Chicago Fire Department Aerial Ladder Placement PDF

Chicago Fire Department Division of Training AERIAL LADDER PLACEMENT All firefighters assigned to a truck company must be educated and trained in all aspects of positioning the...

Chicago Fire Department Division of Training AERIAL LADDER PLACEMENT All firefighters assigned to a truck company must be educated and trained in all aspects of positioning the aerial ladder for rescue, roof top ventilation, and setting up a master stream for defensive operations. In order to be effective and safe, firefighters must know the ladder’s limitations, as well as, different techniques that can be used on the fireground. Although this article focuses specifically on aerial ladder capabilities and placement, many of the topics discussed may also apply to tower ladder companies. IMPORTANT FACTS ABOUT THE AERIAL LADDER Chicago Fire Department aerial ladders are constructed as a truss and are designed to have the tip UNSUPPORTED, with the base rails (or bottom chord) of the ladder in compression and the handrail (or top chord) in tension. Resting the top fly section of a truss aerial on the building applies a reverse load to the truss system. These aerials are simply not designed to withstand this type of reverse loading, and supporting the tip on an object (coping or roof top) may weaken the aerial ladder. The trussed aerial is stronger when it is unsupported. When extending the trussed aerial ladder to the building, the base rails of the fly section should be about 6 to 10 inches off the object. Avoid having the base rails of the aerial ladder too close to the building. The weight of firefighters climbing up the ladder can cause the aerial to bounce on and off the edge of the building. This also prevents the ladder from 6” TO 10” OFF knocking a weakened coping or parapet wall OF THE OBJECT onto the firefighters below. Do not rest either rail on the edge of a peak. This action places a torsional stress on the aerial and is one of the leading causes of aerial ladder failure. ONE RAIL RESTED ON THE RIDGE CREATES A TORISIONAL STRESS LOAD ON THE LADDER ACADEMY NOTES – SPRING 2004 11 Try not to place your apparatus on a steep slope and work the aerial ladder to the side of the apparatus. This places enormous amounts of tensional stress on the aerial ladder itself. The safest position for the aerial ladder on an uphill or downhill slope is directly over the cab or rear of the apparatus. The optimum angle for safely climbing up and down the aerial ladder is approximately 70°. The lowest working angle attempted should not exceed 30°. Understandably, this may not always be achieved on the fireground, but whenever possible, avoid excessive horizontal and vertical ladder angles. Always position the aerial before allowing members climb it. Never allow anyone on the aerial while it is in motion. Arms and legs caught between moving ladder sections will be seriously mangled or severed. This unsafe practice has caused serious injury. Also, prior to rotating the turntable, make sure all members and equipment are clear. The aerial ladder tip is never to be used as a ram to remove windows or create openings for ventilation. The ladder is not designed to withstand this type of compression force and the ladder will be damaged. PLACING THE OUTRIGGERS Ladder companies often face narrow streets with vehicles parked on both sides of the street. This is where you may need to short jack. The operator must be familiar with this technique due to the fact improper procedure could cause serious injury and property damage. The driver, with the help of the other member going to the roof, should place the apparatus on the side of the street away from the fire building. Fully deploy the outriggers on the fire building side of the apparatus. This is the side over which the aerial will be used; the outriggers must be completely extended for aerial stability. The short-jacked side is the side of the street opposite the fire building or the nonfire side. Deploy the outriggers out as far as you can. To gain further outrigger FIRE SIDE - MUST BE NON - FIRE SIDE extension, other truck members can assist in FULLY EXTENDED SHORT JACKED placing outriggers between parked cars or on driveway aprons. Because the weight of aerial apparatus has increased over the years, whenever possible, place the outriggers on concrete or asphalt. Avoid placing the outriggers on drains, utility vault covers or vaulted sidewalks. Ensure to use the apparatus jack pads for operating on any problem surfaces, such as soft dirt, grass, mud, ice, and snow. 12 ACADEMY NOTES – SPRING 2004 POSITIONING FOR DEFENSIVE OPERATIONS Collapse Zone At fires where you might employ defensive Safe Area (1 ½ times the Safe Area tactics, position the truck outside the height of wall) collapse zone— 11/2 times the height of the building. The corners of the building will ensure the apparatus a safe and Collapse Collapse effective spot from building collapse and a Zone (1 ½ Zone (1 ½ scrub area of two sides. For fires where times the Fire Building times the height of the height of the the aerial pipe is going to be used, back the wall) wall) apparatus in to the safe area or the corner of the building. This allows for the longest reach of the ladder, availability to (Scrub Area) two sectors, and the best stability. Collapse Zone (1 ½ times the Safe Area Safe Area height of the wall) POSITIONING FOR RESCUE Rescue is the truck company’s first priority. Placing the truck in the correct position requires spotting the rig and the turntable correctly the first time. In an extreme rescue situation, you may not get another chance at saving a civilian or fellow firefighter. RESCUING A SINGLE VICTIM One of the common spotting problems today with our rear-mounted aerial ladders is that drivers commonly spot the placement of the aerial by sight from the cab. The driver must calculate the base of the aerial is 20 feet behind the cab. If a victim needs to be rescued from a window by aerial ladder, line the turntable up with the window so that the aerial ladder is perpendicular to the building. Raise the ladder and extend it above the window where the victim is, then lower it to the windowsill. Remember, the ladder tip does not need to be supported on the sill. This technique lessens the chances that the victim will panic and jump for the tip of the aerial before you have it in place. This technique takes some practice, so be sure to drill on it, particularly for upper stories. ACADEMY NOTES – SPRING 2004 13 RESCUING MULTIPLE VICTIMS If there are multiple victims, line the turntable up with the victim who is in the most danger and rescue him first. Once the victim and the firefighters are safely off the aerial ladder, reposition the aerial to rescue other victims. In some situations where there are multiple victims, you may not be able to line up the ladder with any victim because of the fire building's size and shape or apparatus placement/access difficulties. In such cases, try to place the aerial apparatus between the victims you can see and rescue the victim who is in the most danger first. When rescues need to be performed from courtyard buildings, placing the turntable in line Courtyard Building with the courtyard allows access to the throat area and coverage of many sides of the building. Because of the size of the courtyard, obstructions, and the depth of the building, ground ladders may be the best option. ADDITIONAL NOTES If you are the second truck and there are multiple rescues to be made in a larger corner building, be prepared to spot the rig in a position to use the aerial to assist with rescue, roof top ventilation and as a second means of egress for the roof team. The closer the turntable is to the building, the more floors you can reach. This comes into play mostly at high-rise building operations. Preplan the buildings in your district, and find out the answer to this important question ahead of time. ACADEMY NOTES – SPRING 2004 14 ROOF TOP VENTILATION Before placing the aerial for rooftop ventilation purposes, read the building for fire. Place the aerial in a safe portion of the roof; far enough away from the fire so it is over a strong part of the roof. By placing the aerial over a strong portion of the roof, the ventilation team can sound the roof from the strong area of the roof to the weaker area of the roof (over or near the fire). Then they can cut their ventilation hole. FLAT- ROOF OPERATIONS The apparatus should be positioned at the corner of the building. This increases the scrub area to two sectors and the roof. By placing the ladder over the corner of the building enables personnel to descend to the strongest part of the roof. There are also fewer windows at the corners of buildings, reducing the hazard of fire venting out the window and exposing firefighters on the aerial ladder. Ladder operators should attempt to ladder the wall where the distance from the top of the coping to the roof is not too great. To determine the distance from the top of the coping wall to the roof (when viewed from the ground) the following can assist in determining the approximate distance: To determine the height of the coping, look at the distance between the scupper and the top of the wall. Roofline Scupper ACADEMY NOTES – SPRING 2004 15 To determine the height of the coping, look at the distance between the vents for the cockloft and the top of the wall. Roofline Roof Vent To determine the height of the coping, look at the distance between the top floor windows to the top of the parapet wall. The greater the distance the greater the possibility of a high parapet wall. Roofline Look for machinery or vent pipes on the roof. If they can be seen from the turntable, the roof is just below the parapet wall. Never place the ladder on the coping. Copings may be in bad shape causing them to crumble on the firefighters below. The ladder should be at least 6 inches above a coping. Extend the ladder at least 5 rungs over the coping allowing for easy access off the ladder and this also allows the ladder to be easily seen in times of emergency. ACADEMY NOTES – SPRING 2004 16 PEAKED ROOF OPERATIONS Whenever possible, use the aerial ladder to access peaked roofs for ventilation. The aerial ladder is the strongest and most maneuverable ladder you have at your disposal and may allow you to not have to use a roof ladder. When approaching a peaked roof with the aerial for ventilation, recognize that the valleys and the peaks are the two strongest parts of the roof and the last to fail. Place the aerial ladder at an angle to the ridgepole with 5 rungs hanging over it. This allows for easier access off the ladder by allowing the firefighter to have his center of gravity over the ridge so it can be easily straddled. Just as with flat roofs, ladder the strong part of the roof (away from the fire), and work from the weak part of the roof (where the fire is) back to the strong, where the ladder is. DRILL WITH THE APPARATUS The aerial ladder