A Guide to Passing Grade in Phonetics and Phonology (PDF)

ii A GUIDE TO A PASSING GRADE IN  PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY (I HOPE) By: Stefan Stojkoski...

ii A GUIDE TO A PASSING GRADE IN  PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY (I HOPE) By: Stefan Stojkoski iii CONTENTS INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................... v THE VOWEL CHART(S)............................................................................................. 1 MONOPHTHONGS..................................................................................................... 1 DIPHTHONGS............................................................................................................ 2 VOWELS (DESCRIPTIONS)....................................................................................... 3 CONSONANTS (DESCRIPTIONS)............................................................................ 6 ALLOPHONIC FEATURES...................................................................................... 11 THEORY................................................................................................................... 13 PRACTICE................................................................................................................ 22 MOCK EXAMS.......................................................................................................... 38 SOLUTIONS............................................................................................................. 65 SOURCES................................................................................................................. 77 iv INTRODUCTION Hello to the student person who is reading this - if you are reading this because let’s be honest everyone ignores this part.  This is a short “work-book” that can help you out with your Phonetics & Phonology exam. In this book you will almost find all the things that you need to know and study for the exam. “Almost” because something new can pop up every year! In this book you will find the vowel and consonant descriptions that you need to know, the allophonic features, theory…etc…and most importantly 4 exams that almost (again) look like the original exam that you can practice and do before the actual exam or before the 4 real tries that you get from the Faculty! NOTE: Please, please make sure to also read Prof. Komar’s powerpoint presentations and book just in case something new is mentioned during lectures or if something has been updated. Happy studying and lots of luck with your exam(s)! v THE VOWEL CHART(S) MONOPHTHONGS AND DIPHTHONGS First thing’s first! You have to know and memorize where each vowel is situated on the vowel chart. It’s very imporant for the exam because you will have to draw the vowel chart and demonstrate where the vowel(s) that you are given is situated. So learn this well: where the monophthongs are situated and where diphthongs are situated, plus the gliding movement of the diphthongs! MONOPHTHONGS 1 DIPHTHONGS  2 VOWELS (DESCRIPTIONS) MONOPHTHONGS: /i:/ - The soft palate is raised. The front of the tongue is raised to a height slightly below and behind the front close position. The lips are spread. The tongue is tense. The side rims of the tongue make a light contact with the upper molars (back teeth). /ɪ/ - The soft palate is raised. This vowel is articulated with the part of the tongue nearer to centre than to front raised just above the close–mid position. The lips are loosely spread. The tongue is lax, with the side rims of the tongue making a light contact with the upper molars. /e/ - The soft palate is raised. The front of the tongue is raised between the close–mid and open– mid positions. The lips are loosely spread and wider apart. The tongue has more tension and the side rims of the tongue make a light contact with the upper molars. /æ/ - The soft palate is raised. The front of the tongue is raised between the open–mid and open positions. The mouth is wide open. The side rims of the tongue make a light contact with the upper molars. /Ʌ/ - The soft palate is raised. This vowel is articulated with the centre of the tongue raised just above the fully open position. The jaws are considerably separated and the lips are neutrally open. No contact is made between the tongue and the upper molars. /Ʌ/ does not occur in final, open syllables. /ɑ:/ - The soft palate is raised. The part of the tongue between the centre and back is in the fully open position. The jaws are considerably separated and the lips are neutrally open. No contact is made between the tongue and the upper molars. /ɒ/ - The soft palate is raised. This vowel is articulated with the back of the tongue in the fully open position. The jaws are wide apart and the lips are slightly rounded. There is no contact between the tongue and the upper molars. /ɒ/ does not occur in final, open syllables. 