Abnormal Psychology Chapter 3 & 4 PDF

ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER 3: CLINICAL ASSESSMENT - Predictive validity – how well your AND DIAGNOSIS assessment tells you what will happen in the future Clinical ass...

ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER 3: CLINICAL ASSESSMENT - Predictive validity – how well your AND DIAGNOSIS assessment tells you what will happen in the future Clinical assessment – systematic evaluation and measurement of psychological, biological, and Standardization – process by which a certain social factors in an individual presenting with a set of standards or norms is determined for a possible psychological disorder technique to make its use consistent across different measurements Diagnosis – process of determining whether a particular problem afflicting the individual - The standards might apply to the meets all criteria for a psychological disorder procedures of testing, scoring, and evaluating data Key Concepts of Assessment - Reliability, validity, and standardization - The clinician begins by collecting a lot of are important to all forms of information across a broad range of the psychological assessment individual’s functioning to determine How do we assess clinical disorders? where the source of the problem may lie o The clinician then narrows the Assessing Psychological Disorders focus by ruling out problems in - Psychological Assessment some areas and concentrating on o Clinical Interview areas that seem most relevant - Three basic concepts that help determine o Behavioral Assessment the value of our assessments: reliability, o Psychological Testing validity and standardization o Neuropsychological Testing - Assessment techniques are subject to a - Physical Evaluation number of strict requirements, not the - Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for least of which some evidence (research) Mental Disorders (DMS) that they actually do what they are o DSM5 to DSM 5TR assigned to do o Developed by the American Psychiatric Association Reliability – degree to which a measurement is - International Classification of Diseases consistent (ICD) - Interrelated reliability - psychologists o ICD 10 to ICD 11 improve their reliability by carefully o Developed by the World Health designing their assessment devices and Organization in 2019 for effective then conducting research on them to use starting January 2022 ensure that two or more raters will get The Clinical Interview the same answer o Also determine whether these - Core of most clinical work used by assessment techniques are stable mental health professionals across time - The interview allows the clinician to o Test-retest reliability gather information on: o Current and past behavior Validity – something measures what it is o Attitudes designed to measure, whether a technique o Emotions assesses what it is supposed to o Detailed history - Concurrent/descriptive reliability – o General information comparing the results of an assessment o Presenting problem measure under consideration with the - Clinicians determine when the specific results of others that are better known problem started and identify other events allows you to begin to determine the (life stress, trauma, or physical illness) validity of the first measure that might have occurred the same time - Most clinicians gather some information on the patient’s current and past  ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY interpersonal and social history, - Ideas of reference – including family makeup, and on the everything everyone else individual’s upbringing does somehow relates - Information on sexual development, back to the individual religious attitudes (current and past), (similar to introjection) relevant cultural concerns (stress induced o Content of speech by discrimination), and educational - are delusions (false history are also routinely collected beliefs) / hallucinations (things that are seen or not The Mental Statue Exam – systematic heard; vivid, positive observation of behavior which involves the ff. symptoms – it adds)/ integrated behavior (varying number depending present? on the clinic; flexible to different practices etc.) - Does the client experience 1) Appearance and behavior – general derealization (“fuzzy appearance, overt physical behavior feeling”, pulled away (Frank’s leg twitch), individual’s dress, from the general appearance, posture, facial reality) expression /depersonalization? o Ex: Psychomotor retardation – - Derealization – being slow and effortful motor pulled out from the reality behavior; indicates severe - Derailment (loose depression association) 2) Thought process – rate of speech, speed - Catatonic, disorganized of speech, continuity of speech, content thinking/process of speech (schizophrenia) o Rate of speech 3) Mood and affect - Loose association or - Euthymic – associated with bipolar derailment – disorders disorganized speech - Important part of the mental status exam pattern, thinking or - Mood - Predominant feeling state of the thought processes (basis individual for schizophrenia) o What is the predominant mood? - If patients show difficulty - Feeling state accompanying what the with continuity or rate of individual