Chapter 7.1 What Is Cognition? Notes PDF

**CHAPTER 7.1 WHAT IS COGNITION?** - **\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ ** **[Cognition]** is thinking, and it encompasses the processes associated with perception, knowledge, problem solving, judgment, language, and memory.\ \ Scientists who study cognition are searc...

**CHAPTER 7.1 WHAT IS COGNITION?** - **\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ ** **[Cognition]** is thinking, and it encompasses the processes associated with perception, knowledge, problem solving, judgment, language, and memory.\ \ Scientists who study cognition are searching for ways *to understand how we integrate, organize, and utilize our conscious cognitive experiences without being aware of all of the unconscious work that our brains are doing\ \ ***Note:** Cognition is an essential feature of human consciousness, yet not all aspects of cognition are consciously experienced. - **Cognitive psychology** is the field of psychology dedicated to examining how people think. It attempts to explain how and why we think the way we do by studying the interactions among human thinking, emotion, creativity, language, and problem solving, in addition to other cognitive processes. - **Human Nervous System:** is capable of handling endless streams of information. - **Emotion and memory** are powerful influences on both our thoughts and behaviors. - **CONCEPTS:** The different files stored in the file cabinet. These are categories or groupings of linguistic information, images, ideas, or memories, such as life experiences. You use concepts to see the relationships among the different elements of your experiences and to keep the information in your mind organized and accessible. **-** Concepts are informed by our **semantic memory** **-**Concepts can be **complex and abstract,** like justice, or more concrete, like types of birds. - **PROTOTYPE (**specific type of concept): Another technique used by your brain to organize information is the identification of prototypes for the concepts you have developed. **-**the best example or representation of a concept - **NATURAL CONCEPTS** are created "naturally" through your experiences and can be developed from either direct or indirect experiences. - **ARTIFICIAL CONCEPT**, on the other hand, is a concept that is defined by a specific set of characteristics. Various properties of geometric shapes, like squares and triangles, serve as useful examples of artificial concepts. - **SCHEMATA:** is a mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts **-** schemata are a method of organizing information that allows the brain to work more efficiently. **-** When a schema is activated, the brain makes immediate assumptions about the person or object being observed. \- **Types of Schemata:** **CHAPTER 7.3 PROBLEM-SOLVING** **Note:** Before finding a solution to the problem, [the problem must first be clearly identified.] - A **[problem-solving strategy]** is a plan of action used to find a solution. **TRIAL AND ERROR:** When using trial and error, you would continue to try different solutions until you solved your problem. Although trial and error is not typically one of the most time-efficient strategies, it is a commonly used one. **ALGORITHM:** is a problem-solving formula that provides you with step-by-step instructions used to achieve a desired outcome. **HEURISTIC:** is a general problem-solving framework. You can think of these as mental shortcuts that are used to solve problems. A "rule of thumb" is an example of a heuristic. Such a rule saves the person time and energy when making a decision, but despite its time-saving characteristics, it is not always the best method for making a rational decision. **Working backwards** is a useful heuristic in which you begin solving the problem by focusing on the end result. **[PITFALLS TO PROBLEM SOLVING]** [ ] - A **mental set** is where you persist in approaching a problem in a way that has worked in the past but is clearly not working now. - **Functional fixedness** is a type of mental set where you cannot perceive an object being used for something other than what it was designed for. Note: In order to make good decisions, we use our **knowledge and our reasoning.** - An **anchoring bias** occurs when you focus on one piece of information when making a decision or solving a problem. In this case, you're so focused on the amount of money you are willing to spend that you may not recognize what kinds of houses are available at that price point. - The **confirmation bias** is the tendency to focus on information that confirms your existing beliefs. - **Hindsight bias** leads you to believe that the event you just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn't. - **Representative bias** describes a faulty way of thinking, in which you unintentionally stereotype someone or something; for - **availability heuristic** is a heuristic in which you make a decision based on an example, information, or recent experience that is that readily available to you, even though it may not be the best example to inform your decision**.