3 /ɔ:/ - The soft palate is raised. The back of the tongue is raised between the open–mid and close–mid positions. The lips are slightly rounded. There is no contact between the tongue and the upper molars. /ɔ:/ does not occur before /ŋ/. /ʊ/ - The soft palate is raised. This vowel is articulated with the part of the tongue nearer to centre than to back raised just above the close–mid position. The lips are neutral (unrounded). The tongue is lax, with no firm contact with the upper molars. /ʊ/ does not occur in a word– initial position or before /ŋ/. /u:/ - The soft palate is raised. This vowel is articulated with the back part of the tongue raised to the close position. The lips are closely rounded. The tongue is tense, with no firm contact with the upper molars. /ɜ:/ - The soft palate is raised. This vowel is articulated with the central part of the tongue raised between close–mid and open–mid positions. The lips are neutrally spread. There is no contact between the tongue and the upper molars. /ɜ:/ occurs in stressed syllables. /ə/ - The soft palate is raised. This vowel is articulated with the central part of the tongue raised between close–mid and open–mid positions. The lips are neutrally spread. There is no contact between the tongue and the upper molars. /ə/ occurs in unstressed syllables only. In a word– final position the vowel is articulated with the central part of the tongue raised slightly below the open–mid position and is often similar to /Ʌ/. DIPHTHONGS: /aɪ/ - The soft palate is raised. The glide begins at a point slightly behind the front open position and moves in the direction of RP/GB /ɪ/. There is an obvious closing movement of the lower jaw. The lips change from neutral to loosely spread. /eɪ/ - The soft palate is raised. The glide begins from slightly below the close–mid front position and moves in the direction of RP/GB /ɪ/. There is a slight closing movement of the lower jaw. The lips are spread. /ɔɪ/ - The soft palate is raised. The glide begins at a point between the open–mid and open back positions and moves in the direction of RP/GB /ɪ/. There is a slight closing movement of the lower jaw. The lips are open rounded for the first element, changing to neutral for the second. 4 /aʊ/ - The soft palate is raised. The glide begins at a point between the back and front open positions, slightly more fronted than the position of /ɑ:/, and moves in the direction of RP/GB /ʊ/. The lips change from a neutrally open to a weakly rounded shape. /əʊ/ - The soft palate is raised. The glide begins at a central position, between close–mid and open mid, and moves in the direction of RP/GB /ʊ/. There is a slight closing movement of the lower jaw. The lips are neutral for the first element, but tend to round on the second. /eə/ - The soft palate is raised. The glide begins in the open–mid front position and moves in the direction of RP /ə/. When the diphthong is in a final position, the second element is more open. The lips are neutrally open throughout. /ɪə/ - The soft palate is raised. The glide begins with a tongue position (approximately that used for /ɪ/), i.e. close–mid and centralized from front, and moves in the direction of RP/GB /ə/. When the diphthong is in a final position, the second element is more open. The lips are neutral throughout with a slight movement from spread to open. /ʊə/ - The soft palate is raised. The glide begins from a tongue position similar to that of /ʊ/ and moves in the direction of RP/GB /ə/. When the diphthong is in a final position, the second element is more open. The lips are weakly rounded at the beginning of the glide, becoming neutrally spread as the glide progresses. Remember: There are 12 monophthongs and 8 diphthongs. It helps. Trust me. 5 CONSONANTS (DESCRIPTIONS) /p/ – Voiceless, bilabial, plosive. The soft palate is raised. The primary obstacle to the airstream is made by the closure of the lips. Lung air is compressed behind this closure and the vocal folds are wide apart and the air escapes with force when the bilabial closure is released. /b/ – Voiced, bilabial, plosive. The soft palate is raised. The primary obstacle to the airstream is made by the closure of the lips. Lung air is compressed behind this closure and the vocal folds may or may not vibrate and the air escapes with force when the bilabial closure is released. /m/ – Voiced, bilabial, nasal. The lips form a bilabial clousre. The soft palate is lowered adding the resonance