between extension worker and clientele. ### 6. Extension Works With and Through People. * This philosophy when used as guide requires extension workers to use cooperators to teach and eventually adopt recommended practices. They also need local leaders to help them reach more people via recruiting voluntary leaders in every barangay and training them in organizational procedure and project implementation. These leaders, helping in various aspects of extension activities, can enhance cooperation of people in the community, and promote unity among club members. ### 7. The Spirit of Self-help is Essential In a Democratic Living. * Technical assistance from extension personnel plus learning by doing contributes to the development of the client's potentials and capabilities. The clientele has to plan and work on his project. In turn, extension workers provide technical assistance in all aspects in project implementation. In this way, individual clientele develops self-reliance necessary for self-fulfillment toward becoming a productive contributor of society's development. ## Principles of Extension ### 1. Communication and Education * The extension agent’s role is as communicator and educator. * As communicator he/she passes on useful information or technology to the clientele. * As educator he/she helps rural people acquire the skills, knowledge and attitudes that will help them effectively utilize the information or technology. ### 2. Works with Rural People * For impact and sustainability, " **work with** not **work for**" the people. * People must participate and make decisions that will benefit them; the extension agent must assist them, by providing all the information needed and possible alternative solutions to clientele problems. ### 3. Accountability to Clientele * The extension agent must justify to the organization whatever action he/she takes and be accountable and responsible to the clientele on whatever advice or information given to them. * The clientele is the one to pass judgment on the success or failure of the extension programs. ### 4. Two-way Process Linkage * Disseminate information and technology to and receive feedback from clientele so that their needs can be better fulfilled. * Learn from the clientele the wealth of their experiences. ### 5. Cooperate with Other Agencies. * Extension is only one aspect of the many economic, social, cultural, and political activities that hope to produce the change for the betterment of the rural masses. * Extension should therefore cooperate and collaborate with both GOs and NGOs to accomplish the above. * Extension can’t be effective on its own as its activities must be interdependent on other related activities. ### 6. Work with Different Target Groups. * Extension clientele is made up of various target groups with different needs, social status, cultural, and economic background. * Extension therefore cannot offer a package of technology for all its clientele due to this heterogeneity. * Therefore there must be targeting of extension, meaning different programs and technology packages for different target groups. ## Purpose of Extension ### 1. Informative Extension * Helps people make well-considered choices among alternatives provided by extension for the individual to achieve his/her goals ### 2. Emancipatory Extension * An instrument to uplift the poor, to achieve societal goals, to correct structural problems. * Paulo Freire calls it 'Pedagogy of the Oppressed' ### 3. Formative Extension or HRD * An instrument for developing, 'forming' an individual or enhancing his/her capabilities to make decisions to learn, to manage, to communicate, to organize, etc. ### 4. Persuasive Extension * A policy instrument to induce preventive behavior with respect to societal concerns such as environmental pollution, health hazards, vandalism, drug addiction, rape, etc. such preventive behavior is in the interest of the society as a whole, or of the future generation. ## Communication in Extension ### What is Communication? **Etymology**: * **Communis**- to make common, or establish commonness between two or more people. * **Communico**- to share. ### Communication * A process by which two people exchange ideas, facts, feelings, or impressions so that each gains a common understanding of the meaning and intent of the message. * A process by which an idea is transferred from a source to a receiver with the purpose of changing his behavior. * The purpose of communication is to produce some kind of effect. ### Communication as Interaction * **Interaction** - the process of reciprocal role-taking, the mutual performance of emphatic behaviors. * If two individuals make inferences about their own roles and take the role of the other at the same time, and if their communication behavior depends on the reciprocal taking of roles, then they are communicating, by interacting with each other. * **Empathy** - the ability to project ourselves into other people’s personalities. ### Concept of Communication * Communication can be conceptualized in terms of the **S-M-C - R model**. * It’s a process by which a **SOURCE** sends a **MESSAGE** to a **RECEIVER** by means of a **CHANNEL**, to produce a **RESPONSE** in accordance with the intention of the source. ### Basic Communication Process * When an extension worker communicates/talks