Ecological and Evolutionary Principles PDF

Ecological and Evolutionary Principles Ecological Interaction Ecology (ECOS) is the study of interactions between organisms and their environment and the effect of these interactions on the distribution and abundance of organisms. Resources may be renewable or non-rene...

Ecological and Evolutionary Principles Ecological Interaction Ecology (ECOS) is the study of interactions between organisms and their environment and the effect of these interactions on the distribution and abundance of organisms. Resources may be renewable or non-renewable Resources Old and new nutrients The ecological hierarchy: Individual Population Community Ecosystem Biosphere  Ecological and Evolutionary Principles Ecological Interaction I Home surrounding environment Ecology (ECOS) is the study of interactions between organisms and their environment and the effect of these interactions on the - - distribution and abundance↳ of organisms. - So than % (SO its Dominat community more Mun Resources may be renewable or non-renewable more sutible for Resources food in marin Old and new nutrients envt I Hem. (more fitting ( from outside insed The ecological hierarchy: S from decompostion Individual Population > passive feeding Community - Ecosystem > - selective feeding Biosphere be : > - indualnes ? > - population small small - S Bottom-  - same population Interactions on the scale of individuals: or diffrent (But single Many ecological interactions occur between individuals And may be classified on a plus-minus-zero system, - - depending on whether the species benefits, suffers - because of, or is not particularly affected by the interaction. Territoriality C my area Which is the maintenance of a home range, which is defended. = - - Predation Sessile Mobile and stationary predator search for prey, using- chemical, mechanical, and visual stimuli, and other specific ways. - = - Mobile predator may adjust their hunting behavior to optimize the rate of prey ingestion. (optimal foraging theory). -Tas - T God type of Need a specific energy more which require  Cont. Interactions on the scale of individuals: - Predator Avoidance Resistance to - - predators increases individual fitness and is therefore - enhanced by natural selection. D ⑫ Marine organisms avoid predators by means of crypsis, deceit, and ③ escape responses. - Loading… - Develop various morphologic features e.g. spines, tentacles, Armored part. - Many marine organisms are defended chemically by toxic organic - compounds, acid secretion, and toxic metals. - - The presence of toxic defense substances is often associated with - conspicuous coloration. - Mechanical and chemical defenses against predation change in temprelure frequency with latitude, habitat and oceanic basin. --- varition affect Microhabitats can strongly affect a creature’s vulnerability to predators. of the activity organism  Cont. Interactions on the scale of individuals: Commensalisms H , 0) Commensalisms relationships benefit one species only. The benefit usually relates to foods, substratum or burrow space. (tube warm ≠crab larvae or fish larvae) Mutualism 7t , + ) Is an evolved association among two or more species that benefits all participants. (obligation or independency) Mutualism often reduces the risk of predation or disease, or provides food for one member of the species pair. Parasitism (t - - Occurs when one species lives at the expense of another, without consuming it totally as food, and thereby killing it. Parasites of invertebrates often affect the reproduction of the host. Parasites often have complete life cycles that depend upon more than one host species.  Complex life cycle of marine parasites example of parasite. s d 7 - Loading… In each step there is a host which affect *  The Population Level ↳ A population is a group of individuals that are affected by the same overall environment, and are relatively unconnected with other populations of the same species. of > (Population size, population density, biomass) - the living wight j - population number indvetual ↳ number of indrechall in unit area of of any population m3 it Population change stems from survival, birth, death, - - - in Marin immigration and emigration. (generation time, year class, ~ env - growth rings) - - catching = - 1 ml = 1 cm Predation IL Limiting resources may affect population growth. = 1000 ch # = 1L = 1000m * O Lean Acidification & thnology I P Exp.. si z Carrying e ↳ low age capacity time P. si z e ↓ ~ time -- Interspecific - competition P Space Travela. - - - Sammer si z e time Gammarus expt.  spalice ---1111111 Spatial Variation (distribution) Spatial distribution is a measure of the spacing among - individuals in a given area. - A population may show a regular change in density along a sampling line (vertical or horizontal). dop - = > -wind more th only..................... Patchy....... Random Uniform Aggregated everthing bate Cluster is calm "Marin environment is a dynamic system  Spatial Variation (distribution) Spatial autocorrelation Is the prediction of a population density at one site from the density at a neighboring site. It occurs if: 1. There is a change in the environment that affect survival - of certain sp. 2. The population itself is moving to/in a defined direction (migration). 3. A random process occur, which can cause a non-random = pattern.  