Actors in World Politics PDF Notes

AWP João Bazelga Actors in World Politics IRO (2021/2022) - Leiden University Block 2 1  AWP...

AWP João Bazelga Actors in World Politics IRO (2021/2022) - Leiden University Block 2 1  AWP João Bazelga The Globalization of World Politics GROWING GLOBALIZATION Dimensions of globalization: - People (migration trends increase); - Capital (enhancement of trade between states); - Politics (emergence of terrorist attacks against states); - Culture ( lm broadcast Internationally); Processes of globalization: - Deterritorialisation (the process trough which geographical territory becomes less of a constraint on social interactions); - Interdependence (the process trough which security and force matter less and countries are connected by multiple social and political relationships - Keohane and Nye); - Time-space compression (the set of processes that cause the relative distances between places, as measured in terms of travel time for example, to contract, e ectively making such places grow “closer” - David Harvey). THEORISING GLOBALIZATION The International Relations approach to Globalization: - The world is divided in domestic/international; - States are the main actors of IR; - Other actors exist but they are neglected; The globalist approach: - World divides are attened; - Undi erentiated investment surface; - Decreased relevance of states; The transnational critique: - Relations develop between states and non-state actors; - States adapt to globalization: transgovernmentalism (Anne-Marie Slaughter); - A problem of conceptualization; - NGOs, migration ows, terrorist groups, etc. change the course of international politics; TRANSNATIONAL APPROACH TO WORLD POLITICS (ROBERT KEOHANE & JOSEPH NYE) In opposition to the realist premise that states are unitary actors in world politics, scholars, such as Joseph Nye and Robert Keohane, see the world as state-centred but believe that transnational 2 ff fi fl fl ff  AWP João Bazelga relations increase the sensitivity of societies to one another and thereby alter relationships between governments. Transnational interactions: movement of tangible or intangible items across state boundaries when at least one actor is not an agent of a government or an intergovernmental organization. E ects on interstate politics: - Attitude changes (face-to-face interactions between citizens of di erent states and the myths, symbols and norms promoted by transnational organisations may alter actor’s perceptions of reality); - International pluralism (linking of transnational structures with the same interests); - Constrains on states trough dependence and interdependence (international transportation and nance in uence states policies); - Increases in the ability of certain governments to in uence others (trough key positions in transnational corporations); - Autonomous actors with private foreign policies that a ect state’s policies (by deliberately opposing to government policies or facilitating good relations between states); According to this approach, world politics can’t be described solely by the relations between states. Instead politics is assessed between actors that consciously employ material and symbolic resources to induce other actors to behave di erently than they would otherwise behave. The state-centric paradigm is inadequate and will progressively become more inadequate in the future. This transnational view of world politics also involves: “Territorial trap”, John Agnew: - States do not have exclusive power (over their territory); - Domestic and foreign realms are not separate, but networked (transnational organizations nd common interests between themselves - Snowden Leakes led other hackers to surveil other political leaders); 3 fi fi ff ff fl fl ff ff  AWP João Bazelga - Boundaries of the state are not the not the boundaries of society; Sovereignty is not absolute, but relational: - Rule existed in other forms throughout history (city-state, monarchies, empires); - Territorial state is a recent invention (19th century); - No strict division domestic/international; - Transnational elite networks/transgovernmentalism; Domestic and foreign realms are not separate, but networked (territorial sovereignty is a myth which means that power operates more trough networks); Identities are not homogenous but multiple and hybrid: - Nationalism is historically determined; - Identities have never entirely t territorial borders; - Globalization has reinforced discrepancy; - Hybridity rather than homogeneity; This model of world politics enriches and strengthen the strong and rich at the expense of the poor; The formation of nation-states FROM THE TRANSNATIONAL TO THE NATIONAL Transnational ows pre-exist the nation-state and have created and shaped it. The nation-state is often a violent project aimed at reducing the world into the “national” and “international”. Nation-state formation is also a project aimed at forgetting the transnational nature of world politics. STATE VS NATION State (Michael Mann): - A set of institutions and their related personnel; - A degree of centrality, with political decisions emanating from this centre point; - A de ned boundary that demarcates the territorial limits of the state; - A monopoly of coercive power and law-making ability; Nation (Anthony Smith): - Named human population sharing an historic territory, common myths and historical memories, a mass, public culture, a common economy and common legal rights and duties for all members; 4 fi fl fi  AWP João Bazelga THE FORMATION OF STATES Communities (groups of people) and (political) institutions existed before the formation of states (agricultural communities, religious groups, aristocracy, etc.). Some of them even entailed a transnational aspect to it (Novelty and aristocracy). Charles Tilly believes that states emerged trough war and the organisation of people and (war) resources for that same common principle, war - Progressive emergence of states. The medium-size state (territorial state) became the good enough option to sustain communities ( nance wars, produce capital) rather then the too small (city-states like San Marine and Singapore) and too big (empires like the Roman Empire). THE SLOW EMERGENCE OF THE NATION-STATE The myth of Westphalia (1648): - IR scholars believe that states emerged though this myth; - The principle of sovereignty (non-interference in other states a airs); - “Cuius Regio Eius Religio”, Whose realm, his religion - Peace of Augsburg (each state decides for itself their religion); De nition of sovereignty: - Domestic sovereignty (actual control over a state exercised by an authority organised with