is an excellent fireground tool for rescue, ventilation, and master stream capabilities. Every member should be familiar with spotting the apparatus safely and correctly. The key to safe and effective aerial ladder operations is hands-on training. Drill frequently on all aspects of aerial ladder operations. Have all members spot the apparatus at different buildings in your district for vertical ventilation. Have them operate the ladder from the turntable and spot it to buildings. Practice climbing the aerial to the roof and talk about ventilation tactics. Stop at different buildings in your still district and discuss spotting the apparatus for rescues. Become familiar with recognizing the obstructions and hazards to aerial operations such as power lines and large trees. Engine companies, truck companies, and chief officers, should train together with apparatus placement in mind. The first-in companies need to evaluate the fire scene for optimal aerial apparatus placement. The front of the fire building should be left for the aerial, unless tactical considerations dictate otherwise. Become an expert at your job. ACADEMY NOTES – SPRING 2004 17  Chicago Fire Department Division of Training BOWSTRING TRUSS ROOFS Most of us in the fire service are familiar with “truss roof” buildings and the devastating results that accompany them on the fire ground. Yet we continue to lose firefighters in these buildings. This article will focus on bowstring truss roofs. Hopefully, it will help us to be more alert for these structures and give us tips for working safely when we do encounter them. The truss roof thought to be the most easily identifiable is a bowstring truss. (Figure 1). Figure 1. A bowstring truss is the most common type of truss roof design found today. This type of truss consists of wood members assembled into a triangular pattern (top chord, bottom chord, & web members). This triangulation is what makes a truss a rigid structural unit. The truss presents several dangers to firefighters. It suffers early collapse during a fire because its exposed surface area is greater than the exposed surface area of a solid beam spanning the same distance. Also, there are a greater number of connections in a truss, and if any one fails during a fire it can trigger the entire truss to collapse. This can also cause the subsequent collapse of the masonry walls. Bowstring truss roofs are most often found in older industrial buildings. These occupancies include garages, lumberyards, manufacturing, storage, auto repair, super markets, and bowling alleys to name a few. Most textbooks and “so-called experts” state that this type of truss roof can easily be identified by arriving firefighters because of the ACADEMY NOTES – DECMEBER 2000 19 hump or curve of the roof. This is not always true. The front parapet wall will often conceal the roof shape from arriving firefighters. (Figure 2). Those firefighters ascending to the roof might be the first to recognize the presence of a truss. During a fire, early identification of a truss is key to safe operations. Any firefighter who discovers any type of truss construction in a building must immediately notify the Incident Commander of this information. You sho uld not assume that the chief officers or others are aware of the truss, no matter how obvious it may appear. Figure 2. - A side view of a building with a bowstring truss where the parapet wall conceals the shape. REAR PARAPET FRONT PARAPET WALL WALL Truss construction is the most dangerous roof system that we as firefighters will encounter. When we enter a burning room or area and are able to walk upright (not forced to crawl or crouch because the heat has banked down from the ceiling) we might assume the fire we are searching for is small. This assumption can be a deadly error in judgement in a building with a bowstring truss roof or high ceiling. The large space on the underside of the bowstring truss roof acts as a “heat sink”- that is, it allows the flow of large amounts of heat and smoke upward from the fire floor below. This upward flow delays the build- up of heat and smoke at the floor or shoulder level - which we normally use to sense a fire’s severity and intensity. (Figure 3). ACADEMY NOTES – DECMEBER 2000 20  Figure 3. If we arrive at a fire in an enclosed building with a flat ceiling that has burned for some time, the heat and smoke will accumulate inside and bank down to the floor. If the fire is intense enough it will prevent us from moving more than several feet beyond the buildings front door without water. If this same serious fire occurs in a building with a bowstring truss roof it could allow firefighters to enter the building, walk upright to the rear of the building while searching for the seat of the fire, and become trapped under a collapsing truss roof. A typical fire inside a structure with a bowstring truss roof which does not have a ceiling may originate at floor level. As the fire grows in size, flames will extend upward, igniting the timber trusses and the underside of the roof decking. Heat and smoke will travel along the curved under side of the roof, pass through the open webbing of several trusses, and stratify at the highest point of the curved roof some distance away from the original fire. A secondary fire at this point, hidden by smoke, may feed on the roof deck. It may burn undetected by firefighters extinguishing the original fire at floor level below. The absence of a ceiling can greatly assist firefighters. It allows identification of the trusses from inside the structure and may allow a “quick peak” to see if the fire has extended to the trusses. A truss roof concealed by a ceiling is much more dangerous to firefighters. The ceiling can conceal a tremendous fire load and a fire large enough to cause the collapse of the trusses with little or minor smoke showing at floor level. ACADEMY NOTES – DECMEBER 2000 21  In a building 100 x 100 with truss sections 20 feet on center, one truss failure will collapse a 4000 square foot section of roof (a 40 x 100 foot area). If for some reason you find yourself on the roof or inside this building, the direction at which you travel away from a failing truss can increase your chances for survival. If on the roof, you travel 20 feet in a direction perpendicular to the failing truss and reach the adjoining truss, you may be temporarily safe (Figure 4). If you decide to head to the nearest parapet or outside wall, you can travel 50 feet and still go down with the collapsing roof. The same principal applies to firefighters inside the building trying to escape the path of the falling truss. Figure 4. ACADEMY NOTES – DECMEBER 2000 22  *NOTE* Experienced chief officers who have directed fire ground operations in buildings with bowstring truss roofs tell of receiving conflicting reports from those firefighters operating above and below the fire. The firefighters on the roof state that the smoke is “heavy” and “really pushing” or that the fire is already venting from a natural opening or a section of the roof itself. The firefighters inside the building state that the fire is small and they can “get it” if you give them a little more time. The chiefs who have operated at such fires successfully are guided by the report from the roof, and they withdraw the firefighters working on the roof and inside the building immediately! ACADEMY NOTES – DECMEBER 2000 23  Academy Notes Spring 2008 BUILDING HAZARDS Flexible gas lines are currently being used by the building industry in wall and ceiling cavities as a means of supplying and distributing natural gas throughout newly constructed and renovated buildings. Historically, only a limited length of flexible gas line was allowed to make an appliance connection between the gas outlet at the face of the interior wall and the appliance. Now flexible gas lines are allowed to run inside of any concealed space throughout a building. This creates a potentailly unnoticable and extremly hazardous condition for firefighters. The accompanying photos illustrate that there is no visible way to identify these installations from the building’s exterior or at the individual appliance connections. However, the main supply line must enter a manifold where it splits to supply individual appliances (See photo 4, page 21). This manifold is normally visible. The manifold is usually located in a utility room, furnace room, or the closet containing the furnace. In a single family home there may be only one manifold, whereas, in a multi-unit residential building there is a manifold at the supply line to each individual unit. A flexible gas line installation can be identified or confirmed at these manifold locations. If the presence of concealed flexible gas piping is discovered, communicate its presence to all companies on the fireground so they are aware of the potential hazard. Flexible gas lines can easily be compromised by power tools or hand tools when opening up concealed spaces during fire attack, salvage or overhaul operations. For this reason, the gas to the building should be shut off as early in the fire attack as possible. Flexible gas lines can pose additional risks when there is an interior gas leak in a structure. Natural gas leaking from an appliance could migrate directly into the truss or other void spaces through the drywall collar located above the distribution manifold (See photos 7 and 8, page 22). When gas leaks are suspected firefighters may need to poke inspection holes into the void spaces to take meter readings in these concealed spaces. In the event that a confirmed leak is discovered, additional holes in the concealed spaces may be required to adequately ventilate the affected areas. Academy Notes – Fire Suppression and Rescue 19 Spring 2008 Gas piping visible on the exterior of the building at the meter bank location will not give an indication that flexible gas line has been used on the interior of the building. Photo 1 shows the gas piping at an exterior gas meter bank prior to the installation of the actual meters. Photo 1 Photo 2 shows that the connection on the left is already stressed due to the angle of the piping. A standard black pipe elbow and long nipple are used to make the turn into the exterior wall cavity. Photo 2 Individual lines run wild throughout the floor trusses and Bottom of stud spaces. They can easily be Truss Chord damaged by axes and pike poles, during overhaul, or when opening up to search for hidden fire. Photo 3 shows a gas line running into a light gauge stud wall top track attached to the bottom chord Light Gauge of a wood floor truss. Stud Wall Top Track Photo 3 Academy Notes – Fire Suppression and Rescue 20 Spring 2008 Main lines run wild through the truss spaces and wall cavities, then enter the furnace closets where they branch off through a manifold to supply individual appliances. Photo 4 illustrates the jagged edges where the main line passes through the metal stud wall holes. Photo 4 Lines to individual appliances exit the wall