Security PDF

Security 1. Security - Preliminary Remarks Fundamental Role: Central to International Relations (IR) and foundational in security studies. Ambiguity: ○ Defined by A. Wolfers as an "ambiguous symbol." ○ Lacks a universally accepted definition; evolves continuously. 2....

Security 1. Security - Preliminary Remarks Fundamental Role: Central to International Relations (IR) and foundational in security studies. Ambiguity: ○ Defined by A. Wolfers as an "ambiguous symbol." ○ Lacks a universally accepted definition; evolves continuously. 2. Security - Basic Classifications and Typologies 1. National vs. International: ○ National: Pertains to a state. ○ International: Related to the international system or external aspects of national security. 2. Negative vs. Positive: ○ Negative: Absence of threats. ○ Positive: Certainty of safety. 3. Internal vs. External: ○ Focus on internal or external sources of threats. 4. Static vs. Dynamic: ○ Static: A state of being secure. ○ Dynamic: A process to achieve security. 3. Security - Advanced Categories and Typologies 1. Objective vs. Subjective: ○ Objective: Real, factual security. ○ Subjective: Perceived security. 2. Four Scenarios: ○ Security: Both objective and subjective. ○ Obsession: Objective security but perceived insecurity. ○ False Security: Perceived security but objective insecurity. ○ Insecurity: Neither objective nor subjective security. 4. Dimensions of Security Analysis Who: Subject of security (actor or referent object). What: Core values or assets to be secured. How: Methods, tools, or policies to achieve security. 5. Realist View on Security – Cold War Paradigm Focus: Political-military dimension only. Negative Definition: Security as the absence of significant military threats. State-Centric: ○ State as both actor and object of security. ○ Core value: Survival of the state as a geopolitical entity. Divisible Security: ○ States build security independently (self-help or alliances). Static: Security viewed as a zero-sum game (security dilemma, J. Herz). 6. Modifications to Realist View During the Cold War 1973 Oil Crisis: Economy became integral to security. Complex Interdependence Theory (J.S. Nye, R. Keohane): ○ Highlighted transnational and non-military factors in security. Ecological Concerns: Introduced by works like Limits of Growth (Club of Rome) and Redefining Security (R. Ullman). 7. Post-Cold War Views on Security Widening Scope: ○ Non-military dimensions added (e.g., welfare, cultural identity). ○ New referent objects (e.g., society, individuals, humankind). Internationalization: ○ Indivisibility of security and common security concepts. Subjectivity: ○ Security increasingly viewed as a perception rather than an objective state. Traditional Realist Views: Still influential but less dominant. 8. Four Paradigms in IR and Security Studies Paradigm Objectivity Object of Security Scope Policy Realism Objective State as Political-militar Self-help/allia geopolitical entity y nces Liberalism Objective State as society's Political-militar Cooperation representative y + economy Constructivis Subjective Social groups (incl. Defined by Sector-depend m states) securitization ent Critical Subjective/non-c Individuals/social Identity/self-fo Countering ognizable groups cused oppression 9. Copenhagen School Model (Constructivist View) 5 Security Sectors: ○ Political, military, economic, ecological, societal (cultural). 3 Levels of Security: ○ Supranational (e.g., humankind, groups of states). ○ National (state level). ○ Sub-/Transnational (human collectivities, individuals). Securitization: ○ Defining issues as security concerns (via speech acts). ○ Existential threats to the referent object. 10. Asymmetry – Origins and Evolution Origins: U.S. military strategy (1970s); Vietnam War emphasized conflicts with disproportionate capabilities. Post-1990s Focus: ○ Asymmetry gained prominence with the U.S. as the sole superpower. ○ 9/11 highlighted global relevance of asymmetric threats. 11. Strategic Asymmetry – Definitions General Concept: ○ Gaining an advantage by leveraging differences in capabilities and strategies. Key Elements: ○ Acting, organizing, and thinking differently than opponents to exploit weaknesses. Definition by Metz & Johnson: ○ "Asymmetry: Use of difference to maximize advantages or initiative." 12. Asymmetric Threats – Definitions and Perspectives 1. Broad (Military) Definition: ○ Weaker actors using unconventional methods. ○ Unusual tactics define asymmetry, not the actor's category. ○ Examples: ballistic missiles, terrorism, irregular forces. 2. Narrow (Political) Definition: ○ Non-state actors posing threats using unconventional force. ○ Actor category (state vs. non-state) is key. 13. Characteristics of Asymmetric Threats Non-territorial, psychological, "quasi-military." Blurs internal and external security lines. Hard to deter and low-intensity (e.g., "mosquito effect"). Legal issues: Non-state actors lack legitimacy for force. 