this state, which usually depends on their capabilities); - Interdependence sovereignty (actual control of movement across state’s borders, assuming this borders exist); - International legal sovereignty (formal recognition by other sovereign states); - Westphalian sovereignty (lack of other authority over state other than the domestic authority, like non-domestic church or non-domestic political organisation); The permanence of transnationalism: - Transnational elites (European Royal Family Tree); - European colonial domination (transnational entrepreneurial project which involved coercion from the empires to the colonies); - Circulation of people (even with the growing restrictions to migration); The violent territorialisation of nations: - Territorial homogenisation of nations (state-nations made sure their population ts their identity which lead to cut the transnational ties - the holocaust re ected this idea taken to the extreme); - Growing restrictions in transnational relations (invention of the passport and the di cult identi cation/connection of a person to a state - in Morocco, the king decides whether you are Moroccan or not); - Nationalisation the minds (Turkey bargains this idea that the Armenian genocide didn't exist); 5 fi fi fi ff fl fi ffi AWP João Bazelga METHODOLOGICAL NATIONALISM (NINA GLICK-SCHILLER & ANDREAS WIMMER) Methodological nationalism: naturalisation of the nation-state by the social sciences. Scholars who share this intellectual orientation assume that countries are the natural units for comparative studies, equate society with the nation-state, and con ate national interests with the purposes of social science. Variants of methodological nationalism: Ignoring or disregarding the importance of nationalism; Naturalisation (taking for granted the boundaries of the nation-state that de ne the units of analysis); Territorial limitation (con ning the study of social processes to the territory of the nation- state); Why do the social sciences ignore nationalism? Power of modernisation (Marx, Durkheim, Weber); Division of labour between disciplines; Leading to “naturalisation” (belief in a “container” model of society); PHASES ON NATION BUILDING AND IMMIGRATION (NINA GLICK-SCHILLER & ANDREAS WIMMER) Prewar era - Nation-state building; - Intensive globalization; - Imperialism (superiority and domination of some races); - Emergence of racial notions of “the people” (nationalism and racism); - Long-distance nationalism; - Lack of barriers to migration; - Immigrants seen as politically dangerous (challenged national sovereignty and security); From WW1 to the Cold War - End of the free movement of labour (di erentiation between nationals and foreigners); - More border policing, including their closure (inability to migrate); - WW1 created and exacerbated national sentiment and enhanced racism; - Social Sciences looked at each territorially based state as having its own stable population (contrasting to the marginal migrants); - People were envisioned as each having only one nation-state; The Cold War - Erasure of historical memory of transnationalism; - Decolonisation (growth of nationalism); - Development of welfare capitalism; - Tighter policing of borders and migration (refugees and working migrants); Nowadays perspective of migration 6 fi ff fl fi  AWP João Bazelga - We should recover the history of transnationalism (the history of transnationalism and the history of states formation should be bound together to study world politics); - We should not fall into the opposite idea of thinking that the nation-state is dead; - All theories highlight some aspects and hide others (because they are shaped by the positionally of the theorist/observer); Transnational Communities CONCEPTUALISATION OF DIASPORAS Nowadays, the population of most states doesn’t really represent their territorial boundaries. On that note, in the past two decades under the impact of transnational, global forces, nation- states have not been viewed as the most e ective or legitimate units of collective organization. Which is why it’s important to analyse political and cultural processes as they shape and are shaped by the infranational and transnational others of nation-state. The history of the “diaspora” concept: To spread (origin of the concept); Translation into greek from jewish scholars to nominalise the dispersion of the jews (ethnical and religious identity) caused by: - The 1st destruction of the temple that brought jews to Babylon; - The 2nd temple destruction by romans that marked the end of a moment of jewish autonomy; The Black Atlantic (slavery has dispersed a black diaspora all around the world); The Jewish, Greek and Armenian are the paradigmatic diasporas; The groups that can de ne themselves as diasporas is still a matter of debate; De nition of diaspora: The process of dispersion or spread of any people from their origin homeland; A social group formed as a result of the dispersion from an original homeland that maintains ties across boundaries; Emblems of transnationalism; It’s usually the paradigmatic other of the nation-state and at other times its ally, lobby or precursor (Israel); Are sometimes the source of ideological, nancial, and political support for national movements that aim at a renewal of the homeland (diasporan 7 fi fi fi ff  AWP João Bazelga organisations); Forum for debates about these remapping of global “order”; DIASPORAS AS CHALLENGERS OF THE NATION-STATE Economic challenge - Irish migration: - Huge poverty in Ireland which led to their migration (mainly to the US); - A “liberal” political economy and malthusianism emerged; - Malthusianism (the view that without “moral restraint” the population will increase at a greater rate than its means of subsistence - Thomas Robert Malthus); - Policies of desired emigration (to keep only the wealthy in the state); Population homogeny challenge - the Zionist project / Operation Soloman: - Nationalist and socialist ideologies became popular (“one people for one country”); - The nation-state where there is an homogenous population inside of a certain territory as an envisioned model; - Considered “diasporas” the biggest challenge to this model; - In Operation Solomon (1991), Israel became worried about an Ethiopian population and sent aircrafts to bring jews from all over the world to their country (repatriation of people); Security challenge - the Balkans: - Authoritarian states usually don’t like population from other cultures (they kill or ban this populations); - By de ning outside populations as a danger to national security, states sometimes banalise the right to kill this minorities; - Closed borders