cavity via a long elbow tack welded to a mounting plate. This plate is then screwed to the metal or wood wall stud. Photo 5 Once the drywall is installed, there will be no visible indication that this is a flexible gas line installation. Photo 6 Academy Notes – Fire Suppression and Rescue 21 Spring 2008 As individual appliance lines enter the truss ceiling space, they appear to be encased in a piece of Schedule 40 PVC pipe that will act as a conduit to protect the lines. Photo 7 However, the PVC pipe is only a sleeve, or drywall collar, that facilitates the line’s passage through the drywall. The lines run in many directions and are unprotected throughout the truss space where they can easily be snagged by a pike pole during overhaul. Photo 8 Academy Notes – Fire Suppression and Rescue 22 Spring 2008 If the interior of the pipe sleeve is not thoroughly sealed, leaking gas will migrate into the truss space. A substantial amount of the ceiling may have to be removed in order to ventilate the truss area. Photo 9 This section of flexible gas line is making contact with the underside of the floor deck as it passes through the truss space. A power saw, or fire axe, will damage or cut through this line with ease. Photo 10 The angle of the flexible gas line at this fitting may compromise the connection and/or stress the metal in the line, potentially causing a leak. This connection may be further compromised as the tapers, painters, and appliance installers work in the restricted space of the appliance closet. The R.J. Quinn Fire Academy Staff and the Office of Research and Development would like to thank B.C. Peter Van Dorpe for his contributions to this article. Photo 11 Academy Notes – Fire Suppression and Rescue 23 Spring 2008  Chicago Fire Department Division of Training CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) EMERGENCIES Ten years ago the City of Chicago adopted an ordinance requiring carbon monoxide detectors, an action that significantly affected the Chicago Fire Department. Our run volume increased dramatically as most citizens ins talled CO detectors in their homes for the first time, and then called the CFD for help when the detectors sounded an alarm. Most of the CO detectors sold at that time were set to alarm at low CO levels, which further contributed to high call volume. The Chicago Fire Department adapted to the dramatic increase in CO emergencies by purchasing CO meters for engine companies and issuing General Order (GO) 95-001 to provide guidelines for handling CO emergencies. Also, three-gas and four-gas meters have been issued to truck and squad companies. More recently, GO 02-001 “Odor/Gas Investigation Response” was issued. Since the CO detector blitz of ten years ago, national regulations for CO detectors have become more reasonable and appropriate. Underwriters Laboratory revised the UL 2034 standard so that detectors do not read CO levels that are less than 35 ppm and they do not sound an alarm until levels reach 70 ppm. Also, NFPA 720 was adopted as a national standard providing guidelines for installation, maintenance, and testing of detectors (every 3 years). With the fall and winter seasons approaching, people will be turning on heaters and CO runs will increase. Here are some tips for finding the source of the carbon monoxide alarm, (these recommendations do not supersede GO 95-001 or GO 02-001): 1. Find out if any occupants are exhibiting symptoms of possible CO poisoning and take appropriate actions (per GO 95-001). 2. Perform outside (fresh air) set-up of your meter. Take an inside reading. With modern construction, inside CO readings may routinely be as high as 15 ppm, higher if there are smokers in the house. Follow guidelines in GO 95-001 for the readings found. 3. Check the detector type (make sure it is a CO detector), location, maintenance, and age to see if it is in compliance with manufactures recommendations. (Most detectors have toll free numbers attached if the manual is not available.) Important: All detectors purchased ten years ago are now invalid due to expired warrantees and regulatory changes. ACADEMY NOTES – OCTOBER 2003 7 4. Find out which appliances have been used in the past 24 hours and if there has been maintenance or lack of maintenance on any of these appliances. 5. Reproduce the environment for the previous 24 hours. Turn on the appliances and take readings as follows: a. Furnace – check for leaks around exhaust flue and chimney; check the air register (vent that distributes heat into house) closest to the furnace. b. Dryer – check for leaks around exhaust flue. c. Hot Water Tank – check around the top of the tank and the exhaust flue. d. Fireplace – check for blockage in the chimney. e. Gas / oil / wood-burning space heaters – check for holes / blockages in the exhaust flue and take a reading at the heating vent. f. Stove – all stoves should be checked with the burners and oven on; stoves with a pilot light should also be checked with burners and oven off. Properly functioning burners burn with a blue flame. An electric oven can produce CO in the self-cleaning mode. Chemicals used for cleaning can cause an alarm. g. Intake vents - vehicles parked outside fresh air intake can produce CO alarms hours after the vehicle has moved. 6. If elevated levels of CO are found make the appropriate notifications / mitigation per GO 95-001. Because carbon monoxide is odorless, colorless, and tasteless, it cannot be detected by body senses. Carbon monoxide can only enter the body through the respiratory system. Inhaled carbon monoxide is absorbed into the blood and then combines with the hemoglobin of the blood to exclude oxygen. Symptoms of exposure include headache, nausea, chronic fatigue, confusion, and dizziness. The harmful effects of CO exposure depend on the concentration of the gas in the air, exposure time, and factors such as age, health, size, and sex. According to OSHA, the maximum allowable concentration for continuous exposure to carbon monoxide in any 8-hour period, Threshold Limit Value-Time Weighted Average (TLV-TWA), is 35 ppm (0.0035%). At 1,200 ppm, carbon monoxide is considered Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health (IDLH). The chart on the next page lists different CO levels and their corresponding effects on the human body, along with flammability properties. ACADEMY NOTES – OCTOBER 2003 8  Concentration Levels and Physiological Effects of Carbon Monoxide Michael Callan  With modifications UNCONSCIOUSNESS & DEATH 1 – 3 MINS. 740,000 Vapor Density.967 PPM 1,000,000 PPM Boiling Point -312 F. DEATH OR 100% Melting Point -340 F. IRREVERSIBLE 128,000 Ignition Temp. 1148 F. DAMAGE PPM 10 - 15 MINS. Molecular Weight 28 12,800 DOT Hazard Class 2.3 PPM DOT UN/NA Number 1016 or 9202 DIZZINESS & HEADACHE NFPA 704 H-3, F-4, I-0, S-Blank 5 – 10 MINS. 74 % UEL DEATH OR IRREVERSIBLE DAMAGE 12.8 % LEL 1 - HOUR 1.2% IDLH 10% LEL 10,000 ppm CHERRY 1% LEL RED SKIN STEL VIOLENT HEADACHE HEADACHE 6400 ppm 1 – 2 HR. 3200 ppm TLV-C REDDISH HEADACHE SKIN 2000 ppm 2 – 3 HR. 1300 ppm TLV-TWA 1200 ppm PEL (OSHA) SCBA 1000 ppm Safe (EPA) 400 ppm 0 ppm 200 ppm 35 ppm 9 ppm Submitted by Hazardous Materials Training ACADEMY NOTES – OCTOBER 2003 9  Chicago Fire Department Division of Training CONFINED-SPACE INCIDENTS All emergency responses can be grouped according to four basic categories: high risk / low frequency, high risk / high frequency, low risk / high frequency, and low risk / low frequency. Calls that present the worst potential are those in the first category—high risk / low frequency. Confined-space operations are unquestionably in this category. Personnel will simply not gain the experience or become as proficient at confined space emergencies as they will with structure fires, vehicle mishaps, food-on-the-stove calls, or rubbish fires because confined space emergencies occur much less frequently. The only available method of managing the risks involved in a high risk / low frequency event is to train and equip the team according to the hazards they might encounter, irrespective of any anticipated call volume. The governing standard that is most applicable for rescuers working at a confined space incident is CFR 1910.146, Permit Required Confined Spaces for General Industry. Each year, according to OSHA, approximately fifty-four preventable deaths occur in confined spaces. The vast majority of these deaths, as well as injuries, are due to atmospheric problems within the space. According to the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), more than 35 percent of these deaths are among would-be rescuers, down from 60 percent before the standard. That puts emergency response providers from all sections of the community and industry in the greatest risk group, especially first responders. By definition, a confined space (1) is large enough and configured so that an employee can enter it, (2) has limited means of egress, and (3) is not designed for continuous occupancy. OSHA further distinguishes two specific types of confined spaces: non-permit and permit required. Every confined space in an industrial setting is considered permit-required until an investigation by the employer reveals the nature and extent of its specific hazards. Non-permit and permit-required spaces are thus distinguished by the hazards present and the ability of the employer to eliminate them. A space that does not require a permit is one that does not contain, or with respect to atmospheric hazards, has not the potential to contain, any hazard capable of causing death or serious physical harm. A permit-required confined space is one that displays one or more of several characteristics: (1) it contains or has a potential to contain a hazardous atmosphere, (2) it contains a material that could potentially engulf a worker, ACADEMY NOTES – OCTOBER 2003 16 (3) it has an internal configuration that could trap or asphyxiate a worker due to its shape, or (4) it presents any other serious, recognized hazard. Points to ponder for First Responders arriving at confined space incidents: Review all hazardous information: MSDS, CHEMTREC, and so on. Determine what has happened: What is the nature of the response? Determine the hazards. Contact the responsible on-site personnel. Weigh the risk vs. the benefit of rescue. Establish a perimeter of control and exclude all non-essential personnel. Continually review the ongoing operation. Ensure that you have all the necessary resources: specialized technical rescue teams, EMS, Haz-Mat, and so on. Review the responding resources. If needed, contact experts for assistance. Make contact with the victim, if possible. Try calling out to the victim. Commence rescue operations when conditions permit. Interview any coworkers or witnesses. Always remember that the safety of the rescuers is the primary concern. Examine all permits. Start monitoring the atmosphere. Points to ponder for all members working at confined space incidents: 1. Is the victim a would-be rescuer? As noted above, 35 percent of confined space casualties started o ut as rescuers. 