** **CHAPTER 8.1 HOW MEMORY FUNCTIONS** - **Memory** is the set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over different periods of time Encoding involves the input of information into the memory system. Storage is the retention of the encoded information. Retrieval, or getting the information out of memory and back into awareness, is the third function. **[FUNCTIONS OF MEMORY: ]** 1. **Encoding:** We get information into our brains through a process called **encoding**, which is the input of information into the memory system. Encoding information occurs through automatic processing and effortful processing. - **automatic processing**, or the encoding of details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words. Automatic processing is usually done without any conscious awareness. - It probably required a lot of work and attention on your part in order to encode that information. This is known as **effortful processing**  - **SEMANTIC ENCODING:** \- the encoding of words and their meaning -It was first demonstrated by **William Bousfield** (1935) in an experiment in which he asked people to memorize words. The 60 words were actually divided into 4 categories of meaning, although the participants did not know this because the words were randomly presented. When they were asked to remember the words, they tended to recall them in categories, showing that they paid attention to the meanings of the words as they learned them. - **VISUAL ENCODING** **-** encoding of images, - **ACOUSTIC ENCODING**  -is the encoding of sounds, words in particular. Note: Craik and Tulving concluded that we process verbal information best through semantic encoding, especially if we apply what is called the self-reference effect. - The **self-reference effect** is the tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance Note: Once the information has been encoded, we have to somehow retain it. Our brains take the encoded information and place it in storage.  2. **Storage** is the creation of a permanent record of information. **RICHARD ATKINSON & RICHARD SHIFFRIN:** proposed the three stages Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory and Long-Term Memory. - Baddeley and Hitch (1974) proposed a working memory model in which short-term memory has different forms. In their model, storing memories in short-term memory is like opening different files on a computer and adding information. The working memory files hold a limited amount of information. The type of short-term memory (or computer file) depends on the type of information received. There are memories in visual-spatial form, as well as memories of spoken or written material, and they are stored in three short-term systems: a visuospatial sketchpad, an episodic buffer (Baddeley, 2000), and a phonological loop. According to Baddeley and Hitch, a central executive part of memory supervises or controls the flow of information to and from the three short-term systems, and the central executive is responsible for moving information into long-term memory. - **SENSORY MEMORY:** In the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, stimuli from the environment are processed first in **sensory memory**: storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes. It is very brief storage---up to a couple of seconds. - **SHORT-TERM MEMORY:** is a temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory. The terms short-term and working memory are sometimes used interchangeably, but they are not exactly the same. Short-term memory is more accurately described as a component of working memory. Short-term memory takes information from sensory memory and sometimes connects that memory to something already in long-term memory. Short-term memory storage lasts **15 to 30 seconds.** **Rehearsal** moves information from short-term memory to long-term memory. Active rehearsal is a way of attending to information to move it from short-term to long-term memory. During active rehearsal, you repeat (practice) the information to be remembered. If you repeat it enough, it may be moved into long-term memory. For - **Long-term memory (LTM)** is the continuous storage of information. Unlike short-term memory, long-term memory storage capacity is believed to be unlimited. It encompasses all the things you can remember that happened more than just a few minutes ago. 1. **Explicit memories** are those we consciously try to remember, recall, and report. For example, if you are studying for your chemistry exam, the material you are learning will be part of your explicit memory. **\*Episodic memory** is information about events we have personally experienced (i.e., an episode). For instance, the memory of your last birthday is an episodic memory. Usually, episodic memory is reported as a story. **\*Semantic memory** is knowledge about words, concepts, and language-based knowledge and facts. Semantic memory is typically reported as facts. Semantic means having to do with language and knowledge about language. For example, answers to the following questions like "what is the definition of psychology" and "who was the first African American president of the United States" are stored in your semantic memory. 