and travelling police; DIASPORAS AS RESOURCES FOR THE NATION-STATE Guest workers programs (Turkey and Mexico): - The liberal Welfare state; - Producing transportable labour force; - Producing the “domestic abroad” War and peace (Diasporas and the war in Yugoslavia): - Diasporas can be seen as lobby’s, war makers and peace makers. Diaspora and global nation-states: - Structural factors of change; - A fusion of economic, cultural and political policies; - Re-bordering the state, re-bordering the nation; THE NATION-STATE AND ITS OTHERS (KCHACHIG TOLOLYAN) Transnational communities arc sometimes the paradigmatic Other of the nation-state and at other times its ally, lobby, or even, as in the case of Israel, its precursor. | | 8 fi AWP João Bazelga |—> In the past two decades, the impact of transnational forces showed that nation-states may not always be the most e ective or legitimate units of collective organization (the emergence of the diasporas - Jewish, Greek and Armenian diasporas are the paradigmatic ones); The nation-state is a strong player in IR. However, the homogeneity of the nation-state is no longer possible because there is an alternative cartography of social space dominated by transnationalism. | Progressive emergence of the global/transnational nation-states (governments are not only governing one population within one territory); Transnational Religious Actors THE FAILED SECULARISATION OF WORLD POLITICS Why secularisation of world politics? - The principles of “Westphalia” (religions can be divided trough state’s territories); - Rationalism and modernism (development of modern science, like physics and biology, challenged religious beliefs and became the main sort of knowledge); - The alleged secularisation of the world; The resurgence of religion: - Religion, mainly Islam, is extremely controversial in politics and covered by media; - Religious as a response to globalization (Muslim diasporas in the West); - Religion is remerging in politics (Poland, U.S., India and Brazil); Two conceptualisations of transnational religion: Transnational Religious Actor (any non-governmental actor which claims to represent a speci c religious tradition, with the purpose of organising faith, which has relations with an actor in another state or with an international organisation - Shani); Transnational political actor using religious discourse (any non-governmental actor which pursues objectives related to the organisation of political life (thus not purely aimed at organising faith), which has relations with an actor in another state or with an international organisation - Shani); RELIGIONS AS TRANSNATIONAL “IMAGINED” COMMUNITIES Religions as “imagined communities” (Benedict Anderson) The notion of imagined community; The nation is socially constructed and people are apart of it because they share an imaginary with the other people in their nation (experiences that 9 ff fi AWP João Bazelga connect you symbolically) - watching the same news show, reading the same books, etc., give us a sense of community; Alternative maps of community (relating to religious groups); Religion as the “suspicious” other (became a factor for inclusion and exclusion); Transnational practices of community Religion as a local practice (church in where your religion group meets); Pilgrimages as a binding practice (to nd their religious path); RELIGIONS AS TRANSNATIONAL ACTORS Subverting state sovereignty - Faith subverts the territorial space of a state (catholic church’s all over the world main gure is the pope); - People come together to defend political/philosophical/theological opinions trough religion (liberation theology - Christianise as a form of liberation of the oppressed); Transnationalising state sovereignty - Colonialism and missionaries; - The young nation-states and the fear of Rome’s in uence; - Religion conversion; - The managing of Islam at distance (by countries like Morocco and Turkey); RELIGION, STATES AND TRANSNATIONAL CIVIL SOCIETY (SUSANNE HOEBER RUDOLPH) Secularism: the principle of seeking to conduct human a airs based on secular, naturalistic considerations (separation, freedom and equality in religion). | |—> Failed because religions don't replace the nation-state but provide a pluralistic transnational polity that shapes perceptions and expectations and overlaps the nation-state in complex ways. Explosion of religious formations were caused by… - Print and electronic media; - Increased literacy; - Urbanisation; - The irrigation of the periphery by the metropolis (this ow is now reversed); Religion can be a vehicle for both con ict, when it provides the symbols and languages to justify wars (30 Years War), and peace, by avoiding domestic con ict with the homogenising assimilation and multicultural pluralism that are constraining cultural regimes and the idea that pluralism is an unusual form of existence and not homogeneity; 10 fl fi fl fl fl ff fi AWP João Bazelga Communities (that constitute transnational civil society) may have authority and power, but they don’t claim sovereignty (last paragraph of the text). | |—> Religious authority challenges the monopoly of sovereignty of the states. Transnational Corporations WHAT ARE TRANSNATIONAL CORPORATIONS? Transnational corporations have been seen as a tool for imperialism and the capitalist hegemony of Western countries. Some even argue that this private interests international system is giving this transnational corporations one of the biggest roles in world a airs. Transnational/Multinational corporations: any corporation that is registered and operates in more than one country at a time, has its headquarters in one country and operates wholly or partially owned subsidiaries in one or more other countries. represent 25% of the global GDP THE RECENT RISE OF TNCS Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): an investment in a business by an investor from another country for which the foreign investor has control over the company purchased. | |—> This is growing worldwide, but especially in developing countries: - Policy liberalisation (NAFTA, EU); - Technological change (communication and transportation enhancement); - Increasing competition (bigger push for companies to expand in new parts of the world); International Product Cycle Theory: explains that an innovative product (investment) is produced in a developed country and a few years later a relatively cheaper version of that innovative product is produced in a developing country and sold back to the original country (Apple was the rst company to create a smartphone, but then other companies catch up to them, even countries like China in which the rst