2. If the victim is a would-be rescuer, where are the original victims? How many are there? 3. Where is the victim located? What type of confined space is involved— manhole, shaft, etc. 4. How did the victim make entry to the space? If the victim was already removed, how was it accomplished? 5. What caused the victims incapacitation? An accident? An atmospheric condition – i.e., asphyxiation, toxin, explosive for example? 6. Have atmospheric meter readings been taken? What is the Oxygen level? Are any other gases present? 7. Can the confined space be entered safely? 8. Are any physical obstacles or hazards present that would prevent entry or egress? 9. Can you communicate with the victim? What is the victim’s medical status? 10. Do you have all the equipment needed to complete the rescue? Submitted by: Captain Kevin Krasneck, Technical Rescue Coordinator ACADEMY NOTES – OCTOBER 2003 17  Academy Notes Spring 2008 COORDINATED FIREGROUND OPERATIONS Years ago in the fire service, opposing interior handlines were a common fireground problem. Without portable radios to communicate and coordinate operations, firefighters often unknowingly directed opposing interior hand lines against each other for long periods. Each company believed that the fire was preventing their advancement when, in actuality, it may have been the superheated gases or superheated steam that each hose line was pushing against the other company. In today’s fire service we work towards a coordinated fire attack and there are no excuses for opposing interior hand lines. Portable radios have greatly enhanced the communications between incident commanders, company officers and firefighters. Company officers can now communicate their advancement and actions to other fire companies on the scene. These communication improvements provide the tools necessary to conduct a safer fireground operation. What Are Opposing Handlines Opposing handlines are two hose lines directed against each other from opposite directions on the same level during an interior attack. Firefighters can easily become injured when an opposing secondary hose line is directed against the initial primary interior attack line being advanced by firefighters inside a burning building. Similarly, uncoordinated exterior streams directed from outside the burning structure through a window or door opening can also produce serious consequences. The pressure and velocity from the outside stream directed through the window can blow superheated gases or a large volume of steam toward advancing firefighters inside the structure. Academy Notes – Fire Suppression and Rescue 11 Spring 2008 When opposing handlines, or uncoordinated exterior streams, are used the following will result: Advancing firefighters will experience a rapid increase in heat or smoke. Steam may be driven back into the path of firefighters advancing an opposing hose line, scalding the firefighters, causing them to drop their hose line and become disoriented or lost in a burning building. Firefighter helmets and face pieces of breathing apparatus may be knocked off or dislodged when struck by the opposing companies hose streams. Proper Placement Of Interior Handlines The first interior hose line often advances to the seat of the fire through the front entrance of the building. The second interior hose line backs up the first line or goes above the first line in a multi-floor building to cover interior exposures and stairwells. The second interior hand line is also used to protect the advancing search and rescue teams and means of egress. Photo 1 shows a structure presenting signs of fire on the first and second floors of the residence. 1. Lead out initial attack line to the seat of the fire on the first floor. 2. The second interior line protects the interior stairwells and moves to extinguish the extension of fire on the second floor. Photo 1 Academy Notes – Fire Suppression and Rescue 12 Spring 2008 Photo 2 shows a fully involved interior stairway fire with multiple interior exposures. 1. Lead out initial attack line to the seat of the fire at the interior stairway. Upon extinguishment of the stairway fire, extinguish fires located in adjacent apartments. 2. Advance the second line to back up the first line. This maintains the egress stair should the initial attack line become committed to an interior apartment attack. Photo 2 Safety Note: Firefighters should always check the structural integrity of any porch or stair area used in a fire suppression operation. Extreme caution should be used if the porch or stair area has been involved in fire. When the initial size up warrants, there are times when a second or third hose line may be sent to the side or rear of the building. Those hose lines may be used as exposure lines. Exposure lines directed toward the side or rear of a burning building are intended to protect the means of egress or prevent fire spread to nearby exposure buildings. If a secondary area of fire is discovered within the building, the exposure line may be ordered to provide extinguishment. Secondary hose line teams must be aware of the location of the initial attack line. The secondary hose line team must not attempt to advance on the same level through the interior of the structure towards the first advancing initial attack line team. Academy Notes – Fire Suppression and Rescue 13 Spring 2008 In fires involving basement areas, the first arriving engine company officer may elect to lead out to the side or rear of the structure, if unimpeded by forcible entry problems. The first engine company may seek to take advantage of a below ground entry to attack the fire directly from the basement level. If timing permits, this method is considered preferable. It avoids the need to lead out through the “chimney” created at enclosed interior basement stairways. The structural integrity of the porch and stair area above this entrance should be visually checked to ensure that crews operating have a safe means of ingress and egress through this area. If the primary attack line, led out from the rear or the side of the structure, is already working in the basement area, then the second line should be led out to the top of the interior basement stair. The second interior line should not be led down to the basement level. The second line should remain at the top of the stair to protect interior exposures and the means of egress for occupants and/or search and rescue teams on the upper floors. Safety Note: Firefighters stretching lines to the fire building should always be aware of overhead hazards. Unstable porches or stairways, falling objects, parapet walls, air conditioners, falling glass or downed power lines in alleys and rear yards should always be treated as potentially hazardous conditions. Firefighters should also use caution when working near aerial mains or ground ladders. Proper Use Of Exposure Lines Generally, 2-1/2-inch exterior exposure handlines equipped with an 1-1/4-inch shut-off pipe or an 2-1/2-inch adjustable fog nozzle are used to protect structures adjacent to the fire building. Cooling the surfaces of adjacent buildings combats the effects of radiant heat coming from the fire building. This limits the potential for the fire to spread to the adjacent structure. In addition, these lines can extinguish fire on the exposed exterior surfaces of the fire building, effectively cooling these surfaces and suppressing the fire’s growth. Academy Notes – Fire Suppression and Rescue 14 Spring 2008 In cases where exterior vertical lapping is occurring on the fire building itself, the lapping effect can be controlled by directing a stream against the spandrel wall above the opening: (the spandrel wall is the wall surface between the top of one window and the bottom of the window directly above). This stream should be directed across the ventilated opening wetting the exposed surface of the spandrel wall. When controlling vertical lapping, the stream should only strike the wall surface and should not enter any adjacent window openings. Exposure lines should not be arbitrarily directed into the structure towards an area where the initial interior attack line is operating. Directing an exterior stream into an area of the structure where no one is operating is acceptable. The incident commander may elect to order a coordinated quick exterior knockdown of an isolated fire condition using an exposure line. This quick exterior knockdown may be necessary to make an interior entry tenable. 2-1/2-inch Photo 3 shows a fully involved enclosed rear hose line – porch. Typically these structures have a wall coordinated quick knock that separates the porch from the interior of down stream the structure. A coordinated exterior quick knock down for the involved fire area as shown in photo 3 is appropriate. The 2-1/2-inch hose line stream should only be directed into the opening after the incident commander has communicated with companies on the fireground and ensured that no personnel are operating in the affected areas. Photo 3 When executing a coordinated quick exterior knockdown of an involved fire area: 1. Use a solid or straight stream to minimize steam generation. 2. The streams should be directed toward the opening from a flanking position. This will keep the stream, and any generated steam, from moving through the building towards the opposite end of the structure. Academy Notes – Fire Suppression and Rescue 15 Spring 2008  3. The stream burst should be directed toward the ceiling and operate for only a few seconds to darken down the main body of fire. Shutting down as soon as knockdown is achieved minimizes steam generation. 4. Aim the stream at the ceiling while trying to keep the insertion point of the stream as low as possible. Photo 3 illustrates the stream entering the window opening just above the window sill; this allows smoke and heat to continue to vent to the outside through the upper portion of the opening. 