The Development of Capitalism and the Rise of the Working Class PDF

## The Development of Capitalism and The Rise of the Working Class In the course of the development of capitalism, a powerful working class was formed, only it could carry out the transfer of society to socialism. Marx and Engels spoke of the inevitability of the struggle between the workers and t...

## The Development of Capitalism and The Rise of the Working Class In the course of the development of capitalism, a powerful working class was formed, only it could carry out the transfer of society to socialism. Marx and Engels spoke of the inevitability of the struggle between the workers and the bourgeoisie, as well as the inevitability of their victory in this struggle. In the 1880s, it was evident to many representatives of Russian society that capitalism was establishing itself in the country. At the same time, the growth of the worker movement was observed. All this contradicted the Narodnik theories, which claimed that Russia would achieve socialism without going through capitalism. Some Narodniks came to the conclusion that they needed to reconsider their views. As a result, the first Russian Marxist organization **“Liberation of Labor”** appeared, which included **Georgiy Plekhanov**. ### Attempts on Alexander III and His Death Alexander III also faced assassination attempts. One of them was planned for March 1, 1887 by the remaining members of **“People’s Will”** who were still at large. Early in the morning, they were all arrested and sentenced to be hanged. Among those executed was the elder brother of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, Alexander Ulyanov. In October 1888, the Tsar’s train derailed. The roof of the carriage collapsed. Alexander III miraculously held it up on his shoulders until help arrived. However, soon after this incident, the Emperor began to complain of pain in his lower back. In time, his health worsened, and he died on October 20, 1894. ### The Reign of Alexander III and His Legacy Alexander III’s tutor was **Konstantin Petrovich Pobedonostsev**, a theorist of autocracy. Among Alexander’s mentors was also historian **Sergey Mikhailovich Solovyov.** It was they who were supposed to prepare Alexander III for his reign after the death of his elder brother. One of the contemporaries described him as follows: “Emperor Alexander III was of below average intelligence, of below average abilities, and of below average education. In appearance, he resembled a large Russian peasant from the central provinces, good-natured, simple, and yet despite his appearance, he inspired with his appearance, in which his enormous character, good heart, firmness, and undoubted justice were reflected.” Fear of terrorists forced Alexander III to abandon the previous liberal course and further reforms and to proclaim “faith in the strength and truth of autocratic power.” In late April 1881, he issued a manifesto “On the Inviolability of Autocracy.” In it, the emperor claimed that he saw his main mission as strengthening autocratic power and protecting it from any encroachment upon it. Alexander III adopted a course called “counter-reforms”: under him, control over the peasantry was intensified, the lower classes were deprived of the right to vote, censorship was strengthened, many publications were closed, the police were allowed to act according to the situation, without being subject to courts. The authorities could exile undesirable persons without a trial, close educational institutions, organs of the press, and industrial enterprises without a trial. In essence, a state of emergency was established in Russia. The period of Alexander III’s reign is marked by the flourishing of Russian art. It was during this time that many masterpieces of Russian painting and music appeared. Alexander III patronized artists, musicians, and poets. The rarity of wars during Alexander III’s reign, which is why he received the nickname **Peacemaker**, was a hallmark of his reign. A gradual rapprochement between Russia and France took place, culminating in the French-Russian alliance (1891-1893), securing Russia from growing German aggression. Under Alexander III, the annexation of Central Asia to Russia was completed. The 1890s became a period of unprecedented growth of Russian industry. Within a decade, industrial production doubled in the country, and the output of heavy industry grew three times. The industries associated with new fuel sources, coal and oil, developed particularly rapidly. In 1891, the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway began, connecting the European part of Russia with Siberia and the Far East. Since 1893, after several years of relative stagnation, the country experienced a new, even more powerful upsurge in railway construction. The government actively bought private railways, creating a unified transport network across the country. ### The Emergence of the Marxist Movement A new phenomenon in Russian public life was the Marxist movement. Supporters of socialist ideas turned to the teachings of the German revolutionary philosopher and economist **Karl Marx**, who, together with his like-minded associate **Friedrich Engels**, argued that conditions for the establishment of socialist relations would arise only after the dominance of the bourgeoisie – capitalism. ### New Words and Expressions * Inviolability - Pevnost' * Control - Dozor, dohlad * To deprive - Stratit' * Encroachment - Umysel * State of emergency - Mimoriadny stav * To mark - Označiť * To arrest - Uväzniť * Hanging - Obesenie * Wreck - Katastrofa, stroskotanie ### On the Succession of Alexander II Upon the death of the Tsar-Liberator, as Alexander II was called, his son Alexander III succeeded to the Russian throne. The new Emperor was not trained to be Emperor in his childhood and youth. He wanted to be a friend and a helper of his elder brother Nikolai, whom he loved very much. But Nikolai fell seriously ill and died, and Grand Duke Alexander became the heir to the throne. ### The Assassination of Alexander II On March 1, 1881, the Emperor was traveling by carriage through St. Petersburg. A terrorist threw a bomb into his carriage, but only the terrorist was hurt. The Emperor got out of the carriage and headed towards him. At that moment, another terrorist appeared and threw another bomb right under Alexander II’s feet. Both the Tsar and the terrorist were fatally wounded. Alexander’s last words were: «To the palace. To die there…» The Tsar-Liberator died a few hours later. This was the first time in Russian history that a monarch was the victim not of a palace coup but of a clash between power and society. Alexander II went down in history as a reformer and liberator. During his reign, serfdom was abolished, universal military service was introduced, zemstvos were established, a judicial reform was carried out, censorship was limited, and a number of other reforms were carried out. The reforms carried out by Alexander II were justly called “great.” They touched upon and solved a number of socio-economic problems and widened the boundaries of the rule of law. Sadly, not all of them were completed or were limited. ### The 1861 Manifesto on the Abolition of Serfdom The defeat of the Crimean War (1853–1856) showed that Russian society needed change. The defeat in the war exposed Russia’s vulnerability, which had begun to decline into a secondary country. Alexander II began focusing on reforms—the most important was serfdom. Committees were convened to work out the main principles of drafting the law on the emancipation of the serfs. In 1861, the Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom was adopted. According to the law, the serfs received personal freedom, and the landlords were obliged to give them a portion of their land for free. The serfs were obliged to pay the landowner for the land. This was a large sum of money, and they paid for a long time—for several decades. They gave up a significant portion of their income, which was very difficult for them. The land acquired by the serfs did not belong to them personally but to the community. Consequently, the traditions of the village were preserved. If a serf didn’t want to buy land, he could go to the city to work. This would have increased the number of workers and boosted industry. The preparation for the reform encountered serious difficulties. The vast majority of the gentry opposed the reform because they didn’t want to lose their privileges and fear of losing land. When the commission voted on the bill, the majority voted against it. However, Alexander II supported the minority and signed the manifesto. Certainly, the abolition of serfdom is of great significance in Russian history, but, sadly, not all issues were resolved. As a result of the reform, the serfs got much less than they expected after so many years of struggle. After the abolition of serfdom, the serfs didn’t receive the most important part of it all—land. The abolition of serfdom was the first in a series of reforms that were carried out in Russia and were called “great.” This step was followed by reforms in other spheres. > 1861. The Manifesto on the Abolition of Serfdom. ### The 1864 Judicial Reform and Other Reforms Since 1864, a judicial reform was carried out in the country, which established an all-class, open court with the participation of juries, attorneys, and the adversarial system. A unified system of judicial institutions was established, based on the principle of equality before the law for all social groups. In 1861-1874, a military reform was carried out. Military service was shortened, and corporal punishment in the army was abolished. On January 1, 1874, the “Manifesto on Universal Military Service” was issued, establishing universal military service for all males who had reached the age of 20, regardless of class. As a result of the zemstvo (1864) and municipal (1870) reforms, bodies of local government appeared in towns and villages. The reform of public education, carried out in 1863-1864, reformed the system of higher, secondary, and elementary education. ### The Crimean War and Its Impacts The main goal of the new emperor’s foreign policy was the end of the Crimean War. On March 6, 1856, the Paris Peace Treaty was signed, returning Sevastopol to Russia in exchange for the fortress of Kars. The Black Sea was declared neutral: neither Russia nor Turkey could have a navy or coastal fortifications there. After the end of the Crimean War, the main goal of foreign policy was to revise the terms of the Paris Peace Treaty. This was tackled closely by the new Minister of Foreign Affairs, the talented diplomat Prince **Aleksander Mikhailovich Gorchakov**. The main objectives of foreign policy were identified: to emerge from international isolation and to restore Russia’s role as a great power, to repeal the humiliating articles of the Paris Peace Treaty, which prohibited having a navy or fortifications on the Black Sea.