says speech, a clinician may o is the feeling statement ask “can you think accompanying the predominant clearly/is there some mood appropriate? problem putting your - Affect – the feeling state that thoughts together? Do accompanies what we say at a given your thoughts tend to be point mixed up or come o “appropriate” – we laugh when slowly?” we say something funny or look o Continuity of speech (Is there sad when we talk about derailment? /Flight of ideas/loose something sad associations) o Affect is “blunt” or “sad” - Delusions – distorted 4) Intellectual functioning views of reality - Confirmed through psychological tests - Delusions of persecution - Global impression of intellectual – someone thinks people functioning is it above, average, or below are after him and out to average? get him all the time o Rough estimate only, - Delusions of grandeur – above/below average levels are an individual thinks she is often noticeable when it deviates all-powerful in some way from normal  ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY - Are executive functioning (planning) - Advantage: clinicians may also depart present? (Tower of Hanoi – assess the from set questions to follow up on executive/cognitive functioning) specific issues, thus labeled as o How is the person’s memory? “semistructured” 5) Sensorium - Disadvantage: it robs the interview of - If a person has delirium some of the spontaneous quality of two - Ability to understand one’s situation in people talking about a problem space and time o if applied too rigidly, it may - Awareness of surroundings (oriented inhibit the patient from time 3; a person is aware of his/her volunteering useful information surroundings if he answered properly that is not directly relevant to the these three) questions being asked o Person Physical Examination o Place o Time - Certain physical conditions may mimic - People with permanent brain damage or behavioral manifestation of dysfunction or temporary brain damage psychological disorders or dysfunction, often because of drugs or - Many problems presenting as disorders other toxic states of behavior, cognition, or mood may, on careful physical examination, have a What can we conclude from these informal clear relationship to a temporary toxic behavioral observations? state - They allow the clinicians to make a - Ex: hyperthyroidism may have the effect preliminary determination of which areas of anxiety disorders of the patient’s behavior and condition - The clinician must first assure that the should be assessed in more detail and manifesting behavior is not due to a more formally physical condition/physiological effects - If psychological disorders remain a of a substance possibility, the clinician may begin to hypothesize which disorders might be present. This then provides more focus for the assessment and diagnostic activities to come Behavioral Assessment - Using direct observation to formally assess an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior in a specific situations or contexts - The MSE may also be employed in the beginning of the behavioral observation - Behavioral assessment may be preferable to the clinical interview in cases: Semi structured Clinical Interview o The client not being old enough for interview - Made up of questions that have been o The client is unable to report their carefully phrased and tested to elicit problems and experiences useful information in a consistent manner (sometimes people withhold so that clinicians can be sure they have information deliberately because inquired about the most important it is embarrassing or aspects of particular disorders unintentionally)  ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY - Target behaviors are identified and - The goal of collecting this information is observed with the goal of determining to see whether there are any obvious the factors that seem to influence them patterns of behavior and then to design a - Most clinicians assume that a complete treatment based on these patterns picture of a person’s problems requires direct observation in a naturalistic environment - Role-play assessment be utilized in assessing individuals who might behave in similar situations in their daily lives o Helpful in hiring Self-Monitoring - Pre-assessment may allow the clinician - The goal is to help clients monitor their to target a behavior for assessment behavior more conveniently. When o Allows for what tools are behaviors occur only in private, self- used/necessary; allows to prepare monitoring is essential what to assess and the idea of - When people observe their own behavior what to measure to find patterns o Journaling o Behavior rating scale – assessment tools before treatment and then periodically during treatment to assess changes in the person’s behavior o Brief psychiatric rating scale - Issue with behavioral observation in general is reactivity (changing of - Defiance to authority (oppositional behavior when someone is observing) defiant disorder) Behavioral Observation (clinical eye) ABC of Observation - Antecedent – what happened just before the behavior - Behavior – behavior manifested - Consequences – what happed afterwards Types of Behavioral Observation - Informal observation – relies on the Psychological Testing observer’s recollection, as well as interpretation of the events (w/o Projective Tests assessment instruments, simple - Rorschach Inkblot Tests (RIT) observations) o The psychological x-ray - Formal observation – identifying o Was widely used, but was also specific behaviors that are observable and measurable (w/ assessment controversial due to the lack of instruments; has structure) early data on reliability and - Operational definition – clarifies the validity behavior o Issues were addressed in the - Once the target behavior is selected and Exner Scoring System – John defined, an observer writes down each Exner time it occurs, along with what happened o Developed by Hermann just before (antecedent) and just after Rorschach (consequence)  ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY o Created by dropping ink onto a - Cronbach’s alpha – is high and the piece of paper and folding it questions are repetitive; high in resulting in a unique bilateral consistency symmetric form on white - Self-report questionnaires that assess background personality traits o Consisted of 10 cards, 5 were - Relies on the empirical approach rather black, 2 contained black, red, and than theories for interpretation grey, and 3 contained pastel - Minnesota Multiphasic Personality colors with different shades Inventory (MMPI) o True/false self-report questionnaire which measures for personality traits and psychopathology o Patters of responses are examined - Validity scales - Clinical scales – psychological processes - Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) o Asks client to tell a story about the pictures presented o Based on the assumption that people will reveal their unconscious mental processes in their stories about the pictures o Is the next most well-known projective test after the Rorschach o Developed by Henry Murray and Christina Morgan o Pictures/photos were utilized as the projective stimuli (consists of 30 pictures cards, and 1 blank card) o Respondents are asked to tell a - Questioned in board exam story about the picture they are shown o Has variations such as the Child Apperception Test (CAT) and Senior Apperception Test (SAT) Issues with Projective Testing - Controversial as it is rooted in psychoanalytic theory - Relative lack of reliability and validity makes them less useful as diagnostic tests - Basic Personality Inventory and 16PF Personality Inventories (Personality Factors)  ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY - Deviation IQ – statistically analyze the age of the test taker; comparing with similar age o Norm based Verbal scales – measures vocabulary, knowledge of facts, short-term memory, and verbal reasoning Performance scales – assess psychomotor abilities, nonverbal reasoning, and ability to Intelligence Testing learn new relationships The Binet-Simon Scale Neuropsychological Testing - The first test of intelligence can be - Assess the brain dysfunction by tranced back to Alfred Binet and observing the effects of the dysfunction Theodore Simon’s Binet-Simon Scale in on the person’s ability to perform certain 1904 tasks - Was used to identify individuals with intellectual disability in French schools. Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test This allowed for these learners to benefit - Originally published by Lauretta from remedial help Bender in 1938 - 2nd edition was published by Gary Brannigan and Scott Decker in 2003 - Measures visual-motor integration skills in children and adults from 4 to 85 years of age (Bender II) - Useful for screening for when brain dysfunction is suspected - The original Bender was less sophisticated as it cannot determine the nature or location of the problem/impairment - The Bender II included special populations in its test construction to account for clinical cases - Also, a projective assessment - Has two phases, the copy phase and the recall phase - The examiner shall show the stimulus cards to the examinee and the examinee will then be asked to copy each design into a blank sheet of paper – copy phase - Afterwards, the examinee is asked to redraw the design from the memory – recall phase  ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY - When in doubt, always choose the lower score - Measures executive functioning and motor skills Halsteid-Reitan Neuropsychological Battery Neuroimaging - Created by Ward Halstead and Ralph Reitan - Refers to taking accurate pictures of the - One of the most widely used fixed structure and function of the brain neuropsychological battery that can o Examining brain structures identify the nature and the area of brain o Mapping brain functioning impairment 80% of the time through blood flow - Generally, requires a full work day to complete Brain Structure - Evaluate various areas of functioning Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT among adolescence and adults Scan/CT scan) - Standardization sample included more than 10,000 individuals - Utilizes multiple X-rays from various angles to obtain an image Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery - Non-invasive and useful in locating brain - Created by Alexandr Luria at Nebraska tumors, brain injuries, and other University