ones were manufactured in the rst place) - Vernon; 11 fi fi fi ff AWP João Bazelga Appropriability Theory: corporations prefer to open branches abroad than license or make partnerships with countries abroad because of the fear of theft of their intellectual property and bigger market competition - Caves; TRANSNATIONAL CORPORATIONS AS POLITICAL ACTORS TNCs Stategies: Branch factory syndrome: factories abroad are just implementing (using labour) what has been designed elsewhere and there is no exchange of technology, preventing developing countries economies of growing (Hymer); Politics and Protectionist Barriers (leads TNCs to invest in subsidiaries/branches of the company in countries where this barriers are minimal); Currency instability; Location-speci c advantages (taxes advantages attract corporations); Global competition; Are TNCs the agent of capitalist imperialism? (Lenin) | |—> Imperialism is capitalism at that stage of development at which: - The dominance of monopolies and nance capital is established; - In which the export of capital has acquired pronounced importance; - In which the division of the world among the international trusts has begun; - In which the division of all territories of the globe among the biggest capitalist powers has been completed; Triangular Diplomacy: When we speak on diplomacy in the international system we should also focus on TNCs in uence in this processes (Facebook threat to cut the social media app in Australia pushed back the law against them by the Australian government) - Stopford and Strange; | |—> Corporations can move territory but states cannot (advantage); IMPERIALISM, DEPENDENCY AND DEPENDENT DEVELOPMENT (PETER EVANS) Dependency theory and the distinction between a core, a periphery and a semi-periphery (originated from the development of some dependent countries) has developed due to the increasingly interdependence of economies; | |—> Dependent country: one whose development is conditioned by the development and expansion of another economy; | The relation between countries is based on… | |—> Dependence: a situation in which the rate and direction of accumulation (of wealth) are externally conditioned; | However | |—> The relation is not from nation to nation (not geopolitical), but from center elite to dependent elite (bourgeoisie, agrarian owners) - International product life cycle explains this. 12 fi fi fl  AWP João Bazelga Disarticulation: the center extracts primary resources or exports technology that does not bene t the dependent country (products imported from the center are for the rich elites) mainly because of the capital-intensive technologies needed in modern sectors; | |—>The disarticulation of the periphery causes the exclusion of the periphery’s masses Transnational corporations (“organisational embodiment of international capital”) have political power trough: - Not being simply pro t-making capitalist rms; - Extending alienation across political boundaries; - Reinforcing disarticulation (develop infrastructures that bene t them, keeps knowledge and tech in the center and creates products aimed at dependent elites); The state in the dependent development: | |—> Can provide a way to alleviate the exclusion of masses in dependent countries. |—> Unless the state intervenes, there is no e ective sponsor for peripheral industrialisation; |—> Must deal with TNCs “(internal foreign policy); |—> Must coerce or cajole TNCs; |—> Is repressed to preserve the bene ts of the local bourgeoisie which leads to the disarticulation and exclusion of the masses; Transnational Organized Crime DEFINING TRANSNATIONAL ORGANIZED CRIME Transnational Organised crime: any criminal activity that is conducted in more than one state, planned in one state but perpetuated in another, or committed in one state where there are spill- over e ects into neighbouring jurisdictions (according to United Nations) - “the continuation of business by other means”; | |—> Money laundering; |—> Illicit drug tra cking; |—> Corruption of public o cials; |—> In ltration of legal business; |—> Fraudulent bankruptcy; |—> Insurance fraud; |—> Computer crime; |—> Theft of intellectual property; |—> Illicit tra c in arms; |—> Terrorism; |—> Aircraft hijacking; |—> Piracy; |—> Hijacking on land; |—> Tra cking in persons; |—> Trade in human body parts; |—> Theft of art and cultural objects; |—> Environmental crime; |—> Other illicit smuggling; 13 ff fi ffi ffi ffi fi ffi fi fi ff fi fi  AWP João Bazelga The United Nations O ce on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) is the main organisation to undermine these crimes. Typology of organized criminal structures: - Centralised structure (hierarchical); - Networked structures (di erent types of jobs are given to di erent groups); - Ad-hoc structures (di erent types of jobs are given to di erent groups for a limited time); THE RISE OF TRANSNATIONAL ORGANIZED CRIME Economic and political liberalisation since 1960s, mainly in the West; Democratization since the 1980 and the 1990s, mainly in the East and South; Technological development of communication and transportation; AN ILLICIT UNTERNATIONAL POLITICAL ECONOMY Drugs People Small arms (cartels) (sex exploitation, child tra cking and (tra cking of re arms) forced labour) The trade of this “big three” resembles dependency theory, since some countries (usually the periphery ones) are the producers, others the transporters and others the main clients are mostly core countries. Other illicit activities such as the market of Alcohol and cigarettes, the market of Blood diamonds, the market of Antiques and Money laundering operate in a similar way. SUBVERTING AND MANIPULATING SOVEREIGNTY Sovereignty can be seen in multiple ways (Krasner): | |—> Domestic sovereignty: actual control over a state exercised by an authority organized within | this state; | |—> Interdependence sovereignty: actual control of movement across state’s borders, assuming | the borders exist; | |—> International legal sovereignty: formal recognition by other sovereign states; | |—> Westphalian sovereignty: lack of other authority over state other than the domestic authority ( | 14 ffi fi ffi ff ffi ff ff ff  AWP João Bazelga | whether its true in practice or not, states have a legal recognition and a rule of non-intervention in other state’s a airs; Domestic sovereignty is weakened by: - Criminal justice; - Social Welfare; - Business regulation; - Border control; - Electoral Politics; International sovereignty is taken advantage of by: - Host state (the state where this transnational actors are held, are entitled to deal with them the way they decide); - Transhipment states (stages - like boarders - where drugs, weapons and all other illegal products are passing); - Service states (states that take advantage of these actors trough money laundering - like tax heavens); States are sometimes even taken control by this criminal actors | |—> Captured states (states completely taking over by this criminal organizations - Italy and | Colombia); | |—> State-making as possible, legitimate and successful version of organized crime (Tilly); IS TRANSNATIONAL ORGANIZED CRIME AN IMMINENT THREAT TO THE NATION-STATE? (LOUISE SHELLEY) Factors in the growth of organized crime: - Technology; - Economic boom; - End of the cold war; - Growth of international trade; Pernicious consequences of organized crime: - Civil society and human rights are in danger; - Freedom of the press and individual expression are in danger; - Creation of a vibrant civil society is challenged; - Labor unions; - Prostitution; - Illegal smuggling of individuals; E ects of organized crime in world order: - Detrimental to states in transition to democracy; - Undermines the rule of law and legitimacy of governments; - Undermines politcal stability; - Increases corruption; - Problematic relation to terror organizations; 15 ff ff  AWP João Bazelga - Takes over states (Italy, Colombia); E ects of organized crime on the world economy: - Undermines nancial and trade markets; - Savings of citizens are in danger; E ects of organized crime on society: - Violence, prostitution, drug addiction; - A ects quality of life of citizens; - Creates environmental damage; Combatting transnational organized crime should requires international cooperation, ght against corruption and resort to international organizations. Pirates and private maritime security companies THE HISTORY OF PIRATES, PRIVATEERS AND THE STATE Piracy is directly related to the exchange of goods across the world. Therefore, this type of commerce emerged with trade routes in medieval Europe and the triangle trade between Europe and the Americas. Medieval international law, in Ethan Nadelmann view, was built on the principles of: 1. The regular state of a airs between states is war (“In the absence of the truth, the norm is war”); 2. Unless there is a safe conduct or a treaty, foreigns can be treated without regards to human rights; 3. The high seas are no man’s land; Privateers (mercenaries on high seas in times of peace) - this is lucrative | When a war starts, they start to be called… | |—> Pirates Piracy became an undesirable phenomena for states due to the monopolisation of violence that it creates. | |—> Early 17th century: The alliance against Turkish Corsairs; |—> 17th century: Pirates as “hostis humano generis”; |—> Until mid 19th century: The long end of privateering (caused by the emergence of the steam boat which they were unable to match and the Declaration of Paris that abolishes privateering); 16 ff ff ff fi ff fi  AWP João Bazelga THE RESURGENCE OF PIRACY Features of modern piracy: - International de nition of piracy; - Typology of activities; - Main “hotspots”; - Curent trends; De nition of piracy (UN Convention of the Law and the Sea): A. Any illegal acts of violence or detention, or any act of depredation, committed for private ends by the crew or the passengers of a private ship or a private aircraft, and directed: I. on the high seas, against another ship or aircraft, or against persons or property on board such ship or aircraft; II. against a ship, aircraft, persons or property in a place outside the jurisdiction of any State; B. Any act of voluntary participation in the operation of a ship or of an aircraft with knowledge of facts making it a pirate ship or aircraft; C. Any act inciting or of intentionally facilitating an act described in (a) or (b). Factors of resurgence: Globalization (international exchange and marginalisation of the periphery); Change in maritime business; Di usion of small arms; Environmental factors (drought and chemical/ nuclear waste); Failed state sovereignty; Modern hotspots of piracy Challenges of piracy: Economic costs; Endangering trade relations; Geopolitical and diplomatic challenges; COUNTER-PIRACY SOVEREIGNTY International response to pirate attacks: Reinforcing sovereignty (countries feel the need to do capacity building in countries like Somalia and Kenya); Enforcing neo-imperialism (SHADE, Combined Maritime Forces (CMF) and EU NAVFOR are some international coalitions to ght against piracy); 17 ff fi fi fi  AWP João Bazelga Private Maritime Security Companies (PMSC): are emerging and which creates debate between the advantages and disadvantages that this has in state’s sovereignty and about its impact and sovereignty (that is protected by International law); THE EVOLUTION OF NORMS IN INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY (ETHAN NADELMANN) This article aims to discuss how and why norms that prohibit the involvement of state and non state actors in particular activities have evolved to prohibited regimes and why they have proven more or less successful in suppressing deviant activities. International prohibition regimes emerge for: - To protect the interests of the state and other powerful members of societies; - To deter, suppress and punish undesirable activities; - To provide for order, security, and justice among members of a community; - To give force and symbolic representation to the moral values, beliefs, and prejudices of those who make the laws; Which crimes call for international prohibition regimes (IPR)? | |—>Not cannibalism, human sacri ce, nor rape; |—>Larceny on the high seas; |—>Tra cking; |—>Murder of diplomats | This IPRs aim to minimise safe heavens, standardise cooperation and based on that enforce laws; Evolution of normative structures: - Linked to the emergence of an “international society”; - Not state to state, but “cosmopolitan norms”; - Europe and the United States historically are the dominant countries in the formation of these normative regimes; The ve stages of the global prohibition regimes: 1. Activity is considered normal; 2. Activity is rede ned as a problem by moral entrepreneurs; 3. Regime demands criminalisation of the activity by states trough diplomacy; 4. Criminalisation and police action are deployed (International institutions and conventions are created); 5. The activity is reduced thanks to state intervention and the international level. 18 fi ffi fi fi AWP João Bazelga Transnational Hacktivism HISTORICAL BACKGROUND There has been a progressive end of centralisation of means of communication by states and an enhancement of transnational movements. 1. 1975-1985: Monopolisation of the means of communication/information by nation-states (New World of Information and Communication Order); 2. 