5. Once the fire is knocked down, the line may advance into the rear porch area, if the structural integrity is intact. The line should not advance into the same interior fire area where the initial attack line is operating. Even a solid or straight stream, when directed through an opening, can create a small amount of hydraulic ventilation. When directing an exterior stream into an opening, the angle of attack is critically important. A stream that is not directed at the ceiling, or a stream at a low angle, may entrain air and push it into the opening. This entrained air blocks the ventilation of the opening and can drive smoke and fire gases toward the interior of the building. To avoid this, place the nozzle as close to the opening as possible and direct a compact solid stream at the ceiling. Shut down the stream as soon as a knockdown is achieved to avoid excessive steam generation. Changing Strategies During Suppression Frequently, the first attack hose line is advanced through the front door. However, there may be times when the firefighters cannot advance the first attack hose line because of forcible entry problems or excessive contents. In these circumstances, the exposure line in the rear may be ordered by the incident commander to advance through the interior. If it is determined that a tactical change is necessary, it must be communicated to all companies on the scene. Remember, firefighters may enter a burning building from many different directions to accomplish their assignments inside or around the building. For example, firefighters may be searching the floor above the fire, opening and ventilating the rear of the structure, or ventilating the roof. These firefighters expect the first attack line to come from a certain direction. Changing the direction of attack without warning will jeopardize firefighter safety. Firefighters may become trapped or injured if the hose line attack comes from an unexpected direction. Academy Notes – Fire Suppression and Rescue 16 Spring 2008 Changing strategy of attack lines is a very difficult proposition. To ask firefighters to stop everything, back out of the fire area, and close the door, while another fire company approaches the fire from the opposite direction is not easily accepted. It is important to understand that when a decision to change strategies is made it is because the current strategy presents risks that are far greater than the potential gains. If it is obvious to the incident commander that the initial attack hose line is not going to be successful and another approach will quickly extinguish the fire, the incident commander must order this strategic change. When changing strategies during suppression activities is necessary, the following steps must be taken: 1. The incident commander must notify every company on the scene and receive confirmation of the change from each company officer. 2. A second attack line is ordered into position at the opposite point of attack. 3. When the second attack line is ready, the company on the initial attack line will be ordered to retreat to a position of safety. 4. The initial attack line company will close the door to the fire area, if possible, to prevent the superheated gases from spreading back towards them. 5. The order is then given, over the portable radio, to advance the secondary attack hose line from the opposite direction to extinguish the fire. Reasons For Changing Strategies During Suppression Heat is the major reason why firefighters are unable to advance a hose line. Superheated gases and steam will sometimes bank downward to floor level, engulfing firefighters advancing hose lines. Venting windows, doors and skylights in coordination with hose line advancement will reduce the buildup of superheated gases in the fire area. Until the fire is vented, firefighters may be prevented from extinguishing the blaze using an interior attack. Wind can prevent the advance of the hose attack team. A strong wind blowing through the fire area towards the firefighters attempting to advance an attack hose line will drive heat and flame into their path. A hose stream operated from an entrance door may not extinguish a fire burning several rooms back inside a fire area. Only windblown fire gases mixing with air and turning to flame at the entrance door will be reached by the hose stream, not the seat of the fire. Water Academy Notes – Fire Suppression and Rescue 17 Spring 2008 must be directly discharged on the burning material, not on the convection currents, to extinguish any fire. When the wind is strong, the incident commander should anticipate possible problems with the advancement of the attack hose line. Tall buildings, those near open bodies of water or those that have open areas surrounding the structure are especially subject to strong winds. Obstructions also prevent advancement of an interior attack hose line. Room partitions and stock piled up to the ceiling in a store will block a hose stream and will hinder the ventilation of fire gases. Some people become pack rats cluttering their apartment or residence, which prevents firefighters from advancing a hose line. Cluttered rooms leave only a small path, making it difficult to advance a line to the seat of a fire. Firefighters must be cautious of advancing too deeply into such a cluttered fire area for the following reasons: The attack line will be difficult to maneuver because of the number of turns that may have to be made in the narrow aisles. Emergency exiting will be difficult in a confined area for firefighters in line. The stored clutter could collapse, and firefighters can easily become disoriented, lost or trapped in a smoke-filled, mazelike area. Changing strategy by ordering a secondary attack line to advance on a fire from the opposite direction is a difficult, dangerous, and a complex operation. It requires the incident commander and company officers to have good control and coordination of the firefighters on the scene. Firefighters freelancing can be seriously injured when a hose line is advanced from the opposite direction of the initial attack line. This strategy change should only be ordered by the incident commander. A fire officer in charge of a hose attack team should never attempt to advance an interior attack line from the opposite direction toward the initial interior attack point without permission from the incident commander. The R.J. Quinn Fire Academy Staff and the Office of Research and Development would like to thank B.C. William Vogt for his contributions to this article. Information for this article was gathered from the following resources: OpposingWindward Hand Lines by Vincent Dunn. Academy Notes – Fire Suppression and Rescue 18 Spring 2008  Chicago Fire Department Division of Training EMPLOYEE ASSISTANCE PROGRAM Who and What is the Employee Assistance Program The Employee Assistance Program (EAP) provides a number of supportive services designed to help Firefighters and Paramedics as well as their family members and/or significant others. Although EAP started in the late 1980’s to help members who were challenged by alcoholism or drug abuse, it has since evolved to include many more services. The Employee Assistance Program also offers supportive services for people encountering marital problems, financial troubles, job stressors and adolescent challenges, to name a few. Regardless of the type of difficulty, EAP is available to listen and possibly help. Members seeking assistance have the option of either requesting a referral to an appropriate outside qualified provider or utilizing the services of one of our own three professional counselors. Reasons to use EAP Many individuals believe that they can handle their problems alone. But seeking help for a challenge that you might be facing is not a bad thing. It proves that you are concerned about your own well-being and that you realize your problems may be affecting others who care about you. By the same token, it might be your spouse, child or significant other who needs our services. EAP counselors expand your support system and provide another resource to tap into for information and services. Our confidential intake process can provide you with someone to talk to should you feel the need. We want all who utilize the services to be assured that their conversations with us are private and cannot be discussed with anyone. To make it even more convenient, the services are provided free of any charge to the member, family or significant other. How to Contact EAP The Employee Assistance Program offices are located at Fire Academy South, 1338 S. Clinton, Suite 500. Our hours are from 8:30 AM to 4:30 PM, Monday thru Friday. We also may be reached 24 hours a day via pager for urgent matters. If you feel that we can contribute in any way to your well-being or to that of someone else, please stop by or call our office. John Walsh & April Watkins: (312) 746-6880 Lennette Meredith: (312) 746-6976 24/7 Pagers: (312) 839-1267 or (312) 689-3953 TRAINING BULLETIN – FEBRUARY 2002 2  Academy Notes Spring 2008 EVIDENCE PRESERVATION Fire Origin Saving lives, property and extinguishment of the fire are your primary concerns during fire suppression. Limiting re-kindle fires is also important. However, there are other things that you should be aware of when operating at a fire scene. The Cook County States Attorneys Office often relies on the expert testimony of Fire Marshals in the Office of Fire Investigation to successfully prosecute the felony crime of arson. There are several things that you can do to aide the Fire Marshals with their documentation of evidence, and in turn, their expert testimony. As you can see in Photo 1, burn patterns appear to indicate that the fire originated at the ceiling level and burned in a downward direction. If a Fire Marshal were to state that as “fact” in their official report, he would be incorrect. The wall was, in fact, damaged by fire in a top-down fashion, but the fire did not “originate” in the upper regions of the room. Photo 1 Academy Notes – Office of Fire Investigations 57 Spring 2008 The recommended way to determine where the fire originated is by deciphering the burn patterns throughout the area of origin. This is impossible to do with certainty if, due to excessive overhaul procedures, there are no other observable surfaces in the area of origin. Overhaul is required at just about every fire. However, an attempt should be made to preserve evidence in the form of burn patterns. This is especially important with a fire where a fatality occurs. It is imperative that the overhaul is kept to a minimum. Once the fire is extinguished, all non-essential fire department members should abstain from lingering in the area of origin. Evidence of the fire’s origin and cause is often damaged well after the fire has been extinguished. Safety Note: Do not let your attempts to preserve evidence interfere with the suppression operations necessary to extinguish the fire. If after extinguishment of the fire you are training candidate firefighters in over- haul consider utilizing a different room other than the area of origin. Make sure, of course, that the other room has sustained fire, smoke or heat damage beyond repair. Electrical Utility Services When you are directed by the company officer to “cut the power”; an attempt should be made to only turn off the “Main” breaker, preferably with a dry non-conductive piece of material, i.e., a dry piece of wood. By turning off the “Main” breaker, you can preserve evidence of the individual branch circuit breakers being in the “Tripped,” “ON” or “OFF” position. This evidence helps the Fire Marshal Photo 2 immensely. Academy Notes – Office of Fire Investigations 58 Spring 2008 Natural Gas Appliances and Utility Services If you enter a kitchen after the fire is out and detect an odor of natural gas, attempt to turn off gas behind the stove at the “shut-off valve.” By turning off the “shut-off valve”, instead of turning off all the knobs in front of the stove, you may be preserving evidence of one of two things. This simply may be a fire caused by unattended cooking; or you may be preserving evidence of arson or aggravated arson if the tenant/homeowner/etc was trying to propagate the fire with the free natural gas flow. It’s important for the Fire Marshal to know that the knobs were or were not in the “on” position. The most important thing is to let your officer and/or the Fire Marshal know of your actions. Especially if you did, in fact, find the knobs in the “on” position and turned them to the “off” position. The Fire Marshal may not have time to interview every suppression member at the scene. Safety Note: If at any time you feel that the atmosphere is potentially dangerous, use the safest and quickest means of shutting the gas appliance off to protect the safety of the firefighters. The above comments do not pertain to potentially dangerous or explosive atmospheres where a fire has not yet occurred. Fire Fatalities If your company is involved with the discovery and/or removal of a fire victim, make a mental note of the following: Victim’s position and location when found.