structural and anatomical abnormalities - Contains clinical scales designed to - Can pose a risk of cell damage due to assess cognitive processes and functions repeated exposure to radiation - Analysis of scores may lead to Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) judgement as to whether neuropsychological impairments exists - High-strength magnetic field excites the and what area of the brain is affected brain tissue altering the protons in the - Generally, 30% faster to administer hydrogen atoms. These alterations are compared to the Halsteid-Reitan measured along with the time it takes the protons to relax to normal These are reliable tools in detecting brain - Areas with lesions or damage are shown damage. where the signal is lighter or darker - False positives – walang problema pero Brain Functioning may nadetect the problema - False negatives – merong problema pero Positron emission tomography (PET) scan hindi nadetect - Patients are injected with a radioactive tracker substance attached to radioactive isotopes that reacts to blood, oxygen, or glucose - When parts of the brain become active, blood, oxygen, and glucose rushes to these areas of the brain creating “hotspots” picked up by the detectors that identify the location of the isotopes - Limitations: expensive  ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY - Useful in supplementing the MRI and the CT scan by localizing sites of brain trauma that are often from the results in brain injury or stroke, also can detect brain tumors Diagnosing Psychological Disorders Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) - Works similar to a PET scan, but uses different tracer substances - Less accurate than the PET scan but, more affordable to maintain o Because of this, it is used more Strategies in diagnosis and treatment: often than the PET scans Ideographic strategy Functional MRI (FMRI) - Gives emphasis on the unique - Allows for real time monitoring of how characteristics of an individual the brain functions such as changes in - Allows us to tailor our treatment to the oxygen level person - Most common FMRI techniques utilizes - Determine what is unique about an the Blood-Oxygen-Level-Dependent- individual’s personality, cultural FMRI (BOLD-FMRI) background, or circumstances - Different disorders may manifest Psychophysiological Assessment differently from individual to individual - Refers to measuring changes in the and may therefore allow us to create our nervous system that reflect emotional or own treatment program from one person psychological events to another o Use of Electroencephalogram Nomothetic strategy (EGG) to reveal brain wave activity - Is our understanding of the general class - EGG measures electrical activity in the of problems/disorders to which the head from specific groups of neurons to presenting problem belongs reveal brain wave activity - Allows us to understand the nature of o Alpha waves – associated with disorders which allows us to classify calmness and relaxation them (identity diagnostic features/criteria o Delta waves – associated with and allows us to classify them) nocturnal panic (happens during - Universal understanding of disorders sleep) o DSM5 o Bearing of panic disorders; Key Terms allows to further look into the nature or etiology of Classification – referring simply to any effort to psychopathological disorders construct groups or categories and to assign - Other means of psychophysiological objects or people to these categories on that assessment (often used in the study of basis of their shared attributes or relations psychological dysfunctions such as (nomothetic strategy) erectile dysfunction and vaginismus) Taxonomy – classification of entities for o Heart rate monitoring (stress, scientific purposes fight and flight responses) o Respiration (breathing) Nosology – apply a taxonomic system to o Sweat gland monitoring psychological or medical phenomena or other (electrodermal responding) clinical areas o Biofeedback  ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY Nomenclature – description of the names or - Alternative to the categorical and labels of the disorders that make up the nosology dimensional approaches, which combines (ex: anxiety and mood disorders) both approaches - Certain essential characteristics are - “nominal” – existing in name identified for classification, but allows for nonessential variations - DSM5 utilizes this approach (severity) - Many possible features or properties of the disorder are listed, and any candidate must meet enough of them to fall into the Classical Categorical Approach category - Rooted in the biological model - Categorize disorders depending on how it is manifested, how/nature of manifestation and symptomology - Originated from the work of Emil Kraepelin and the Biological Tradition of Psychopathology - Assumes that every diagnosis has an underlying pathophysiological cause Reliability – consistency (consistently diagnose (e.g., bacterial infection/brain damage) similar disorders) - Assumes that each disorder is fundamentally different from each other Validity – measure and diagnose the right o Depression is fundamentally disorder; something measures what it is designed different from