1985-1995: Technological devices become interconnected which led NGO’s and other political groups to connect internationally (rise of personal computers); 3. 1995-2005: Internet has become a relevant infrastructure that is used around the world which promoted transnational movements (Wikileaks for instance); DEFINITION OF HACKTIVISM Hacktivism: nonviolent use of illegal or legally ambiguous digital tools in pursuit of political ends (Samuel 2004). HACKTIVISM AS A TRANSNATIONAL SOCIAL MOVEMENT Social movements: episodic, collective interaction among makers of claims and their objects when (a) at least one government is a claimant, an object of claims, or a party to the claims and (b) the claims would, if realised, a ect the interests of at least one of the claimants (Tarrow) | | |—> Transnational social movements: socially mobilised groups with constituent in at least two states, engaged in sustained contentious interaction with power holders in at least one state other than their own, or against an international institution, or a multinational economic actor - The Arab Spring (Tarrow); 19 ff AWP João Bazelga Transnational Social movements are made possible by: Global framing: the use of external symbols to orient local or nation claims (ideological framework); Repertoire of Contention: the set of various protest- related tools and actions available to a movement or related organization in a given time frame; | |—> Conventional (Activism and Online Activism); |—> Transgressive (Civil disobedience and Hacktivism); |—> Violent (Terrorism and Cyberterrorism); Mobilizing structure: a resource which allows contentious acts to be sustained as social movements, and which “bring people together in the eld, shape coalitions, confront opponents, and assure their own future after the exhilaration of the peak of mobilisation has passed” (this structures can be o ine, online or hybrid); Opportunity structures: exogenous favours which limit or empower collective actors (the political environment, that entails the openness of the political system, elite alignment stability, elite allies and state coercive’s power, needs to be ideal); CONTENTION AND INSTITUTIONS IN INTERNATIONAL POLITICS (SYDNEY TARROW) The Westphalian state is in decline and this article tries to nd out what institutions will ll the void left by the retreat of the state. 4 empirical phenomena led IR scholars and social movements theorists to converge: - Grassroots insurgencies (framed their claims globally and seek support from sympathetic international groups and INGOs); - International protest events (coalitions of transnational and national groups); - Transnational activist coalitions against some national states; - The activism of INGOs within and around international institutions and international treaty writing; International Nongovernmental Organisations: organizations that operate independently of government are composed of members from two or more countries, and are organised to advance their members’ international goals and provide services to citizens of other states trough routine transactions with states, private actors and international institutions - Amnesty International; Transnational Activist Network: informal and shifting structures trough which NGO members, social movement activists, government o cials and agents of international institutions can interact and help resource-poor domestic actors to gain leverage in their own societies (not alternatives to social movements or INGOs, they contain them) - Coalition for the International Criminal Court; 20 ffl ffi fi fi fi AWP João Bazelga The main reason for the growth of transnational social movements is the mobilizing e ect of international organizations policies. Globalization does not create directly transnational activism: | |—> networks are rarely transnational; |—> identities are local; |—> national polities are strong; | However | International institutions create transnational reactions, need to legitimise themselves trough transnational civil society, usually by forming a cosmopolitan elite; | And | Transnational activist networks are formed from elites and social movements, in uence domestic politics; International institutions are like a “coral reef” since they are created by states and are the “magnet” for transnational movements to mobilise. | |—> TANs will not emerge from domestic groups but from international organizations and their transnational contestation; Transnational Political Violence DEFINITION OF TERRORISM Terrorism is a phenomenon that is hard to de ne due to the complexity of its manifestations (that sometimes are considered as “freedom ghting”). We can, however, when trying to de ne this concept that is highly controversial between scholars and practitioners, we can take in consideration that: Terrorism is “Premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against non-combatant targets by sub-national groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to in uence an audience” (US Department of State); “Political terrorism is the use, or threat of use, of violence, by an individual or a group, whether acting for or in opposition to established authority, when such action is designed to create extreme anxiety and/or fear inducing e ects in a target group larger than the immediate victims with the purpose of coercing that group into acceding to the political demands of the perpetrators, which means that states can engage in terrorism” (Wardlaw). 21 ff fi fi fl fl fi ff AWP João Bazelga “terrorism is a term without any legal signi cance. It is merely a convenient way of alluding to activities, whether of States or of individuals, widely disapproved of and in which either the methods used are unlawful, or the target protected, or both” (Higgins) FOUR WAVES OF TERRORISM Anarchism (1880s): anarchist movements in Russia and Europe (that expanded to the U.S.) would bring chaos and violence; Decolonization movements (1920s-1960s): groups that aimed to overthrow colonial rulers using violent methods (Israel/Palestine, Algeria and Vietnam for example); The radical left (1960s-1970s): class struggle and support for decolonization led groups to use violence to achieve political revolution; Islamic inspired Movements (1980s): violent groups, previously assisted by the U.S. to ght agains the Soviet Union, declared war to hegemon states like the U.S.; THEORIES OF POLITICAL VIOLENCE Terrorist attacks have a political function. Although some say that terrorist movements come from fanatic and barbaric groups that deserve the most extreme violence in return (they