of the nasal cavity to those of the pharynx and the mouth chamber closed by the lips. Air escapes through the nose, or in addition to through the mouth, the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue so the tongue remains in the position of the following vowel or /l/. /w/ – Voiced, bilabial, approximant. The tongue assumes the position for a close-mid to close back vowel and immediately moves away to the position of the following sound. Air escapes through a relatively narrow opening in the mouth without friction but with voice. The lips are rounded. /f/ – Voiceless, labio-dental, fricative. The soft palate is raised. The inner surface of the lower lip makes a slight contact with the upper teeth so that the escaping air creates friction. Also, the point of contact will vary according to the following sound, and for this consonant the vocal folds do not vibrate because the friction is voiceless. /v/ - Voiced, labio-dental, fricative. The soft palate is raised. The inner surface of the lower lip makes a slight contact with the upper teeth so that the escaping air creates friction. Also, the point of contact will vary according to the following sound, and for this consonant the vocal folds may or may not vibrate. 6 /θ/ – Voiceless, dental, fricative. The soft palate is raised. The tip and the rims of the tongue make a light contact with the edge and inner surface of the incisors and a firmer contact with the upper side teeth, so that the escaping air produces friction between the forward surface of the tongue and the incisors. The friction is voiceless and there is no vibration of the vocal folds. /ð/ – Voiced, dental, fricative. The soft palate is raised. The tip and the rims of the tongue make a light contact with the edge and inner surface of the incisors and a firmer contact with the upper side teeth, so that the escaping air produces friction between the forward surface of the tongue and the incisors. Also, there may or may not be some vibration of the vocal folds. /t/ – Voiceless, alveolar, plosive. The soft palate is raised. The obstacle to the airstream is made by a closure between the tip and rims of the tongue and the alveolar ridge. Lung air is compressed behid the closure and the vocal folds are held wide apart. The air escapes with force when the alveolar closure is released. /d/ - Voiced, alveolar, plosive. The soft palate is raised. The obstacle to the airstream is made by a closure between the tip and rims of the tongue and the alveolar ridge. Lung air is compressed behid the closure and there may or may not be some vibration in the vocal folds. The air escapes with force when the alveolar closure is released. /s/ - Voiceless, alveolar, fricative. The soft palate is raised. The blade (or the tip and the blade) makes a light contact with the upper alveolar ridge, and the side rims of the tongue make a close contact with the upper side teeth. The airstream escapes through a narrow groove in the centre of the tongue and causes friction between the tongue and the alveolar ridge. There is very little opening between the teeth. The friction is voiceless and the vocal folds do not vibrate. /z/ - Voiced, alveolar, fricative. The soft palate is raised. The blade (or the tip and the blade) makes a light contact with the upper alveolar ridge, and the side rims of the tongue make a close contact with the upper side teeth. The airstream escapes through a narrow groove in the centre of the tongue and causes friction between the tongue and the alveolar ridge. There is very little opening between the teeth. There may or may not be some vocal fold vibration. 7 /n/ - Voiced, alveolar, nasal. The tongue forms a closure with the alveolar ridge and upper side teeth. The soft palate is lowered, adding the resonance of the nasal cavity to those of the pharynx and the mouth chamber behind the alveolar closure. The lip position depends on the vowel next to it so it can be spread, neutrally open or somewhat round. /l/ – Voiced, alveolar, approximant. The soft palate is raised. The tip of the tongue is in contact with the upper alveolar ridge, allowing the air to escape along both sides of the tongue. Air escapes through a relatively narrow opening in the mouth without friction but with voice. The lip position depends on the following vowel. For clear [l], the front of the tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate at the same time as the tip contact is made, thus giving a front vowel resonance to the consonant. For dark [ɫ], the front of the tongue is somewhat depressed and the back of the tongue is raised in the direction of the soft palate, giving a back vowel resonance to the consonant. /r/ – Voiced, post-alveolar, approximant. The soft palate is raised. The tip of the tongue is held in a position near to, but not touching the upper teeth ridge. The back rims of the tongue are touching the upper molars. The central part of the tongue is lowered, with a general contraction of the tongue, so that the effect of the tongue position is one of hollowing and slight retroflexion of the tip. The airstream is allowed to escape freely, without friction, over the central part of the tongue. The lip position depends on the following vowel so it can be spread or rounded. /ʃ/ – Voiceless, palato-alveolar fricative. The soft palate is raised. The tip and blade of the tongue make a light contact with the upper alveolar ridge, the front of the tongue is raised at the same time in the direction of the hard palate and the side rims od the tongue are in contact with the upper side teeth. The escape of the airstream is diffuse, the friction occurs between a more extensive area of the tongue and the roof of the mouth. The friction is voiceless so the vocal folds do not vibrate. /ʒ/ – Voiced, palato-alveolar fricative. The soft palate is raised. The tip and blade of the tongue make a light contact with the upper alveolar ridge, the front of the tongue is raised at the same time in the direction of the hard palate and the side rims od the tongue are in contact with the 8 upper side teeth. The escape of the airstream is diffuse, the friction occurs between a more extensive area of the tongue and the roof of the mouth. There may or may not be some vibration in the vocal folds. /tʃ/ – Voiceless, palato-alveolar affricate. The soft palate is raised and the nasal resonator is shut off. The obstacle to the airstream is made by a closure between the tip, blade and rims of the tongue and the upper alveolar ridge and side teeth. At the same time the tongue is raised towards the hard palate for the fricative release. The closure is released slowly, tha air escapes in a diffuse manner over the whole of the central surface of the tongue. Friction occurs between the blade of the tongue and the alveolar area of the roof of the mouth. The vocal folds are wide apart and there is no vibration. The shape of the mouth depends on the following sound. /dʒ/ – Voiced, palato-alveolar affricate. The soft palate is raised. The obstacle to the airstream is made by a closure between the tip, blade and rims of the tongue and the upper alveolar ridge and side teeth. At the same time the tongue is also raised towards the hard palate for the fricative release. The closure is released slowly, tha air escapes in a diffuse manner over the whole of the central surface of the tongue. Friction occurs between the blade of the tongue and the alveolar area of the roof of the mouth. There may or may not be some vibration in the vocal folds. The shape of the mouth depends on the following sound. /j/ – Voiced, palatal approximant. The tongue assumes the position for a close-mid to close front vowel and immediately moves away to the position of the following sound. Air escapes through a relatively narrow opening in the mouth without friction but with voice. The lips are generally neutral or spread. /k/ – Voiceless, velar plosive. The soft palate is raised. The primary obstacle to the airstream is made by a closure between the back of the tongue and the soft palate. The vocal folds are wide a part and they do not vibrate. The air escapes with force when the linguo-velar closure is released. /g/ – Voiced, velar plosive. The soft palate is raised. The primary obstacle to the airstream is made by a closure between the back of the tongue and the soft palate. There may or may not be  9 some vibration in the vocal folds. The air escapes with force when the linguo-velar closure is released. /ŋ/ – Voiced, velar nasal. A closure is formed in the mouth between the back of the tongue and the velum. The soft palate is lowered, adding the resonance of the nasal cavity to those of the pharynx and the mouth chamber behind the alveolar closure. The lip position depends on the preceding vowel so we have the spread and neutrally open position. And the velar nasal never appears after a voiceless consonant. /h/ – Glottal, fricative. Appears only in syllable-initial, pre-vocalic positions. The air is expelled from the lungs with considerable preassure, causing some friction throughout the vocal tact. The upper part of which is shaped in readiness for the articulation of the following vowel. There is no distinctive voiceless/voiced opposition such as characterizes the other English fricatives. Remember: There are 24 consonants.  