to his clientele, he is the **sender**, what he says is the **message**, the spoken word is the **channel**, and the clientele being talked to is the **receiver**. * The reaction of the clientele to what the extension worker says is the **feedback/response**. In the transfer of information, it is necessary that there should be some level of past experience, and some level of similarity and some level of shared meanings between the sender and receiver. ### Participatory Communication * A social process which starts with farmers and, brings together both extension workers and farmers in, a two-way sharing of information. * This highlights the importance of cultural identity, local knowledge and community participation. ### Attributes of Communication as a Process ### 1. Dynamic * Communication has an ever-changing character. * It fluctuates constantly, is never fixed, and has no clear beginnings and endings. ### 2. Systemic * Communication should be recognized as a system that consists of a group of elements which interacts with each other and the system as a whole. ### 3. Interaction Through Symbols * Symbols should arouse in one's self what it arouses in another. * The language or symbol we select, and the way in which we organize them, affect how others will interpret our messages. ### 4. Meaning is Personally Constructed * No two people construct the same meaning, even if they hear or see the same thing. Interpretation is bounded by our experiences, thoughts, feelings, needs, expectations, self-concept, knowledge, etc. * Each of us is unique so we interpret in unique ways. ### Field of Experience * The sum total of an individual's experiences which influences his/her ability to communicate. * Communication can take place between people only to the extent that they share a common field of experience, or similar experiences. ### Basic Elements of Communication ### 1. Source * An extension worker should have credibility, as this determines the acceptance or rejection of an idea by the person or group with whom he communicates; adequate knowledge of his guidance, his message, and the effective channels to use; genuine interest in the welfare of his audience careful preparation of his message, via use of language that intended receivers understand, to ensure successful reception; clear way of speaking; the establishment of mental understanding between teacher and learner; and awareness of time limits. ### Characteristics of the Source * **Homophily**: It refers to the degree to which a receiver perceives the source as similar to him or her, in certain attributes such as age, sex, language, regional background, beliefs, values, etc. Homophily of the source and receiver in certain attributes contributes to effective communication. * **Credibility**: Credibility refers to a receiver’s perception of the believability of the source in a particular situation. Credibility is high or low according to the degree to which a source is considered by the receiver as believable in a given situation based on four dimensions. ### Dimensions of Credibility * **Character**: When a source is perceived as honest, trustworthy, friendly, reliable, peasant, warm, etc. his or her credibility is based on the character dimension. * **Competence**: When a source is perceived as well-trained, competent, intelligent, experienced, witty, bright, etc. his or her credibility is based on the competency dimension. * **Composure**: When a source is perceived in terms of self-confidence poise, dignity, level-headedness, etc., his or her credibility is based on the. composure dimension. * **Dynamism**: When a receiver rates a source in terms of being bold, aggressive, extrovert, etc., his or her credibility is based on the dynamism dimension. ### 2. Message * The message should contain the purpose or the specific outcome desired from the message, whether it be change in behavior, change in knowledge, skills, and attitude on the part of the learner. * The treatment of the message refers to the manner the message is presented: in understandable, logically organized, interesting, and in conformity with acceptable standards. * A set of symbols arranged deliberately in certain ways in order to communicate information or meaning. ### Message Factors * **Code**: Symbols used in communicating; both sender and receiver should understand in order to communicate. * **Content**: The idea or substance selected to express the purpose of the source for communicating. * **Treatment**: The manner by which the materials are arranged in order to be meaningful to the receiver. ### Categories of Non-verbal Communication * **Physical**: The personal type of communication. Includes facial expressions, tone of voice, sense of touch, sense of smell, and body motions. * **Aesthetic**: The type of communication that takes place through creative expressions: playing instrumental music, dancing, painting, and sculpting. * **Signs**: The mechanical type of communication, which includes the use of signal flags, the 21-gun salute, horns, and sirens. * **Symbolic**: The type of communication, that makes use of religious, status, or ego-building symbols. ### Message Meaning & Understanding * **Meanings are in people**. * **Meanings are never fixed**. As experience changes, meaning changes. * **No two people can have exactly the