14. Categories of Asymmetric Threats (Narrow View) Terrorism: Often transnational. Organized Crime: TOCs. Piracy: Maritime threats. Rebellions: Insurgents, revolutionaries. WMDs: Use by non-state actors. IT Warfare: Cyberattacks targeting states or societies. 15. Critiques of Asymmetric Threats Concept Ambiguity: No clear threshold for defining asymmetry. Relativity: Context-dependent (varies by country or power). West-Centric: ○ Developed by Western scholars with a focus on threats relevant to Western states. ○ May mirror Western biases. International (Transnational) Terrorism Challenges in Defining Terrorism Evolution of the Term: ○ Initially viewed as a noble cause (e.g., Jacobinism during the French Revolution). ○ Currently seen as an international crime. Negative Connotations: ○ Directly linked to crime; labels serve as judgments (e.g., "terrorist" implies wrongdoing). ○ Subjectivity: "One man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter." Media and Political Impact: ○ Politicians and media heavily influence perceptions and use of the term. Dual Nature: ○ Method: A tactic of violence. ○ Political Phenomenon: Aims to achieve political goals. Key Features of Terrorism 1. Violence or Threat of Violence: Core tactic to achieve goals. 2. Psychological Impact: Designed to instill fear or terror in a broader audience beyond immediate victims. 3. Dual Targets: ○ Direct victims: Immediate focus of violence. ○ Broader audience: Influence governments or public behavior. 4. Political Nature: Goals are always politically driven. 5. Illegal and Clandestine: Conducted covertly outside legal boundaries. 6. Organized: Requires groups, not individuals acting alone. 7. Non-Combatants as Targets: Civilians or uninvolved groups. Modern Terrorism: Analytical Levels Motivational Level: Religious Terrorism: Dominates due to: ○ Acts seen as "sacred" or part of a "cosmic struggle" (Good vs. Evil). ○ Broader definitions of enemies and violence targets. ○ Utopian political goals, often ambiguous or unrealistic. Ethnic/Nationalistic Terrorism: ○ Motivated by separatism or ethno-nationalist ideologies. ○ Aims for self-determination or autonomy. Organizational Level: Decentralization and Networks: ○ Hierarchies replaced by loosely connected networks. ○ Cells operate autonomously for resilience and flexibility. Transnationalization: ○ International cooperation for logistics, recruitment, and financing. Key Trends: ○ Use of the internet for communication. ○ "Amateurization": Non-specialist perpetrators increasingly involved. ○ Umbrella Organizations: Groups providing operational support without directly executing attacks. Operational Level: Preferred Methods: ○ Conventional weapons: Guns and bombs remain dominant. ○ Copycat methods: Replicating previously successful attacks. Tactics: ○ Targeting soft targets (e.g., public transport, malls). ○ Suicide bombings for high psychological impact and low cost. ○ Recent trends: Simpler attacks (e.g., vehicle ramming, stabbings). Attack Objectives: ○ Maximize casualties and destruction. ○ Use simultaneous and coordinated attacks for impact. Religious Motivations in Terrorism Islamic Terrorism: Causes of Growth:  ○ Cultural, Economic, and Social: Rise of Islamic fundamentalism (e.g., Wahhabism, Salafism). Colonial history and Western interference. Failures of modernization post-WWII. Economic disparities and demographic pressures since the 1970s. ○ Political Events: Iranian Revolution. Afghan War and Gulf War (U.S. military presence). Arab Spring (2011) and rise of groups like ISIS. Conflicts in regions like Kashmir, Syria, and the Sahel. Characteristics: ○ High politicization with anti-Western focus. ○ Pan-Islamism: Shared identity uniting diverse groups. ○ Strong public sympathy in some areas. Other Religious Groups: Smaller scale, often tied to nationalism or utopian ideologies. Examples: Sikh separatists, radical Jewish groups, far-right Christian extremists, apocalyptic sects (e.g., Aum Shinrikyo). Ethno-Nationalistic Terrorism Specific Features: ○ Endemic and geographically restricted. ○ Clear, achievable goals. ○ Reliance on public support. ○ Often overlaps with insurgency tactics. Examples: ○ ETA (Basque separatists), IRA (Irish nationalists), LTTE (Tamil Tigers), PKK (Kurdish separatists). Other Motivations Left-Wing Terrorism: ○ Anti-globalist movements and revolutionary ideologies. Right-Wing Terrorism: ○ Extremist groups targeting minorities or promoting nationalist agendas. Single-Issue Terrorism: ○ Eco-terrorism (environmental and animal rights groups). ○ Anti-abortion violence. State-Sponsored Terrorism Forms: ○ Active: Training, funding, equipment, intelligence support. ○ Passive: Non-interference or turning a blind eye. Trends: ○ Declining due to international pressure and limited benefits. Notable Sponsors: ○ Accused states: Iran, Syria, North Korea. ○ Instances of partial state involvement: Pakistan, Saudi Arabia. Suicide Terrorism Characteristics: ○ Perpetrator’s death is integral to the attack. ○ High impact, low cost, psychological effect, and operational advantages. Trends: ○ Surge post-Cold War and after 9/11. ○ Growing use of female suicide bombers. Challenges: ○ Profiling attackers is difficult due to diverse backgrounds. ○ Indoctrination plays a crucial role in preparing individuals. Trends in Financing Terrorism 1. Criminal Activities: ○ Drug trafficking, kidnappings, counterfeiting, fraud, and revolutionary taxes. 