10 ALLOPHONIC FEATURES Nasalization is when GB vowels stand next to a nasal consonant become nasalized. This is physiologically conditiones – the lowering of the soft palate for nasal consonants affects the surrounding vowels. e.g kin /kɪn/ [kĩn]; drama /ænt/ [æ nt]. ̃ Aspiration is a voiceless interval of strongly expelled breath between the release of a voiceless plosive and the following vowel. When /p/, /t/, /k/ are initial in a stressed syllable and are followed by a vowel, they are aspirated. e.g pin /pɪn/ [pʰɪn] Glottal reinforcement occurs when /p/, /t/, /k/ and /tʃ/ are in a syllable-final position following a vowel, nasal or lateral, and preceding a pause or a consonant (for /tʃ/ also a vowel). e.g pack /pæk/ [pæʔk] Devoicing occurs when /v/, /z/, /ð/, /ʒ/, /b/, /d/, /g/ are in a syllable-initial or syllable-final position, if they are next to a voiceless sound, if they are between a voiced and a voiceless sound and they are voiced (or no devoicing occurs) when they are between two voiced sounds. ]; jump /dʒʌmp/ [dʒ e.g bad /bæd/ [b̥æd̥ ʌmp] ̥ The approximants /l, w, r, j/ are partially devoiced when they follow voiceless consonants. e.g twist /twɪst/ [tw̥ɪst] The nasals are devoiced when they follow/come after a voiceless consonant. e.g /sneɪl/ [sn̥eɪl] Clear, devoiced and dark /l/: - the clear /l/ appears before vowels and /j/. /lʌv/ [lʌv̥] 11 - the devoiced [l̥ ] is fully devoiced when it follows voiceless plosives in accented syllables. [pl̥ iːz], [əˈpl̥ aɪ]… - partially devoiced when following voiceless fricatives /f, θ, s, ʃ/ in unaccented syllables. [ˈsl̥ ɒpɪ]… - partially devoiced when following voiceless plosives /p, t, k/ in unaccented syllables. [ˈsprɪŋkl̥ ə]… - the dark [ɫ] appears in the word-final; after a vowel; after a vowel, before a sonsonant; positions. [bɪɫ], [eɫs], [kəʊɫd]… Pre-Fortis Clipping (PFC) is an allophonic variation where vowels are fully long before silence and voiced consonants and reduced before voiceless consonants. e.g bead /biːd/ [biːd] vs beat /biːt/ [bit] The monophthong (the short vowel) /æ/ is lengthened before /b/, /d/, /g/ and /dʒ/. e.g bat /bæt/ -> [b̥æʔt] vs. bad /bæd/ -> [b̥æ:d̥] 12 THEORY Phonetics: studies concrete characteristics of sounds. Phonology: studies the functions of sounds in a language; contrastive segments or PHONEMES. The speech mechanism consists of: the lungs, the larynx, the vocal folds, the glottis (space between the vocal folds), the pharynx, the teeth, the hard palate, the pharyngeal wall, the lips, the tongue, the soft palate, the uvula, the lower jaw. A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit which may bring about a change of meaning. e.g /ræn/ → /rʌn/ An allophone is a pronunciation variant depending on the distribution of a phoneme in the word. e.g /lɪtl/ GB/RP – General British/Received Pronunciation. Cardinal Vowels - From [i] tongue lowered and from [ɑ] tongue raised: 8 primary cardinal vowels. Spread to rounded & rounded to spread lips: 8 secondary cardinal vowels. The monophthongs are pure, unchanging vowels. The diphthongs are considerable, voluntary glide. Pre-Fortis Clipping (PFC) is an allophonic variation where vowels are fully long before silence and voiced consonants and reduced before voiceless consonants. e.g bead /biːd/ [biːd] vs beat /biːt/ [bit] Smoothing is the process of omission of the 2nd element. e.g [aɪə] -> [a:ə] -> [a:] - fire, tyre, choir… 13 Place of articulation is where the sound is formed: bilabial, labio-dental, dental, alveolar, post alveolar, palato-alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal. Bilabial – the two lips are the primary articulators: /p, b, m ,w/. Labio-dental – the lower lip articulates with the upper teeth: /f, v/. Dental – the tongue-tip and rims articulate with the upper teeth: /θ, ð/. Alveolar – the blade, or tip and blade, of the tongue articulates with the alveolar ridge: /t, d, s, z, n, l/. Post–alveolar – the tip of the tongue articulates with the rear part of the alveolar ridge: /r/. Retroflex – the tip of the tongue is curled back to articulate with the part of the hard palate immediately behind the alveolar ridge: / ɻ/ (American English). Palato–alveolar – the blade, or the tip and blade, of the tongue articulates with the alveolar ridge and there is at the same time a raising of the front of the tongue towards the hard palate: /ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ/. Palatal – the front of the tongue articulates with the hard palate: /j/. Velar – the back of the tongue articulates with the soft palate: /k, g, ŋ/. Glottal – an obstruction or a narrowing causing friction but not vibration between the vocal folds: /h/. Manner of articulation shows us how a sound is formed; the obstruction made by the organs can be total, intermittent, partial, or may merely constitute a narrowing sufficient to cause friction; we have: plosives, affricates, fricatives, nasals and approximants. Plosive – a complete closure at some point in the vocal tract, behind which the air pressure builds up and can be released explosively; Air is stopped in the mouth and let out with explosion. /p, b, t, d, k, g/. 