2. **Implicit memories** are long-term memories that are not part of our consciousness. Although implicit memories are learned outside of our awareness and cannot be consciously recalled, implicit memory is demonstrated in the performance of some task [**\*** IMPLICIT **PROCEDURAL MEMORY**] is often studied using observable behaviors. Implicit procedural memory stores information about the way to do something, and it is the memory for skilled actions, such as brushing your teeth, riding a bicycle, or driving a car. **\***[IMPLICIT PRIMING] is another type of implicit memory (Schacter, 1992). During priming exposure to a stimulus affects the response to a later stimulus. Stimuli can vary and may include words, pictures, and other stimuli to elicit a response or increase recognition. [**\***IMPLICIT EMOTIONAL] CONDITIONING is the type of memory involved in classically conditioned emotion responses - **Recall** is what we most often think about when we talk about memory retrieval: it means you can access information without cues. For example, you would use recall for an essay test. - **Recognition** happens when you identify information that you have previously learned after encountering it again. - **Relearning** involves learning information that you previously learned. **CHAPTER 8.4 WAYS TO ENHANCE MEMORY** **\ \ \ \ \ \ \ MEMORY- ENHANCING STRATEGIES** - One strategy is **rehearsal**, or the conscious repetition of information to be remembered - Another strategy is **chunking**: you organize information into manageable bits or chunks. Chunking is useful when trying to remember information like dates and phone numbers. - Using **elaborative rehearsal**: a technique in which you think about the meaning of new information and its relation to knowledge already stored in your memory. It involves both linking the information to knowledge already stored and repeating the information. - **Mnemonic devices** are memory aids that help us organize information for encoding. They are especially useful when we want to recall larger bits of information such as steps, stages, phases, and parts of a system - **Expressive writing** helps boost your short-term memory, particularly if you write about a traumatic experience in your life. **HOW TO STUDY EFFECTIVELY?** - **Use elaborative rehearsal**: In a famous article, Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart (1972) discussed their belief that information we process more deeply goes into long-term memory. Their theory is called **levels of processing**. If we want to remember a piece of information, we should think about it more deeply and \\link it to other information and memories to make it more meaningful. - **Apply the self-reference effect**: As you go through the process of elaborative rehearsal, it would be even more beneficial to make the material you are trying to memorize personally meaningful to you. In other words, make use of the self-reference effect. Write notes in your own words. Write definitions from the text, and then rewrite them in your own words. Relate the material to something you have already learned for another class, or think how you can apply the concepts to your own life. When you do this, you are building a web of retrieval cues that will help you access the material when you want to remember it. - **Use distributed practice**: Study across time in short durations rather than trying to cram it all in at once. Memory consolidation takes time, and studying across time allows time for memories to consolidate. In addition, cramming can cause the links between concepts to become so active that you get stuck in a link, and it prevents you from accessing the rest of the information that you learned. - **Rehearse, rehearse, rehearse**: Review the material over time, in spaced and organized study sessions. Organize and study your notes, and take practice quizzes/exams. Link the new information to other information you already know well. - **Study efficiently**: Students are great highlighters, but highlighting is not very efficient because students spend too much time studying the things they already learned. Instead of highlighting, use index cards. Write the question on one side and the answer on the other side. When you study, separate your cards into those you got right and those you got wrong. Study the ones you got wrong and keep sorting. Eventually, all your cards will be in the pile you answered correctly. - **Be aware of interference**: To reduce the likelihood of interference, study during a quiet time without interruptions or distractions (like television or music). - **Keep moving**: Of course you already know that exercise is good for your body, but did you also know it's also good for your mind? Research suggests that regular aerobic exercise (anything that gets your heart rate elevated) is beneficial for memory (van Praag, 2008). Aerobic exercise promotes neurogenesis: the growth of new brain cells in the hippocampus, an area of the brain known to play a role in memory and learning. - **Get enough sleep**: While you are sleeping, your brain is still at work. During sleep the brain organizes and consolidates information to be stored in long-term memory (Abel & Bäuml, 2013). - **Make use of mnemonic devices**: As you learned earlier in this chapter, mnemonic devices often help us to remember and recall information. There are different types of mnemonic devices, such as the acronym. An acronym is a word formed by the first letter of each of the words you want to remember. For