same meanings** to the extent that they have the same experiences. * **Denotative, or referential meaning** – the relationship between a word-sign and an object or the sign-object relationship. * **Connotative meaning** – the meaning associated with the personal experiences of the person using the word. ### 3. Channels * Refer to the various methods available, to any communicator to reach his audience with the message. They may be classified as visual, spoken, or written, or a combination of two or three channels The techniques in using these methods determine the success or failure of the communication process. ### Dimensions of Channels * **Mode of encoding or decoding**, so that a message can be seen, heard, touched or felt, smelled, tasted. * **Message vehicles**: in the form of: * Interpersonal channels. * Mediated channels. * Mass media channels. * Folk Media channels ### Interpersonal Channels * **"Gatekeeper"** – someone who controls, the flow of information. * **Decides what information to transmit**, and to whom he will transmit it. ### Evaluating the Content * **Evaluates the content to determine its relevance**, and value to the potential receivers. * **Has the power to delete, alter the flow, add, subtract, or distort the message**. ### "Opinion-Leader" * A person who is approached by others for advice on certain matters *perceived as credible, influential, authoritative, in the community.* ### 4. Receiver * **The audience in extension education is composed of farmers, homemakers, and youth**. As receivers of, the message whose behaviors the extension worker expects, to change, differ in intelligence, beliefs, experience, and social standing in many other ways. These individual differences in people may result in, different interpretations of the message, in kind and in extent. ### Receiver Characteristics * **Psychological orientation**: Psychological factors, that are salient to a receiver’s persuasibility: * Selective exposure. * Selective perception. * Selective remembering. * Selective acceptance. ### Selective Processes * **Selective Exposure**: Receivers tend to expose her/himself only to information, that agrees with or supports his/her existing behavior. * **Selective Perception**: Receivers tend to “notice" or assign meaning only, to messages that: * Serve some immediate purpose. * Reinforce his or her mood. * Fits his/her cognitive structure. * Are meaningful for him/her. * **Selective Retention**: Receivers tend to learn or remember only information that supports or agrees with his/her attitude, beliefs, behaviors. * **Selective Discussion**: Receivers tend to discuss only those information which might be, of interest to them, and to their listeners. ### 5. Feedback * Information that is sent or fed back, by the receiver intentionally or unintentionally to the source * This is an important element of effective communication, which makes it a two-way process. If a farmer is viewed as the receiver, then he must be given the opportunity to function as the, sender with the extension worker, as receiver. In the absence of any reaction from the farmer, it is virtually impossible to gauge the appropriateness of the message content, or channel in, the implementation of an information campaign. * **Feedback serves as a corrective, function by preventing communication breakdown**. Feedback helps determine whether, or not a message was perceived as intended. If not, adaptations, modifications can be made. ### Type of Response * **Cognitive Effect**: Knowledge, awareness, thought and skills. * **Neutralization**: Shifting of an existing attitude, to the neutral zone. * **Boomerang Effect**: A shift opposite, to that direction that is intended. * **Conservation**: Maintenance of existing attitude. * **Attitude reinforcement or strengthening**, of existing attitude. * **Shift to the opposite sign**, from (+) to (-), and vice versa. ### Barriers to Effective Communication * **Perception**: "People interpret, or see things differently." * **Language**: “Jargon” * **Semantics**: "Watch that word meanings!" * **Inflections**: "The emphasis, is where?” * **Personal interests**: "I, me, and myself" * **Emotions**: "Watch out, for the red flag…” * **Pre-conceived notions**: "I thought you meant..." * **Attention**: "Physically present, mentally absent?" * **Wordiness**: "What is it, that you want to say?” * **Inferences**: "I thought you said…" ## Communication Models ### Berlo’s Model * This model represents, communication process that occurs as a source drafts messages based on one’s communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, and social and cultural system. These MESSAGES are transmitted along CHANNELS, which can include sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. A RECEIVER interprets messages based on the individual's communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, and social and cultural system. The limitations of the model, are its lack of feedback. ### Laswell’s Model * A macroscopic theory, that are concerned with media’s impact on culture and society - for example, cultural studies theory. * Theories of, mass communication have, always focused on the "cause and effects" notion, i.e. the effects of the media and the process leading to, those effects, on the audience's mind. * Harold Lasswell has, succinctly