anxiety to measure - To understand the cause of symptoms is - Construct validity – signs and to know what treatment will be effective symptoms chosen as criteria for the - This approach is inappropriate to the diagnostic category are consistently complexity of psychopathological associated or “go together” and what disorders they identify differs from other - Limitation: has no dimensionality categories o Familial aggression – disorder would be found among the patient’s relatives - Predictive validity – predict the course of the disorder and the likely effect of one treatment or another; predict the outcome of the disorder - Criterion validity – outcome is the Dimensional Approach criterion by which we judge the usefulness of the diagnostic category - Assumes that mood, cognition, and - Content validity – if you create criteria behavior can be quantified on a scale for a diagnosis, it should reflect the way (e.g., “from 1 to 10, how depressed do most experts in the field think; need to you feel?”) get the label right - Was previously applied to personality disorders, but outcome was generally Pre-DSM (Diagnosis before 1980) unsatisfactory - Early attempt of classification was - Most theorists have not been able to pioneered by the like of Kraepelin agree on the numbers of dimension for o Dementia praecox – psychological disorders deterioration of the brain that Prototypical Approach sometimes occur with advancing age (dementia) and develops  ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY earlier than it is supposed to, or - The DSM-IV-TR made minor changes “prematurely” (praecox) to some of the criteria to improve o Manic depressive psychosis – consistency bipolar disorder International Classification of Diseases - Created by the World Health Organization (WHO) - The ICD-6 in 1948 was the first ICD version to classify mental disorders - Currently we are on the 10th edition (ICD-10) transitioning to the 11th (ICD- 11) which came into effect on January 1, 2022 1) Any major disorders that are diagnosed (major depression, PTSD, schizophrenia; manifests in the first axis) 2) MR – intellectual disability 3) Basic/general medical condition (cancer) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental 4) Context of the patient that they are in Disorders I and II (environmental factors, stressors, etc.) 5) Meant to indicate the level of an - The DSM-I did not have much influence individual on a global scale (0 – an when it was published in 1952, but individual is unable to take care of gained traction in the later years of the him/herself; score of 100 – better 1960s functioning) - The DSM-II was published in 1968, but did not align with the ICD - Both early versions of the DSM lacked precision and heavily relied on DSM-5 unproven theories and had little - Removed the axial system due to the lack reliability of reliability and poor clinical utility DSM-III/III-R - Integrated axes I to III account for mental and other medical diagnoses - The DSM-III/III-R departed radically - Was designed to be compatible with the from the original versions, utilizing an ICD-11 atheoretical approach - Was largely unchanged from the DSM- - Specified the criteria for identifying IV, introduced new disorders, and others disorders making it possible to study its were reclassified reliability and validity (still had issues - Includes rating scales for severity, with low reliability) frequency, or duration of specific - Widely received due to the neutrality for disorders (for screening in assessment) presuming the cause of diagnosis o Cross-cutting symptoms measure DSM-IV/IV-TRR (DSM-IV/IV-TR) level 1 o Clinical-rated dimensions of - Was made to be compatible with the psychosis symptoms severity ICD-10 o WHO Disability assessment - Relied as little as possible on expert schedule 2.0 consensus, but instead based on sound - Incorporates social and cultural scientific data consideration through cultural - Eliminated the distinction between formulation (that affect the development organically based disorders and of the disorders such as protective and psychologically based disorders risk factors, collective and individualist societies)  ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY - Cultural formulation allows disorders to be described from the perspective of the client’s personal experiences and in terms of their primary social and cultural group Cultural Formulation Interview (CFI) - a brief semi structured interview for assessing cultural factors in the clinical encounter that may be used with any individual Hypothesis – educated guess of the researchers and what they expect to find - Cultural identity of the individual - Cultural conceptualization of distress – Research design – refers to the plan for testing idea of distress of the person (being the hypothesis alone, in a large or social group, Variables – any entity that can take on values psychosocial stressors) (dependent, independent/continuous, categorical, - Psychosocial stressors and cultural and nominal/demographic variables) features of vulnerability and resilience - Cultural features of the relationship - Independent variable – variable that is between the individual and clinician manipulated to influence the