2. Legal Sources: ○ Charities, businesses, cultural institutions, and individual donors. 3. State-Sponsored: ○ Financial and operational support from governments. International Security: Transnational Organized Crime (TOC) Definition Challenges Key Terms: ○ Organized Crime: Structured groups committing crimes. ○ Transnational Crime: Crimes spanning across national borders.  ○ Transnational Organized Crime (TOC): Organized crime with significant transnational elements. Palermo Convention (Article 2): ○ Defined as a structured group of three or more people, operating over time to commit serious crimes for financial/material gain. Key Features of TOC 1. Illegal Activity: Engaged in crimes outside legal boundaries. 2. Profit Motive: Primarily driven by financial or material benefit. 3. Group Activity: ○ Hierarchical or organized roles. ○ Division of labor among members. 4. Sustainability: Long-term operations rather than one-time actions. 5. Violence: May use violence, though not always. 6. Severity: Often involves serious crimes. 7. Transnational Nature: Includes cross-border operations and impacts. TOC's Impact on Security Dual Nature of Impact: 1. Direct Impact: Criminal activities themselves (e.g., trafficking, money laundering). 2. Secondary Impact: Effects of illicit revenues on governments and society (e.g., corruption, weakened state institutions). Characteristics of Impact: Cumulative Effects: ○ Long-term harm to economies and social systems. ○ More profound indirect consequences compared to direct criminal acts. Indirect Conflict with States: ○ Criminals seek to evade law enforcement, not necessarily to alter political systems. Multidimensional Impact: ○ Affects economic, political, and social systems. ○ Mostly seen as a non-military threat. Variations in Impact: State Roles: ○ Home State: Origin of the criminal group. ○ Host State: Main operational or market location. ○ Transit State: Key trafficking routes pass through.  ○ Service State: Provides critical services (e.g., money laundering). Government Responses: ○ Ranges from confrontation to collusion. Positive Aspects: ○ Sometimes creates jobs, boosts local investments, and increases citizen income. Organizational Characteristics of TOC 1. Variety of Organizational Models: ○ Depends on the type of crime (e.g., drug trafficking vs. financial crimes). 2. Networking and Decentralization: ○ Use of "transactional networks" (flexible, goal-oriented) vs. "directed networks" (hierarchical). ○ Employ subcontractors and buffers (insulators) for protection. ○ Strong ties with the legal economy. 3. Broader Transnationalization: ○ Members and operations span multiple countries. 4. Ethnic Bases: ○ Many groups are ethnically or culturally linked. ○ Other bonds: Family ties, shared values, or similar life experiences (e.g., military, prison). Trends in TOC 1. Transnationalization and Delocalization: ○ Global spread of operations beyond origin countries. 2. Strategic Alliances: ○ Collaboration between groups (e.g., Colombian and Mexican cartels). 3. Professionalization: ○ Recruitment of skilled personnel for specialized tasks. 4. Holding Model: ○ Organized into multiple divisions resembling corporate structures. 5. Urbanization: ○ Focus on activities in global cities. 6. White-Collar and Hi-Tech Crimes: ○ Preference for low-risk, high-reward crimes like fraud and cybercrime. 7. Increased Brutality: ○ Some groups adopt more violent tactics. Major Criminal Activities of TOC 1. Drug Production and Trafficking: ○ Largest revenue-generating activity. ○ Main categories: Natural Drugs: Opiates (opium, heroin): Produced in Afghanistan; markets in Europe/Asia. Cocaine: Produced in Colombia/Andean countries; markets in North America/Europe. Cannabis: Widespread production; trafficking in North Africa and U.S.-Mexico routes. Synthetic Drugs: ATS (Amphetamines), Ecstasy, and other pharmaceuticals. New Psychoactive Substances (NPS) like fentanyl. 2. Human Trafficking: ○ Includes illegal migration and forced labor (sex industry, agriculture, domestic work). 3. Financial Crimes: ○ Fraud, counterfeiting, and tax evasion. 4. Illegal Commodities: ○ Trafficking in luxury goods, stolen vehicles, and counterfeit products. 