expressed this idea. Lasswell's essential question, is timeless (1949): “Who says what, in what channel to whom, with what effects?” ### Shannon and Weaver's Model * This model known after, them as the Shannon-Weaver Model. It involved breaking down an information system into sub-systems so as to, evaluate the efficiency of various communication channels, and codes. They propose that all communication must include, six elements: Source, Encoder, Channel, Message, Decoder, and Receiver. * This model is often referred to, as an "information model" of communication. A drawback is that, the model looks at communication as a, one-way process. That is remedied by the addition of, the feedback loop. Noise Indicates those factors, that disturb or otherwise influence, messages as they are being transmitted. ### Osgood and Schramm’s Model * This model emphasizes the circular nature of communication The participants swap, between the roles of source/encoder and receiver/decoder * Wilbur Schramm stated: “In fact, it is misleading to think of the communication process as starting somewhere and ending somewhere. It is really endless. We are little switchboard centers handling and rerouting the great endless current of information…” ## Extension Approach **Approach Method Technique** ### Definitions ### 1. Approach * An approach embraces the entire spectrum of the process. It states a point of view, a philosophy, an article of faith (Garcia 1989). Within an approach, there can be several methods. ### 2. Method * It is procedural, consisting of a series of actions arranged logically for the smooth flow of operation. * It is the procedure, or step by step, guiding prospective clients. ### 3. Technique * It is a particular trick, strategy, individual artistry of the teachers/EW. ### An Extension Approach * Is an organized, and coherent combination of strategies, and methods, designed to make rural extension effective in a certain area, designed to make rural extension effective in a certain area. * It embodies the philosophy of a system. * It spells, the doctrine of the system. * It’s style of action, which by and large, determines the direction and nature/style of the various aspects of, the system (e.g. structure, leadership, program, methods, resources, and linkages). ### Strategies * Are approaches and method, chosen or develop to reach a particular set of goals; used to define the operational design by means of which the national government, or other sponsoring organizations, implements its policies. ## Different Extension Approaches ### 1. General Agricultural Extension Approach (GAE) * **General Nature**: Transfer of Technology (TOT). * **Basic Assumption**: Technology and information are available, but are not being used by the farmers. If these could be communicated to farmers, farm practices would be improved. * **Purpose**: To help farmers increase their production. * **Program Planning**: Controlled by the government. Changes in priority, from time to time, are made on a national basis with, some freedom for local adaptation. * **Implementation**: Carried by, a large field staff assigned throughout the country. Demonstration plots are major techniques. * **Advantages**: Interpret national government policies and procedures, to the local people; covers the whole nation; relatively rapid communication from the ministry level to, rural people. * **Disadvantages**: Lacks two-way flow of communication. Fails to adjust extension messages to different localities. Field staff not accountable to rural people. Expensive and inefficient. * **Measure of Success**: Increase in national production of, the commodities being emphasized in the national program. ### 2. Commodity Specialized Approach (CSA) * **General Nature**: Highly specialized. * **Focuses on one export crop**, or one aspect of farming. * **Basic Assumption**: The way to increase productivity and production of, a particular commodity is to, concentrate on that one grouping extension with, such other functions, as research, input supply, output marketing, credit; and sometimes price control, will make the whole system productive. * **Purpose**: Increase production of, a particular commodity. Sometimes to, increase utilization of, a particular, agricultural input. * **Program Planning**: Controlled by the commodity organization. * **Implementation**: Carried by a large, field staff assigned, throughout the country. Demonstration plots are major techniques. * **Advantages**: Technology tends to, "fit" the production problems, and so extension messages tend, to be appropriate because, of coordination with research, and marketing people; messages tend to be, delivered in a timely manner. Focus on a narrow range, of technical concerns. Higher salary incentives. Closer management and supervision. Fewer farmers per extension worker. Easier to monitor and evaluate. Relatively more cost effective. * **Disadvantages**: Interests of farmers may have less priority than, those of the commodity organization. Does not provide advisory service to other aspects, of farming. * **Commodity organization maybe promoting its, commodity even in situations, where it is no longer in the national interest, to be increasing production of, that particular commodity.