(i.e. head in a northerly direction, face down, etc…) Is the victim clothed appropriately for the time of day? Are there any non-consistent injuries that the victim presents? Academy Notes – Office of Fire Investigations 59 Spring 2008 Most fire victims are found in a face down position due to one last effort to escape the heat and smoke. When victims are found in the face up position, it can merely be due to the victim collapsing and hitting a piece of furniture while falling. This must be investigated further by the Fire Marshal. When people die from smoke inhalation and their heart stops working, bright red arterial blood ceases to circulate as does the skins ability to blister from heat. So, if you turn the victim over and there is a large pool of bright red blood underneath, bleeding probably occurred prior to the victim’s time of death. This doesn’t mean, for certain, that the victim was murdered, but this must be investigated further by the Fire Marshal. The fire victim’s location and condition will be documented by the Fire Marshal by way of photographs and sketches. Therefore, any information must be forwarded to your officer, incident commander and/or the responding Fire Marshal. All observances, no matter how insignificant they seem at the time, may be the crucial piece of evidence between a criminal and non criminal event. Ignitable Liquid Containers Fire suppression members are the first in and, usually, the first to detect unusual odors, observe suspicious containers or notice burn patterns indicative of the presence of an ignitable liquid. Any time there is the presence of an ignitable liquid in the area of origin, the Fire Marshals need to determine whether or not this ignitable liquid played a role in the start of and/or the spread of the fire. Fire suppression members may notice an odor similar to that of gasoline, kerosene or other common flammable liquids. Many times liquid containers are discovered by suppression personnel, and the container is inadvertently thrown out of the window landing in the back yard or, perhaps, relocated to the exterior of the building or a different location within the building. It is important for the Fire Marshal to know where this container was originally discovered, who touched the container (finger-prints), was the container full, ½ full, empty, etc. These containers are photographed, collected and transported to laboratories by the Chicago Police Bomb and Arson Section. The contents will be analyzed and the containers checked for fingerprints. Academy Notes – Office of Fire Investigations 60 Spring 2008 In photo 3 we can see a flammable liquid container that may not be readily apparent upon first visual inspection. Photo 3 In photo 4 we can see visual evidence of a localized burn pattern on the floor, indicative of a flammable liquid pool. Photo 4 In photo 5 we can see visual evidence of a localized burn pattern on the door, indicative of a flammable liquid splash. Photo 5 Academy Notes – Office of Fire Investigations 61 Spring 2008 Forcible Entry Sometimes, the only difference between successful and unsuccessful prosecution of an arsonist is a lack of documented forcible entry. All entrances to the subject structure need to be photographed to show if, and by whom, forcible entry was conducted. The Fire Marshal documents all markings left on doors and door frames. Photo 6 shows a door that was kicked in and photo 7 shows a door that was forced using a forcible entry tool. Be it a rabbit tool, halligan bar, or a sledge hammer, tools used in the fire service leave distinct markings and have to be documented. Entrance doors found closed but not locked, in the open position, or forced open prior to the arrival of CFD will be documented by the Fire Marshal. Any information you have pertaining to forcible entry must be forwarded to your officer, the incident commander, or the Fire Marshal. Photo 6 Photo 7 Academy Notes – Office of Fire Investigations 62 Spring 2008 Scene Security If the fire scene is not protected against entry from unauthorized person/s, any evidence discovered, be it a gasoline container, Molotov Cocktail, incendiary device, timers, jumper breakers, etc… may NOT be allowed as demonstrative evidence in a court of law. The entire subject structure must be secured. Of course, common sense would dictate that in the event of a high-rise fire, securing the fire floor may be the only feasible form of action by the Fire Department. If the occupants of the subject structure insist on gaining entry and become unruly, don’t risk your safety, have the Police Department address the situation. Potential Indicators In Identifying Arson The following are indicators every officer and/or firefighter should consider when sizing up a fire scene from an origin-and-cause perspective. As you were pulling up on the scene, what color was the smoke and the fire? (Was it an unusual color, considering the fuel that was burning? Where was it coming from? Was the fire burning in multiple locations? Were there any unusual sounds, such as explosions?) Were you delayed in responding because of a false alarm or a small fire, such as a trash fire? (Were there barriers, such as locked fences or obstacles, that slowed your attack? Had the hydrant been tampered with? These tactics could be used to allow the fire more time to grow.) Was there anyone in the crowd you have seen at fires before? (Did anyone look as if they were behaving unusually?) Was there any unusual evidence, such as containers, matches, lighters, etc., that might not normally be found in the area? (According to a joint study conducted by the ATF and FBI, over 50 percent of the serial arsonists studied left items at the scene of their fires.) Academy Notes – Office of Fire Investigations 63 Spring 2008 Had doors been propped open, or holes made in floors or walls, to help accelerate the spread of the fire from one area to another? (Firefighters must distinguish between holes that existed prior to their arrival and holes created to search for fire extension or holes made during overhaul.) Were there any vehicles leaving the scene as you pulled up, or shortly after you arrived? (Most people are going to stay to watch a fire, rather than leave.) Have you been to this property before? (Does it have a history of fires? This could be an indicator of someone attempting to burn the building, either for profit or for revenge.) Were there signs of forced entry such as broken doors, locks or windows? (If the fire is determined to be incendiary, the lack of any evidence of forcible entry can be as important as its existence.) Were there multiple points of origin or set fires? (To ensure greater destruction, and to make suppression efforts more difficult, an arsonist could set multiple fires throughout a building.) Was a burglar alarm sounding when you arrived? (If it was equipped with an alarm, did it go off when you made entry? If not, why not?) Was the building’s fire alarm or sprinkler system impaired in some way? (An arsonist could do this to ensure that the fire was not detected or suppressed until it had a chance to do significant damage.) Did you smell anything unusual? (The smell of flammable liquids and/or natural gas may be more prevalent to first arriving suppression crews.) Was the behavior of the fire unusual? (Did it take an unusual amount of time or water to get it under control, considering what should normally have been burning?) Academy Notes – Office of Fire Investigations 64 Spring 2008 Did the fire start in an unusual location where there would normally not be any source of ignition? (For example, did the fire start in a pile of debris outside the building and then extend into the building?) Did the contents seem appropriate? (For example, was anything missing that should normally be in place, such as stock or equipment? Were the clothes closets empty?) Were the windows covered to delay the fire from being seen from the exterior? (This would give the fire a chance to grow before being detected.) Was anyone taking pictures or videotape of the fire when you arrived? (Photographers for news crews and independent fire scene photographers should have identification from their respective agencies. The Chicago Fire Department has issued approved independent fire scene photographers a photo identification card; this card should be worn in a visible location while they are on scene of any incident.) Are there unusual burn patterns? (Trailers that would lead the fire from one area to another may leave a distinctive pattern on the floor, as could flammable liquid.) Is the property for sale, or in distress? (Is it under any orders for repairs to be made? Having a fire might be a convenient method to avoid expensive repairs.) Answers to the preceding questions when provided to the Office of Fire Investigations Fire Investigator may prove invaluable in identifying and/or documenting that arson was the cause of the fire. Proper documentation and evidence preservation ultimately leads to the successful prosecution of the perpetrator. The R.J. Quinn Fire Academy Staff and the Office of Research and Development would like to thank the Fire Marshall Victor Megaro and the Office of Fire Investigations for their contributions to this article. Academy Notes – Office of Fire Investigations 65 Spring 2008  Academy Notes Summer 2009 FIREFIGHTER SAFETY DURING AUTO EXTRICATIONS Firefighter safety is arguably the most important aspect of any vehicle extrication. Minimizing hazards and maximizing safety are the responsibility of every company officer and the incident commander on the scene of an accident. However, safety should be on all firefighters’ minds as they respond to any vehicle extrication. Proper Training Vehicle extrication tactics are constantly changing. New techniques and tools to help simplify our job as rescuers are being developed every day. Training