5. Illegal Arms Trade: ○ Often facilitated by states or state actors. Drug Trafficking: A Distinct Case Scale: ○ Annual global drug trade is valued in the hundreds of billions. Links to Other Groups: ○ Close ties with guerrilla and terrorist organizations. Global Consumption (2022): ○ Cannabis: 228 million users (increasing trend). ○ Opioids: 60 million users (stable). ○ Cocaine: 23 million users (rising). ○ Ecstasy: 20 million users (stable). ○ Injection Drugs: 14 million users (20% women); includes 1.6 million HIV-positive users. ○ At least 160,000 drug-related deaths annually. Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD): Categories 1. Traditional Categories: ○ Nuclear (N): Atomic weapons causing immense destruction. ○ Biological (B): Use of pathogens to cause diseases. ○ Chemical (C): Use of toxic substances to harm or kill. 2. New Types: ○ Radiological (R): Includes radioactive pollution without a nuclear explosion: Radioactive Dispersion Devices (RDD): "Dirty bombs." Radioactive Exposure Devices (RED). ○ Highly Explosive Conventional Weapons: Often used for mass destruction. 3. Means of Dissemination: ○ Delivery systems are critical in WMD deployment. ○ Differentiates between weaponized substances (e.g., biological agents) and non-weaponized materials (e.g., toxic waste). Factors Influencing Non-State Actors' Use of WMD Arguments Supporting Use: 1. Capability + Will: ○ WMD use depends on both having the resources and the intent. 2. Operational Advantages: ○ Psychological impact (fear and terror among the population). ○ Ease of access to components, technologies, and means of delivery. 3. State Support: ○ Some states may provide material or logistical support. 4. Inadequate State Preparedness: ○ Lack of readiness to respond effectively to WMD incidents (e.g., first responders, consequence management). Arguments Against Use: 1. Organizational and Technical Challenges: ○ Complexity in producing or deploying effective WMDs. 2. Contradictory Goals: ○ Many terrorist groups focus on political objectives incompatible with indiscriminate WMD use. 3. Limited State Support: ○ High risks for states providing support with uncertain benefits. 4. Historical Record: ○ Rare and often ineffective use of WMDs by non-state actors. ○ Low probability but high-consequence events. State Support for WMD Use Arguments Supporting State Involvement: 1. Authoritarian Regimes: ○ Vulnerable to internal instability or divisions, making them potential proliferators. 2. Non-State Actors as Proxies: ○ Useful for states to achieve objectives while avoiding direct involvement. 3. Internal Political Factions: ○ Elements within ruling elites may transfer WMDs for their agendas. 4. Irrational Leadership: ○ Some leaders may act unpredictably or irrationally. Arguments Against State Involvement: 1. Limited Number of Proliferators: ○ Few states possess WMDs or production capabilities. 2. Small Stockpiles: ○ Potential proliferators have limited arsenals. 3. Risk of Retaliation: ○ Fear of political, military, or economic repercussions. 4. Loss of Control: ○ Risk that WMDs could fall into unintended hands or be misused. Stages of WMD Use by Non-State Actors 1. Stage I: Obtaining WMDs ○ Sources: State Support: Direct transfer or facilitation. Stealing or Black Market: Challenges include security measures like Permissive Action Links (PALs). Limited availability on the black market, especially for nuclear weapons. Production: Requires access to specialized equipment, knowledge, and resources. Difficult for nuclear weapons; somewhat easier for biological or chemical weapons but with quality and quantity challenges. 2. Stage II: Transport and Storage  ○ Ease of Transport: Groups with WMD access likely possess the means to transport them. ○ Challenges: Handling radioactivity (N/R weapons). 3. Stage III: Dissemination ○ Factors: Target selection. Method of delivery (explosion, dispersion). External conditions (weather, terrain). ○ Complexity: Particularly challenging for biological and chemical agents. Historical Record of WMD Use Incidents: ○ Only 475 documented cases of CBRN (chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear) attacks in the 20th century. ○ Out of 101 terrorist attacks using potential WMDs, only 103 fatalities were recorded (low compared to conventional terrorism). Notable Cases: ○ Aum Shinrikyo (Japan): Attempted to develop nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons. Achieved limited success despite substantial resources. ○ Anthrax Letters (USA, 2001): Biological weapon (anthrax spores) sent via mail. ○ LTTE (Sri Lanka): Used chemical weapons in the 1990s. ○ Chechen Rebels (Moscow, 1995): Attempted radiological attack in Ismailov Park. ○ Rajneeshees (Oregon, 1984): Poisoned salad bars with salmonella bacteria. ○ Iraq (2003–2004): Use of chemical weapons in post-war conflict. Outcomes: ○ Most attacks caused limited damage and fatalities. ○ WMD use remains rare due to significant operational hurdles. Technological Advances and Future Risks Technological Development: ○ Advances in genetics, medical science, and nanotechnology raise concerns about the future proliferation of biological weapons. ○ These developments could lower barriers to WMD creation and increase their lethality.