** * **Measure of Success:** Increase in yield, and total production of the crops, being emphasized. ### 3. The Project Approach (PA) * **General Nature**: Fixed period of time, large funding. * **Basic Assumption**: Better results can be achieved in a particular location, during a specified time period, with large infusion of outside resources, high impact activities, carried out under artificial circumstances, will have some continuity after outside financial support is no longer available. * **Purpose**: To demonstrate, within project area, what can be accomplished on a relatively short period of time. To test the validity of alternative extension methods. * **Program Planning**: Controlled by outsiders, with central government, the donor agency, or some combination. * **Implementation**: Flow of good ideas, from the project, to areas outside the project. Includes a project management staff, project allowances for field staff, better transportation, facilities, equipment and housing than regular government programs. * **Advantages**: Focus enables evaluation, of effectiveness, and sometimes “quick results” for, a foreign donor. Novel techniques and methods can be treated and experimented, with within the limits of, the project. * **Disadvantages**: Usually too short time period. Money provided tends to be, more than what is appropriate. Double standards. When money ends, project extension programs most often end also. * **Measure of Success**: Increase in yield, and total production of the crops, being emphasized. ### 4. The Farming Systems Development Approach (FSDA) * **General Nature**: Interdisciplinary approach, i.e., involves several scientific disciplines. * **Basic Assumption**: Technology which fits the needs, of farmers particularly the small farmers is not available, and needs to be generated locally. * **Purpose**: To provide extension persons, and through their farm people; with research results tailored, to meet the needs and interests of local, farming systems conditions. * **Program Planning**: Evolve slowly during the, process for different climatic farm ecosystem types, since program takes into, account a holistic approach to the, plants, animals, and the people in each particular location. * **Control of program shared jointly, by local farm men and women, extension people, and agricultural researchers.** * **Implementation**: Through partnership of, research and extension personnel with the local people, taking, a systems approach, to the farm. Requires research personnel, to go to the farm, listen to farmers and in collaboration, with them, and the extension personnel, understand the farm, as a system. * **Advantages**: Local control of, program planning increases, relevance of program content, and methods to needs and interests, of clientele. Higher adoption rates. Effective communication between, local people and extension personnel. Lower cost to central, government and local people. * **Disadvantages**: Some degree of difficulty, in working in a multi disciplinary team. No quick results, in development of, appropriate technology. * **Measure of Success**: Extent to which, farm people adopt, technologies developed in the program and, continue to use them overtime. ### 5. The Training and Visit Approach (T & V) * **General Nature**: Highly disciplined and patterned with, fixed schedules for training of extension workers, SMSs, and visits by extension workers, to farmers. * **Basic Assumption**: Extension personnel poorly, trained, not up-to-date and tend not to visit farmers, but, stay in offices. * **Management and supervision, is not adequate.** * **Two-way communication, between research and extension units and between extension staff, and farmers, can be achieved.** * **Purpose**: To induce farmers, to increase production, of specified crops. * **Program Planning**: * Centralized * What to teach and, when to teach, it is decided upon by professionals, and is delivered down, to farmers. * Program planning follows, cropping pattern, of priority crops. * **Implementation**: * Fortnightly training, of village extension workers, (VEW) by SMSS. * Fortnightly visits by, village extension workers, to small groups of farmers or, to individual "contact" farmers. * **Advantages**: * Pressure on governments, to organize, a large number of small agricultural units, into one integrated system. * Brings discipline to the system, village, extension workers become more up-to-date, with information. * Closer technical supervision. * **Disadvantages**: * High long-term costs, to governments due to, expanding size of VEWS. * Lack of actual two-way communication. * Technology relevant to farmers, not integrated. * Lack of flexibility, to change programs as, needs and interests of farmers, change staff, tires of vigorous, patterned activities without appropriate rewards. * **Measure of Success**: Increase in yield, and total production of the crops being emphasized. ### 6. The Cost-Sharing Approach (CSA) * **Basic Assumption**: Any non-formal education program is more likely, to achieve its goals if, those who benefit, from it share some part of the cost. * **Program would more likely**, serve interest of the client if, costs are shared, between "outside" sponsors and "inside" target groups. * **Commitment of learners to, participate if they pay, some part of the costs.** * **Purpose**: To make funding, of agricultural extension,