for extrication operations should be held in as high esteem as training for fire or EMS. Vehicle extrication training needs to be conducted on a regular basis. The new materials installed in vehicles each year, such as multiple air bags, reinforced steel frames, and composite panels, demand constant training and modification of techniques. Extrication no longer involves simply popping a door. Extrication training should be as realistic as possible. To simulate real scenarios that may be encountered, hands-on training can be conducted with vehicles from a local junkyard that are already damaged. This type of drill gives firefighters a chance to learn skills with the available extrication tools and to function as part of a team. Use these opportunities to find out what works and what doesn’t, and experiment with different techniques. Patient-care skills should be included in all training evolutions. As with any drill, keep in mind all safety considerations. Note: At no time should there be unnecessary movement of the vehicle through the use of manual force or tools. Unnecessary movement of the vehicle will cause additional harm to the patient and/or possible activation of Supplemental Restraint Systems (SRS). Academy Notes – Fire Suppression and Rescue 11 Summer 2009 Company officers should assign tool positions and tasks at roll call and not on the scene of the emergency. This is particularly important when there is a new member or a detailed firefighter on the apparatus, who is either unfamiliar with the crew or with the specifics of vehicle extrication. Some companies have worked together for so long that they know what is expected of them and simply begin to work. However, a formulated plan is still necessary so everyone understands what they are supposed to do. Mechanism of Injury For the purposes of extrication, there is a value in identifying the mechanism of injury caused by the vehicle collision and the type of vehicle collision you may be encountering. These facts can assist personnel in ascertaining what areas and components of the vehicle may be most affected and/or compromised. It can also assist in estimating the extent of possible injury to the occupants and anticipating what resources may be necessary to conduct a successful extrication. Frontal Collision Head-on Collision Rear-end Collision Lateral (Side-impact) Collision Rollover Accident Frontal Collision – Frontal crashes are the most frequent type of crashes, but not necessarily the most severe in causing serious injury and fatality (Photo 1). The front of the vehicle is designed to reduce the amount of force that reaches the passenger compartment, and there are seat belts and airbags Photo 1 to help reduce the amount of force applied to the vehicle occupants. Common injuries to the vehicle occupants include: Fractures of the skull, spine and ribs Cuts and bruises to the head and face Injuries to the larynx, liver and spleen Academy Notes – Fire Suppression and Rescue 12 Summer 2009 Head-on Collisions – a collision where the front ends of two vehicles collide with each other (Photo 2). A high percentage of head-on crashes involve significant speeds and therefore significant mechanism of injury. Statistics indicate that most Photo 2 head-on crashes are likely the result from a motorist making an “unintentional” maneuver – the driver may have fallen asleep, is distracted or travels too fast in a curve. Common injuries may be similar, although potentially more severe, to those listed for Frontal Collisions. Rear-end Collision - a traffic collision where a vehicle impacts the vehicle in front of it in the rear (Photo 3). Typical scenarios for rear-end collisions are a sudden deceleration by the first vehicle, i.e. the forward vehicle suddenly stops to avoid impact Photo 3 with an object or pedestrian and the following car does not have time or distance to adequately brake or stop. Injuries to vehicle occupants are usually much worse for the impacted vehicle, because occupants of the following vehicle often anticipate the imminent impact and brace themselves. Common injuries may include: Cervical fractures Stretching/Tearing of neck ligaments and tendons (whiplash) Lateral (Side-impact) Collision – a vehicle collision where the side of one or more vehicles is impacted by another vehicle (Photo 4). When the two involved vehicles are perpendicular to each other, this is often called a “T-Bone” crash. These collisions often occur at intersections, in parking lots, when two vehicles pass on a multilane Photo 4 roadway or when a vehicle hits a fixed object. Typically, the occupants of the impacted vehicle adjacent to the impact zone sustain the most serious injuries. Common injuries include: Chest and pelvic injuries Facial and skull fractures Academy Notes – Fire Suppression and Rescue 13 Summer 2009 Rollover - a type of vehicle crash, where a vehicle turns over on its side or roof (Photo 5). The main cause for rolling over is turning too sharply while moving too fast. Vehicles may roll over for other reasons, for example, when hitting a large obstacle with one of its wheels, when Photo 5 maneuvering over uneven terrain, etc. After the rollover, the vehicle may end up lying on its side or on its roof, often blocking the doors and complicating the escape for passengers. Unrestrained passengers may also have an increased potential for ejection from the vehicle during this type of vehicle crash. Common injuries for passengers within the vehicle may include any of those listed for frontal, head-on, rear-end and lateral (side impact) crashes, depending on the direction of rotation and impact. Dispatch Size Up Gathering of all pertinent information with respect to the incident begins when the alarm is received. The following information should be gathered: How many vehicles are involved? What type of vehicles? Are there any trapped or pinned-in occupants and, if so, is the vehicle on fire? Have any of the vehicle occupants been ejected? Is the accident on the expressway, main arterial street or side street? Will there be excessive traffic due to the time of day? Will the weather play a part in the mitigation of the incident? Is any information available from the OEMC? Scene Approach Size Up While approaching the scene from a distance, visually survey for additional hazards or civilians that may be in danger. The following should be considered: Are there any visible potential dangers to personnel? Are there any overhead hazards or obstacles, such as wires or affected utility poles? What is required for traffic control? What is the traffic flow? Has the oncoming traffic been stopped? Are law enforcement personnel on scene or will they need to be requested? Academy Notes – Fire Suppression and Rescue 14 Summer 2009  What is the wind direction and speed? What is the topography? Is the vehicle on a hill, fluids running downhill or into a city sewer that can create additional hazards? What types of vehicles are involved? Unique hazards to vehicle, i.e. airbags, gas cylinders, alternative fuels, high strength steel-reinforced frame components, etc. Are any of the vehicles on fire? Smoke or flames dictate the use of SCBA. Apparatus Placement Like successful fire scene operations, extrications require proper placement of apparatus. Firefighters must learn to use the apparatus as traffic control devices. Position the apparatus in a blocking position to protect the firefighters by establishing a temporary work zone. Prompt traffic control reduces traffic problems at the scene of an emergency and minimizes the chance of secondary collisions. Police or state troopers must be requested if not on the scene yet. Keep in mind the IDOT wreckers can be communicated with on the Administrative Channel 3. Battalion chiefs can also communicate with the Illinois State Police (ISP) on - Illinois State Police Emergency Response Network (ISPERN) channel, if necessary. The engine and truck should pull up behind the vehicle extrication whenever possible, keeping the apparatus at a safe distance, but between the extrication incident and the flow of traffic. The most critical initial action that can be taken to protect the work zone is the proper positioning of our emergency vehicles in a “block” position. A block position places the apparatus at an angle to the approaching traffic, diagonally across several lanes of traffic. For a review of apparatus placement guidelines, refer to “Interstate Incident Response”, Quick Drill July 2004. This position shields the work area and protects the crash scene from some of the approaching traffic. Consider leaving space for future arriving apparatus, especially if heavy equipment may be required. Company officers should ensure that a safe working area is provided at all traffic accident scenes. It may not always be necessary to stop all traffic lanes, but the company officers should request whatever is necessary to provide for the safety of the members on the scene. The point is to keep traffic as far away as possible from the firefighters performing the extrication and their tool or medical staging Academy Notes – Fire Suppression and Rescue 15 Summer 2009 areas. If you keep this mindset, you will remain alert to the dangers of adjacent moving traffic. Firefighters and EMS personnel should never operate on the unprotected side of a crash scene. All operations must take place within the protected area. When the ambulance arrives at the scene, it must park in a safe area in front of the accident on the departure side of the traffic flow. This requires the ambulance driver to pull past the initial blocking apparatus and around the crashed vehicles. The ambulance must stop at an angle that places the rear patient loading area as far away as possible from any moving traffic. At no time should flares, cones or individuals be blindly relied upon as the sole means of traffic control. Protective Equipment Protective clothing is needed for all those who are operating tools and those in the immediate area (PPE)—turnout gear, helmet, gloves and eye protection. Public Safety Vests (PSV) should also be worn in accordance with “Public Safety Vests (PSV)”, Special Directive 09-002: Keep members who are not using tools or providing patient care away from the incident. Firefighters manning the charged hose line should don their SCBA in accordance with “Mandatory use of Self- Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) and Personal Alert Safety System (PASS)”, General Order 06-006. On-Scene Survey Upon arrival, survey the scene. The officer should immediately size up the incident and formulate a plan for a safe and effective extrication. This involves the officer's taking a 360-degree assessment by walking around the rescue scene and visually sizing up the situation, while constantly monitoring traffic. Look for hazards such as downed power lines or leaking fuel. Check for any potential ejected occupants or walking wounded. When searching for ejected occupants or surveying surrounding areas, utilization