The Ecosystem Level - An ecosystem is a group of interdependent communities in a single geographic area, capable of living nearly independently - - of other ecosystem. Phytoplankton Nearly all ecosystems have- primary producers (mainly plants), which are consumed by herbivores which - in turn are zooplankton eaten by carnivores. Materials escaping from this cycle passes - through the saprophyte cycle. > produc of carbon by = > - - Photo synchisi Biomass, productivity, primary productivity and secondary - - produce Benefit I to productivity. Organism Ecosystem studies usually account for the process that affect movement of materials and energy through food webs and ↑ - through the non living part of the ecosystem. (4) T Sedimentary PROCESSES IN THE OPEN SEA Critical Loading… - factors in plankton Abundance What mak plankton present in some area shall Her  luviston mishest sories to -- Mid lattide put Y ~................. Introduction Zooplankton [....... Phase ' I Al D Winter spring summer a Seasonal pattern of planktonic abundance X In mid latitudes, phytoplankton increase in spring, decline in - - = summer and may increase to a lesser extent in fall. - - X Zooplankton start to increase as the phytoplankton bloom - reaches its peak (reach a maximum), in the early summer. > - - = The spring phytoplankton peak and the later zooplankton peak are shortest and sharpest in high latitudes and become - & - - in distinct in the tropics. (clear water phase) Phytoplankton-Zooplankton seasonal variations in Mid latitude  Cont. introduction exportion of water fromCh - Im surface until -min Water column parameters Stability and light Because light decreases exponentially with increasing - depth, there is a compensation depth, below which - respiration for a given phytoplankton cell exceeds - - photosynthetic output. - - In winter, the water density is about the same throughout the water column, and phytoplankton cells are stirred on average to depths that prevent average photosynthesis from permitting the phytoplankton population to increase. - - (maximum depth, water column stability, critical depth) ton on = production 200phytsplants consumption and depth by Oc consation respiration  extend from surfice so a depth to Euphidic : * Zone C wich th qunity of life Iy 50 Cont. Stability and light th instent light on sea , surfus 11 - - As the spring temperature increases, the surface water warm up, and the water column stabilizes. Nutrients are lost to deeper - waters and the phytoplankton bloom is depressed. - O In very shallow water estuaries, nutrient exchange, or benthic - planktonic coupling, occurs between the bottom and the water - column, and fuels more phytoplankton growth. - In estuaries, the spring freshet combines with net water flow to - the sea and mixing to determine the nutrient regime. > - = Pry productivity, Pry production, Assimilation number - - ~ I Primely La unit slow for (older more area , Chlorophyll per time a of organic carbon produce by photoplans to per meter cabi pert day  Phytoplankton prefer different wave long Light Based onzyme of pigment Light is often inhibitory to photosynthesis near the surface, but a series of photosynthetic pigments capture light over much of the visible spectrum. & Visiabe light Photosynthesis increases with & increasing light intensity, up to - f a-plateau, then inhibited by high light intensity. - - = PAR (Photo Suthicis Available Radu Fish :  Nutrients um Required by Phytoplankton Anshaul PhSShOLTPOL inorganic (Macroniartnt) Nitrogen (Nitiul Nitrate , , Silli ste (SiO2) ) dictum Nutrients are required by plants. They may Marin occur in dissolved and particulate form. Snow 4 Soft and - - - easi food AAutotrophic # Autotrophic uptake (inorganic and organic respect) = - Organic materials taken by heterotrophy - also includes marine snow. - flask of frozen organic matter Red field Ratio ⑮water aulity for phytoplankton growth - - marin ( With scale in water it called snow  Cont. Nutrients Required by Phytoplankton Nitrogen It is required for protein synthesis, and is taken up in the form of - -A - ammonium, nitrite and nitrate. - Nitrogen supplied to phytoplankton can be divided between that- provided from new production and that provided from regenerated production. - - - Nitrogen recycles between phytoplankton and the bottom in - shallow-water environments. Zooplankton excretion is another major - -- source of recycling. - # Nitrogen cycling is intimately involved with microbial - transformation. - -  Cont. Nutrients Required by Phytoplankton Phosphorous every there is no (without Phosphatas It is occurring in sea water as inorganic phosphate, it is required for the synthesis of ATP , and it is crucial energy source in enzymatic reactions. Nitrogen: Phosphorous ratio in the sea: the nitrogen to phosphorous ratio in the sea is generally 15:1 and it is regulated by uptake and decomposition of ph.pl.  Cont. Nutrients Required by Phytoplankton A) Silicon Mainly for diatoms s Trace Metals They play an important role in oxidizing system and iron is a co-factor in the O2 evolution step in photosynthesis  ·> Sessional succession ⑮ Phytoplankton Succession During the production season, there is a successional sequence of - - phytoplankton species whose general prosperities correspond to the - - seasonal trend of nutrients a availability. > - & Differential - dependence on substances may influence the succession - => of ph.pl. species during the production season. => = -- - The microbial loop: Nutrient cycling by Heterotrophs and Chemoautotrophs runing between des trophic level Phytoplankton may take up molecules, but bacteria are the major heterotrophic consumer in the water column. Protistans are the major consumers of water-column bacteria and are (themselves a major components of the food of zooplankton. lol pro Rate of Nutrient uptake * Nutrient uptake increases with increasing nutrient concentration, up to plateau. - Inshore phytoplankton live at higher nutrient concentrations and - - - would be expected to be able to- - take up nutrients - at higher nutrient concentrations in the environment, relative to open-ocean - = phytoplankton, which would be expected to more efficient at low - concentrations. - - A stable water column, input of nutrients, and sometimes an initial input of resting stages all combine to promote dense “nuisance” phytoplankton blooms, principally some dinoflagellate and cyanobacteria.  -- Zooplankton Grazing Zooplankton grazing and abundance usually follows phytoplankton abundance. Although zooplankton growth depends upon phytoplankton growth, it is not always clear that zooplankton grazing controls phytoplankton abundance. Feeding behavior varies with phytoplankton cell size and cell concentration (cell per unit volume). Zooplankton can select particles copepods, this involves direct plucking of preferred particles, rather than straining of particle on a feeding sieve.  ↑ & * ⑨ # ↑ T ↑ A A - ↑ Popr for d wep