dependent - Overall cultural assessment variable - Dependent variable – changes/outcomes from the manipulation of the independent variable - Internal validity – the extent in which the results of the study can be attributed Changes from the DSM-5 to the DSM-5-TR to the independent variable o These are inversely related - Additional of diagnostic entities and because to ensure internal validity symptom codes you have to control the situation, o Prolonged grief disorder, to ensure that there are no unspecified mood disorder, and external factors that affect the stimulant-induced mild results neurocognitive disorder - Changes in diagnostic criteria and in - External validity – extent in which the specific definitions in more than 70 study can be applied outside of the disorders immediate study (generalizability) - Updated terminologies o Results are applicable in the real- world setting that there are a lot of factors that affect the data and CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODS the individual Issues with Internal and External Validity - Confounding variables refers to factors occurring in the study that make the results uninterpretable because a variable other than the independent  ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY variable has affected the dependent - Focuses on an intensive investigation on variable one or more individual/s who display - To ensure internal validity behavioral and/or physical patterns o Control groups o Allows for a comprehensive o Randomization in research understanding of a person, such (sample) as unique traits, behaviors, o Analogue models beliefs, etc. - Patient uniformity myth refers to the - Important in the history of psychology tendency to see all participants as (such as Freud’s and sexuality research homogenous group. This leads to an of Johnson and Masters) issue in which important differences - Relies heavily on the researcher’s among individuals are overshadowed observation (does not rely on scientific by the overall group score observation) - Limitations: there are many Ensuring Internal Validity confounding variables and it does not - Employing control and experimental have the control of other research groups methods o A control group is a group of Research by Correlation people similar to the experimental group in every way, except that - Correlational research answers the they do not receive treatment question, if two variables are statistically - Randomizing the assignment of people related improves internal validity by eliminating - A correlation only establishes systematic bias in assignments (every relationship between the variables, but person has an equal change that they may does not imply causation be in the control or experimental group, - Correlation coefficient ranges from eliminating the bias in sampling) +1.00 to -1.00 - Utilizing analogue models allows for the o Positive correlation – both research to create controlled conditions variables go up as well as go that are comparable to the phenomenon down of the study o No correlation o Negative correlation – variable 1 Statistical and Clinical Significance goes up, one variable goes down - Statistical significance – the measure of probability being compared to the acceptable levels of uncertainty o Significant relationship o Significant differences - Clinical significance – whether or not the manifestations of behavior is meaningful for those affected (such as dysfunction and impairment) Research by Experiment - An experiment involves the manipulation Types of Research Methods of an independent variable and the observation of its effects on the dependent variable - Group experimental design o Clinical trial refers to a form or group experimental design which focuses on the treatment Case study method psychological disorders  ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY - Placebo control groups – a group which - A withdrawal design gives researchers a was given an inactive version of better sense of whether or not the treatment (ex. Placebo pills instead of treatment itself caused the behavior or medication) change - Single- and double-blind control – a variant of the placebo control procedure in which participants (single blind) or both researchers and participants (double blind) are unaware of which is the placebo group (eliminates the bias in the study) - Comparative treatment - See if the behavior is due to the o Implementing multiple treatments intervention or not - Withdrawal design is not always for comparison appropriate (there are some cases that the o Ex. Comparing two different removal of treatment is not possible) treatment models for anxiety o Through the administration of - Process research medication o Focuses on answering the question “why does this work?” Single-case Experimental Designs - Differs from the case study method; reduces the confounding variables - Formalized by B.F Skinner - Refers to the systematic study of individuals under a variety of experimental conditions - In comparison to case study research, this model implements strategies to - Multiple baseline – an experimental improve internal validity approach in which the behaviors are - Repeated measures – a method in which assessed at different