shouldn’t be treated as humans), this groups usually have political purposes for their actions. | | |—>Radicalisation: explains why people become terrorist giving rationality to terrorist groups (contested term); Political violence: the use of physical force to damage a political adversary; | |—> Some argue that we should talk about Clandestine political violence, rather than terrorism. TERRORISM AS A SOCIAL MOVEMENT Violence is political (terrorism is not a separate phenomenon from protest movements and political mobilisation); Violence is a repertoire of contention (it is a mens to obtain political pro ts); Violence is relational (organizations that uses political violence have tried to pursue their goals by other means with state authorities and competing organizations); Terrorism is determined by framing (every terrorist acts are relative to a common feeling); Violence is an emergent phenomenon (violence develops in action and reinforces group cohesion); 22 fi fi fi AWP João Bazelga CASES OF TRANSNATIONAL VIOLENCE Global Frame, National struggle: Brigate Rosse - Global framing: Marxism, anti colonialism - Repertoires: “foco theory”; Targeted attacks; Hostage taking - National mobilizing structures: Communist movement; Student movement - National political opportunity structure (blockage and escalation): “The Historical Compromise”; The Strategy of tension; The emulation of 1976; Isolation from the movement; National Frame, Transnational struggle struggle: KLA - National framing: pan-albanian ethnic nationalism; - Repertoires: Insurgency warfare, Foco theory, Organized crime nancing; - National and Transnational mobilizing structures: Ethnic solidarity; Diasporic solidarity - National and International political opportunity structures (blockage and escalation): End of Cold War; Breakdown of Yugoslavia; Serbian nationalism; Yugoslav army vs KLA; Kosovo Democratic League vs KLA. Global Frame, Transnational Struggle: Al Qaeda - Global framing: A transnational caliphate; Near and far enemy - Repertoires: Insurgency warfare; Bombings; Targeted killings - Transnational mobilizing structures: Recruitment of “foreign ghters” since Afghanistan; Religious and political solidarity; Transnational Financing - Transnational opportunity structures: The Gulf War; International vs local jihad; Competition with the Islamic State (ISIS) GLOBALISATION, TRANSNATIONAL POLITICAL MOBILISATION AND NETWORKS OF VIOLENCE (FIONA ADAMSON) The main argument of this article is that globalization transforms the international security environment by providing transnational resources for non-state actors; | It aims for: | |—> examination of non-state political entrepreneurs under changing conditions of globalization; |—> exemplify how overall e ects of globalisation are challenging traditional notions of national security; Political and religious organizations can be distinguished on the basis of the grievances they formulate and the tactics they use; Incentives that globalisation o ers to transnational political mobilisation: - Migrant communities are connected by transnational social networks; 23 ff ff fi fi AWP João Bazelga - The opportunities for transnational mobilisation of economic resources via informal networks have greatly increased; - The increased mobility of people and capital in the global economy leads to the mobility of ideas, information and identities; Transnational political violence and transnational political mobilisation should be seen as part of a continuum. Transnational political mobilisation leads to the blurring of internal and external security. Non-violent and violent forms of transnational social movements exists on a continuum. | The international system begins to take on some of the features of domestic political systems across a number of realms, including in the realm of security. | New security strategies of global policing, surveillance and nation-building emerge. | |—> A key policy challenge of the future will therefore be to devise ways to transpose the factors that make for stable domestic political systems to the level of the international system. Transnational Advocacy Networks EMERGENCE OF TRANSNATIONAL ADVOCACY NETWORKS Historical background: 19th century: transnational campaigns against slavery; After WW2: technological transformation and exponential growth of transnational activism; 1960s: notion that the ght against transnational problems doesn’t have to come singularly from the sovereign state, which led to the growth of NGOs; International Non-Governmental Organization (NGO): any international organization not established by intergovernmental agreement; | Fields of activity | |—> Human rights (Amnesty International); |—> Environment (WWF; Green Peace); |—> Development (Norwegian refugee council) |—> International Trade |—> Gender/Women’s Issues |—> Public health and medicine (Doctors without borders); 24 fi AWP João Bazelga |—> Education |—> Hunger & Humanitarian relief; |—> Science & Technology; CATEGORIES OF NGOS National NGOs; International NGOs (INGOs); Government Organized NGOs (GONGOs)/Quasi NGOs (QUANGOs) | |—>created by the state or created by non-state actors but funded entirely by the government, which challenges the independence of the organization from the state; Operational: main goal is doing things (Doctors without borders); Campaigning: main goal is raise awareness around issues global wise (Amnesty International); Advocacy Oriented: explicitly political; Service Oriented: refuse to engage in politics (to focus on their main humanitarian goals); Conformist: do what the governments ask them to do; Reformist: middle ground, disagree with the government but try to nd common ground; Radical: go against the government; | |—> their actions can be classi ed as orderly, obstructive and destructive; TRANSNATIONAL ADVOCACY NETWORKS NGOs, despite being a con guration of di erent individual actors, act commonly to achieve a main goal (their ideas and norms). When we groups that defend common goals and norms we speak on advocacy networks. Transnational Advocacy Network: includes those relevant actors working internationally on an issue, who are bound together by shared, a common discourse, and dense exchanges of information and services (Anti-Apartheid, 1960s-1990s; Anti-Nuclear Movement, since 1960s; Human Rights in Argentina, 1970s-1980s; Boycott, Divest and Sanction Movement in Israel that has an international support, since 2005; Save Darfur, 2004-2010); | | | Network: forms of organisation characterised by voluntary, reciprocal, and horizontal patterns of communication and exchange; 25 fi fi ff fi AWP João Bazelga Boomerang E ect: idea that transnational