of the Thermal Imaging Camera (TIC) is recommended. Refer to “Uses For the Thermal Imaging Camera”, Quick Drill April 2004. Identify the age of the vehicles involved. Check for any placards or identification marks that would indicate special hazards, such as Hybrid, Hydrogen, LPG, CNG, E85, etc. Academy Notes – Fire Suppression and Rescue 16 Summer 2009 Newer vehicles will also require an airbag scan, noting the location of the airbags that have not deployed. Potential locations for Air Bag Identification markings: Steering wheel horn button area Front dashboard near the glove compartment (passenger frontal airbag systems) Dashboard below the steering column at driver’s knee area Armrest area of front door panel (door-mounted, side-impact air bags) Armrest area of rear door panel Outer edge of front seat (seat-mounted, side-impact air bags) Outer edge of rear seat Middle and top of A-Pillar (roof-mounted air bags) B-pillar at roof line (most common location for roof-mounted airbags) B-pillar at front door or rear door latch inside door jamb (airbag warning decal) C-pillar at roofline VIN plate along the driver’s side of the dashboard at the windshield (frontal and side-impact air bag system, indicated by small drawing or graphic symbol) Searching for and confirming the location of these devices can also be done using the “peel and peak” method. The “peal and peek” method requires the removal of interior plastic trim at suspected locations of airbag components or accessories. The “peel and peak” should be conducted on the interior of the vehicle prior to the use of any extrication equipment. Personnel must be reminded to avoid cutting through these devices or their accessories during the extrication process. When conducting extrication operations on the interior of the vehicle, personnel should avoid operating in potential airbag inflation zones. Personnel should also avoid placing any medical equipment, rescue equipment and any portion of their body or the patients’ bodies within the air bag’s inflation zones. The generally accepted safety guideline for emergency responders working near undeployed airbags is to remember the 5 by 10 by 20-inch rule. The number 5 in this safety reminder refers to the 5 inch width or thickness required for a side impact airbag. The number 10 refers to the driver’s frontal air bag which typically deploys to a depth of ten inches from the steering wheel hub assembly and the number 20 refers to the 20-inch depth that a typical passenger-side frontal air bag deploys outward at full inflation measured from the dashboard. Academy Notes – Fire Suppression and Rescue 17 Summer 2009 After the size-up, the officer must formulate a plan and relate this plan to the crew responsible for the extrication. Specific assignments must be made and tasks must be clearly understood. By stating how the extrication is to be accomplished, the officer is making sure that everyone involved in the extrication understands what they are responsible for during the operation. Vehicle Stabilization After sizing up the extrication scene, the vehicle must be stabilized. The last thing you want is to have the vehicle move or shift during extrication operations, which could be hazardous to the extrication crew and the victims. Stabilization will maximize the contact surface between the car and the ground. Stabilization of the vehicle will avoid unnecessary vehicle and patient movement. Stabilization is performed three ways: 1. Horizontal- by not allowing the vehicle to move forward and back 2. Vertical- by not allowing the vehicle to move up and down 3. Interior- securing the vehicle by putting the vehicle in park, setting the brake and removing the ignition key. Stabilization is assigned to a firefighter whose job it is to continually check the stabilization of the vehicle and to stop the operation if the stabilization requires adjusting. Oftentimes, horizontal and vertical vehicle stabilization is as easy as sliding some step chocks under the vehicle's rocker panels, chocking the tires and/or removing the air from the tires. At some scenes, vehicle stabilization will prove to be very challenging. Larger vehicles, buses, trucks, vehicles on steep grades, vehicles that are on their sides and upside-down vehicles are just a few examples of difficult stabilization situations. In these situations, several firefighters may be assigned to stabilize the vehicle. Use all the tools at your disposal for these situations: Ropes, long bars for bracing or cribbing boxes. Remember, vehicle stabilization solutions may vary greatly from incident to incident. For a review of cribbing techniques refer to “Cribbing Quick Drill”, Drill Manual Truck Company Operations 08-001. Cribbing components should be inspected before and after each use with damaged cribbing removed from service. A reserve cache of cribbing for large- scale incidents is available. Academy Notes – Fire Suppression and Rescue 18 Summer 2009 Once you have stabilized the vehicle, the next step is to disconnect the power source. This means having a firefighter get to the battery (or batteries). Newer vehicles may have batteries located in multiple areas. By disconnecting the battery, you ensure two things: first, that possible fuel and fuel fumes will not ignite from a potential battery spark; and second, that the power source to the safety restraint systems is no longer supplying a charge (although the air bag capacitors may still hold a charge for quite awhile). On simple extrications, where stability of the vehicle is nothing more than placing a few step chocks and disconnecting the battery (or batteries), stabilization can happen simultaneously. Disconnect the battery by cutting the negative battery cable first. The negative is the ground and it will not generate sparks when it is disconnected from the battery terminal with a tool. Not creating a spark minimizes the chance of igniting spilled fuel. Once you have cut the negative cable, you can then disconnect the positive side of the battery; again, cutting the cable is the quickest and safest method. Remember, you must disconnect both battery cables to disarm and drain the energy storage system for the vehicles safety systems. Engine Company Operations It is recommended to lay a charged 2 ½-inch hose line with a 2 ½” adjustable fog nozzle at any vehicle accident where victims are trapped and/or there is a chance of a vehicle fire. A dry or uncharged line is useless to the members and victims who might need instant protection. Firefighters manning the charged line should have donned their SCBA as outlined in “Mandatory Use of Self Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) and Personal Alert Safety System (PASS)”, General Order 06-006. Another valuable tool to have standing by and manned is the ansul extinguisher. A dry chemical extinguisher can put out a gasoline or diesel fire quicker and more effectively than a hose line. For a review of firefighting operations for auto fires refer to “Vehicle Fires”, Academy Notes Spring 2004. Patient assessment and treatment should begin immediately. The most qualified Emergency Medical Technician or on-scene Paramedic should conduct a patient assessment to determine if the patient is stable. If the patient’s condition is Academy Notes – Fire Suppression and Rescue 19 Summer 2009 deteriorating, or in question, a rapid extrication may be necessary rather than the systematic removal of the vehicle from the patient(s). Engine company members not on the protective hose line should assist with care and packaging of the patient. Protect the patient from the elements and potential harm, such as broken glass or sharp metal, which could be the result of the accident or the use of the tools. Blankets and long backboards will work in most cases. It is important that the firefighter performing C-spine immobilization stay with the victim to protect and calm the victim. Hearing the loud power tools and glass breaking, let alone, being surrounded by firefighters, can be very frightening. Let the patient know what will be happening and explain the procedures being used. This might be your 20th extrication, but it probably is the victim's first. Stabilize the patient and provide advanced life support, if necessary and available. Truck & Squad Company Operations The truck company will make up the initial extrication team. This team will be responsible for the extrication duties. Members operating the tools will be working under the supervision of the company officer. The company officer will coordinate activities with the team and the incident commander. An additional firefighter will be assigned to the power unit. His duty is to start the unit, control the RPM’s and to control the power to the tools being operated. The unit should be placed near the incident, in visible view of the extrication team, but should not interfere with the extrication operation. This allows for the members performing the extrication to use hand signals to communicate to the member on the power unit. Completely remove the window glass before spreading the doors. The tempered glass found in most side windows will shatter when you remove the door. If possible, lower the glass into the door prior to disconnecting the vehicle battery. This will help collect the glass inside the door panel instead of it becoming a flying hazard to you and the victim. For complex extrication incidents it may become necessary to utilize the heavy rescue equipment from responding squad companies. These tools have greater Academy Notes – Fire Suppression and Rescue 20 Summer 2009 strength capacities for extrication operations. For a review of equipment capacities refer to “Operating the Hurst Tools”, Drill Manual Truck Company Operations 09-001. Note: Do not use Hurst hydraulic tools to break window glass or as a battering ram to create a purchase point. The pinch and peel, fender crunch or the vertical push technique, along with the Haligan tool and Rabbit tool are used to create purchase points for the Hurst tool. Incident Commanders Responsibilities Extrication scenes can change and circumstances may warrant adjustments in the strategy. Information must constantly be gathered and processed. The following must be considered at a pin-in accident by the incident commander: Overall scene safety Determining the need for additional help, both rescue and EMS Police to control traffic and secure evidence Utilities Hazardous materials Drainage at the scene Securing the scene before leaving Simple principles must be applied as they are with structure fires--strong strategy and tactics are needed. Extrication can be accomplished with logical, well- planned-out steps that ensure the patient will receive the proper medical treatment as soon as possible. The R.J. Quinn Fire Academy Staff and the Office of Research and Development would like to thank B.C. Windward William Vogt for his contributions to this article. Additional information for this article was gathered from the following