14 Affricate – a complete closure at some point in the vocal tract, behind which the air pressure builds up; the separation of the organs is slow so that friction occurs; Air is stopped in the mouth and let out with friction. /tʃ, dʒ/. Fricative – two organs approximate to such an extent that the airstream passes between them with friction; Air is squeezed out through a narrowing in the mouth, producing friction. /f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h/. Nasal – a complete closure at some point in the mouth, the soft palate is lowered, the air escapes through the nose; Air is stopped in the mouth and let out through the nose by lowering the soft palate. /m, n, ŋ/. Approximant – a narrowing is made in the mouth but it is not sufficient to cause friction (frictionless continuant); a vowel–like sound which phonologically functions as a consonant; Air passes out freely through the mouth with neither a stoppage nor any narrowing sufficent to produce friction /l, w, r, j/. Place of Articulation Examples (where a sound is formed) Bilabial p, b, m ,w Labio-dental f, v Dental θ, ð Alveolar t, d, s, z, n, l Post-alveolar r Palato-alveolar ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ Palatal j Velar k, g, ŋ Glottal h [ʔ] 15 Manner of Articulation Examples (how a sound is formed) Plosives p, b, t, d, k, g Air is stopped in the mouth and let out with explosion.  Affricates tʃ, dʒ Air is stopped in the mouth and let out with friction. Fricatives f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h Air is squeezed out through a narrowing in the mouth, producing friction. Nasals m, n, ŋ Air is stopped in the mouth and let out through the nose by lowering the soft palate. Approximants l, w, r, j Air passes out freely through the mouth with neither a stoppage nor any narrowing sufficent to produce friction Voice Examples Voiceless consonants p, t, k, tʃ, f, θ, s, ʃ Voiced consonants b, d, g, dʒ, v, ð, z, ʒ, m, n, ŋ, l, w, r, j Obstruents: Production of the airflow is impeded and produces noise: plosives, affricates and fricatives. Sonorants: No noise component: sonorants. Voiced sounds in which there is no noise component: nasals, approximants. 16 The general articulation has three main stages: the closing, compression and release stage. - Closing stage, during which the articulating organs move together to form a closure. - Compression stage, during which lung action compresses the air behind the closure; this stage may or may not be accompanied by voice, i.e. the vibration of the vocal folds. - Release stage, during which the organs forming the obstruction part rapidly, allowing the compressed air to escape abruptly, with an explosion; if stage 2 is voiced, the vocal fold vibration will continue; if it is voiceless, the release stage is also voiceless. Glottal Plosive [ʔ] - The obstruction to the airstream is made by the closure of the vocal folds which interrupts the passage of air into the supraglottal organs. The air pressure below the glottis is released by the sudden separation of the vocal folds. The compression stage consists of silence. The presence of [ʔ] is perceived as a sudden cessation of the preceding sound or a sudden onset of the following sound. RP: reinforces the articulation of the following voiceless plosive in an appropriate surrounding; allophone. Cockney: the glottal plosive replaces voiceless plosives. Inaudible Release in Stop Clusters - Two stops (plosives or plosive+affricate), within a word or at word boundaries: the first plosive has no audible release. The closure for the second stop is made before the release of the first, forming a further obstacle for the air. e.g dropped /p+t/, rubbed /b+d/ Germination is the sequences of identical plosives. There is no separate release of the first plosive. There is one closing stage and one release stage performed together. Approximately double–length compression stage. e.g top people /p+p/; good dog /d+d/; top boy /p+b/; white dog /t+d/ Nasal Release is Plosive + a homorganic (same place of articulation) nasal (syllabic or initial in a following syllable or word). Release of the compressed air through the nasal passage. Oral closure retained. Soft palate lowered. e.g topmost /p+m/ submerge /b+m/ 17 Lateral release are homorganic sequences of /t/+/l/, /d/+/l/. Plosives released laterally: one or both sides of the tongue are lowered to allow the air to escape; the tongue tip contact remaining. e.g syllabic /l/ : cattle, medal; /l/ initial in the next syllable or word: atlas, at last, regardless, bad light. Assimilation is the change of place of articulation. We speak of regressive or anticipatory assimilation when /t,d,n,s,z/ in the word-final position assimilate to the place of the following word-initial consonant. /t,d,n/ can be replaced by bilabials before bilabial consonants and by velars before velar consonants. /s,z/ are replaced by palato-alveolars before consonants conatining a palatal feature. e.g that plum /ðæt ‘plʌm/ -> /ðæp ‘plʌm/; that coin /ðæt ‘kɔɪn/ -> /ðæk ‘kɔɪn/; this shore /ðɪs ‘ʃɔː/ -> /ðɪʃ ‘ʃɔː/. Coalesence is when the alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/ merge with the palatal approximant /j/ and become palato-alveolar affricates /tʃ, dʒ/. Also /s/ and /z/ can merge with /j/ and form /ʃ, ʒ/. e.g don’t you: / dəʊnt ju:/ -> / dəʊntʃu:/ Elision refers to the dropping out of phonemes. It typically occurs in rapid, connected speech. Vowel elision (smoothing), it occurs when a syllable ends with a closing diphthong and the next begins with a schwa. In such cases, the second element of the diphthong is omitted. e.g our /aʊə/ -> /aə, ɑə/ even /ɑː/ Consonants can aso be elided. Alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/ can be elided when t)hey are in the middle of three consonant and the preceding consonant is of the same voicing. e.g next day /ˈnekst ‘deɪ/ -> /ˈneks ‘deɪ/ Stress: We stress nouns, verbs and adjectives and not pronouns, conjunctions etc. polysyllabic words: one prominent syllable - primary stress [ˈ]: return /rɪˈtɜːn/. Long polysyllabic words: more than one prominent syllable - primary [ˈ] and secondary stress [ˌ]: academic /ˌækəˈdemɪk/. (For the rest on stress please check out ppt 8 (Sounds in Connected Speech Word Stress) slides 21, 22 and 23).  18 Linking /r/ and intrusive /r/: the linking /r/ is pronounced when the following word begins with a vowel. The intrusive /r/ appears when there is no /r/ in spelling. e.g linking: The car was stolen /ðə kɑː wəz ˈstəʊlən/ -> The car is new /ðə kɑːr ɪz njuː/ intrusive: Law and order /lɔːr ən ˈɔːdə/ Lexical (word) stress → Polysyllabic words: one syllable stands out. e.g 'butter, ex'cept; refe'ree; at'tention Sentence (rhythmic) stress → Connected speech: some words retain lexical stress, others lose it. Strong forms are used when the grammatical word is stressed because of emphasis or contrast or when prepositions and auxiliary verbs appear in grammatical structures such as questions and comparisons. e.g. I didn’t say apples or pears, I said apples and/ænd/pears. That’s the picture I was looking at. /æt/ You were later than I was this morning. /wɒz/ He can sing well, but I can, too. /kæn/ He’s younger than I am. /æm/ They were being looked for by the police. /fɔː/  19 Strong and weak forms: An allomorph is any of two or more actual representations of a morpheme, such as the plural endings s (as in bats ), z (as in bugs ), and ɪz (as in buses ). There are no capital letters/symbols in transcription! The suffix -ed as /ɪd/, /t/ or /d/: - When the infinitive ends in /t/ or /d/, the pronunciation is /ɪd/. /pliːdɪd /. - The pronunciation /d/ occurs when the infinitive ends in a voiced sound. /əˈreɪndʒd/. - The pronunciation of /t/ occurs when the infinitive edns in a voiceless sound. /kɪkt/. The suffix -s as /ɪz/, /s/, /z/: - After the sibilants /s/, /z/, /tʃ/, /dʒ/ and /ʃ/, the final is pronounced /ɪz/. /bɪtʃɪz /. - After voiceless consonants the suffix -s is pronounced /s/. /dɪˈpɑːts/. 20 - After voiced consonants or sounds the suffix -s is pronounced /z/. /flɪŋz/. The velar nasal /ŋ/ in and : Rules. - The transcription of includes both the velar nasal /ŋ/ and the consonant /k/. /drɪŋk/. - In the word-final position, is pronounced and transcribed as /ŋ/. Even if a suffix (e.g - ness or -ing) is added, the pronunciation remains /ŋ/. is morpheme-final and pronounced /ŋ/. /ˈdrɪŋkɪŋ/. - There is an exception: When is followed by -er or -est for the comparative and the superlative forms of adjectives, /g/ is pronounced. /’lɒŋgə/. - If is not morpheme-final then it is pronounced /ŋg/. /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/. dr and tr: They remain the same in transcription! e.g dress /dres/, trap /træp/ Division of clasuses: When we divide a clasue we use | also when there is a comma, for a full stop we use ‖ or ||. e.g When I was young I always wanted to be a pilot. However, my mother always said no. |wen aɪ wəz jʌŋ| aɪ ˈɔːlweɪz ˈwɒntɪd tə bɪ ə ˈpaɪlə|| haʊˈɛvə| maɪ ˈmʌðər ˈɔːlweɪz sed nəʊ|| 21 76