advocacy networks can indirectly a ect change in a state by leveraging the power of other states (trough international pressure); | |—> NGOs, from stateA, to achieve a certain norm, collaborate/ | connect with NGOs of other states where they put pressure on | their stateB to put pressure on the stateA; | Actors: states, NGOs, Intergovernmental organizations; Dynamics/Tactics: Blockage (stateA), Pressure (between stateA and stateB), Information (between NGOs); Political Entrepreneurs: People, rather then situations, are the ones who a ect change; | Trough | Organisational missions: 1. Sharing information; 2. Attaining greater visibility; 3. Gaining access to wider publics; 4. Multiplying channels of institutional access; HOW DO TRANSNATIONAL ADVOCACY NETWORKS WORK? Persuasion, socialisation, pressure | |—> Cognitive frames: it has a rational reason; | |—> Frame alignment: by rendering events or occurrences meaningful, frames function to organise experience and guide action, whether individual or collective; | |—> Frame resonance: concerns the relationship between a movement organisation’s interpretive work and its ability to in uence broader public understandings; Information politics: trough network binding | |—> Network binding; |—> Intentionally, responsibility, solutions; |—> Credibility and drama; |—> The growing importance of data; Symbolic politics: the ability to call upon symbols, actions or stories that make sense of the situation for an audience that is frequency far away (Keck & Sikkink); 26 ff ff fl ff AWP João Bazelga Leverage politics: the ability to in uence material leverage (in uence their home state to put conditions towards a certain issue while o ering to fund a certain project) and moral leverage (when they threaten governments by norms that they committed to and didn't follow) | | Accountability politics: government commits itself to a principle (in favour of human rights, for example) and then networks can use their command of information to expose the distance between discourse) CONDITIONS OF INFLUENCE Assessing in uence: - Issue creation and agenda setting (are they able to put certain issues on the agenda of other actors); - Discursive positions (does it push states to seize an opportunity to put certain issues in the agenda); - Institutional procedures (are they able to show the goals and campaigns of international organisations and other institutions); - Policy change (are they able to change the policies of other actors); - State behaviour (are they able to change state’s behaviour); Issue characteristics: - Transform a structural to intentional framing (establishing the causal chain); - Create the narrative behind a certain issue (the factors that led to it, the actors responsible, etc..); Actor characteristics: - Identify the actors that are involved; - Characterise the network (density, strength and access to information); - Target actors characteristics ( nd their material and moral vulnerability); ADVOCACY NETWORKS AND INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY (MARGARET KECK AND KATHRYN SIKKINK) The international is a society, but its not a society of states (response to Hedley Bull’s concept of international society); | |—> They agree that the international is a society on common interest and values; |—> They disagree that the main actors of the international sphere is the states; “World Polity”: a theory, developed by John Meyer, John Boli and George Thomas, that posits that the international society is a site of di usion of a “world culture”; | | The authors argue against it 27 fl fi fl ff ff fl  AWP João Bazelga | |—> World polity thesis removes politics, power and con ict - transnational actors have profoundly divergent purposes and goals, and are a space of negotiation; | An understanding of “thresholds” might allow to integrate the two theories (TAN focuses on norm formation while WP focuses on norm di usion); Transnational advocacy networks | Addresses the question of change… | |—> di erent from realism (for them TAN are no motor of change —> they totally disagree); |—> di erent from liberalism (believe that regime type is important for change —> the authors conceives as acts being risk-averse); Status of sovereignty: states remain the main actors in international politics, however, sovereignty is eroded (only in delimited circumstances); | |—> positive for the north: because less sovereignty leads to less abuses; |—> problematic for the south: sovereignty is also a feature of self-determination; “Enjoy Poverty” - Film analysis Renzo Martens (artist) is the director of the movie; The lm showcases the contrast between the tough reality of the global south where people spend their days working to self-sustain themselves with the global north that lives a completely di erent life and is ignorant about the real struggles of the other part (watches pictures of them in art galleries). Workers (for companies) in the global south don’t have enough money to feed their children (and see them dying); The company owner (probably western) reduces the struggles that these workers have to a mere statistic. Photographers pro t out of some sort of appropriation of the vulnerable (struggles) trough photographing this reality and selling in the global north. Important question: To whom belongs poverty? Poverty is also a resource. Global north corporations come to the global south and exploit the global south workers, displaces them and, after creating these unbalanced/dependency economic relationship, uses aid as a cleaning of conscious. Renzo Martens (main character): embodies/symbolises the global north; 28 ff fi ff ff fi ff fl AWP João Bazelga It’s also about the ethics that are integrated in the relationships of exploitation. WHAT IS THE FILM ABOUT? Modern imperialism: poverty (in Congo) and the possibility of treating it as a resource and their inability to do so; White saviorism: because you come for richer parts of the world, you have the ability to save poorer nations; We are made aware of the horrible conditions of the workers. And this is all portrayed trough an art gallery where we are paying to watch the beauty of the photographies that uncover the exploitation happening in the company. When the Congo guys tried to do the same, UN soldiers said its horrible to pro t with poverty (hypocrisy). WHICH ARE THE TRANSNATIONAL ACTORS OR TRANSNATIONAL ASPECTS OF THE FILM? -Multinational corporations (Ashanti gold); -NGOs (Doctors without borders); -Militia (that the UN blue helmets try to dismantle by producing fear with their resources); -Political movements; -Journalist; -UN “blue helmet” soldiers, in Eastern Congo; 29 fi