times/situations to the variable is measured several times establish different behaviors across before the independent variable is settings changed (before and after the o Ex. Setting a baseline in the intervention/treatment) home, and in the school setting o Helps identify a person is doing before and after intervention and Studying Genetics whether the treatment accounted - Phenotypes – the observable for any changes characteristics or behavior that the individual manifests - Genotypes – refers to the unique genetic makeup of the individual - Endophenotypes – genetic mechanisms that contributes to the underlying problems causing symptoms o We want to understand if there - Withdrawal design – method where a are any interaction of the genetic baseline is established prior to makeup of the individual and intervention, then after intervention, the their behaviors intervention is withdrawn o Also known as the ABAB or reversal design  ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY taught to everyone ex: don’t talk to strangers) - Universal prevention strategies – entire population but targets certain specific risk factors ex: anti-bullying program - Selective prevention – specifically Family studies targeting groups that are at risk ex: individuals that are at risk of substance - Researcher examine the behavioral abuse patterns/emotional traits in the context of - Indicated prevention – focuses on the the family individuals that are not yet diagnosed o Traits singled out for a study is with psychological disorders but shows called the proband signs of the disorders (individual level) - If there is a genetic influence, presumably, the trait should occur more Cross-sectional Research Design often in first-degree relatives - Cross-sectional design – compare Adoption studies different people at different ages o Ex. Comparing how alcohol - Separate environmental influences from abuse develops in adolescents/ genetics adults/ elderly o Ex: a person was adopted as a o Advantage: easier to implement baby, but still manifested rather than the longitudinal psychopathology similar to his design (time consuming, brothers who were raised in their expensive) original household - Disadvantage: Cohort effect – Twin studies differences among cohorts in their opinions (differences among cohorts and - Allow researchers to get the closest their perspective/results; cannot directly possible look of the roles of genes in compare the groups of people) development as MZ twins (identical) share most of their genes, while only DZ Longitudinal Research Design twins (fraternal) only share about 50% - Follows one person, or groups of people of their genes over time to assess changes directly Genetic linkage analysis - Does not suffer from the cohort effect, but can suffer from the cross- - Refers to the principle where family generational effect (trying to generalize disorders are studied, other inherited the findings of your study to groups that characteristics are also assessed at the are different from your research same time participants; results from generalized - If a match or link is discovered between participants are no longer the same) the inheritance of the disorder and the - Limitations inheritance of a genetic marker, the o Costly genes for the disorder and genetic marker o Time-consuming are probably close together o Risky (in the instance of losing a o Study has yet to be replicated participant) (limitations) Prevention Research - Health promotion or positive development strategies – involves the entire population even those who are may or may not be at risk (focusing on preventing problems and promoting protective behavior; behavior that is  ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY all about the study, if they are harmed to correct this) Sequential research design - Combines the longitudinal and cross- sectional designs - This includes repeatedly studying different cohorts over time - Ex: three cohorts, starting from early childhood, middle childhood, and late childhood (cross-sectional), following them until adulthood (longitudinal) Research Ethics PAP Code of Ethics – Standard X. Research - Rights and dignity of participants – respect their rights and safeguard their dignity, ensuring that they are safe and have the right to withdraw from the study whenever they deemed fit - Informed consent to research – participants consents; they must know why they are the subjects of the study, know how their data will be used, what information will be released and to whom, participants also has the right not to give consent (not forcing them to take part in the research; informed consent must be understood by the participants) - Offering inducements for research participation – make sure that we do not offer undue/inappropriate/excessive rewards, financial or otherwise for research participation which could pressure or coarse the participants - Deception in research – we refrain from deception except upon when: 1) we have determined that the use of deception is justified by significant positive scientific/societal benefits 2) when effective non-deceptive alternative procedures are not possible - Debriefing - If we deceive participants, we must debrief them (informing them