Livestock Management and Disease Control PDF

# INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE (ANP 207) ## MANAGEMENT AND DISEASE CONTROL IN LIVESTOCK FARM ### LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS Production system can be broadly categorized into modern and traditional system. Production can also be commercial and subsistence largely depending on the scale. These pr...

# INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE (ANP 207) ## MANAGEMENT AND DISEASE CONTROL IN LIVESTOCK FARM ### LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS Production system can be broadly categorized into modern and traditional system. Production can also be commercial and subsistence largely depending on the scale. These production systems can further be divided into: 1. **Extensive:** This system is characterized by zero or very low inputs (in form of housing, feeding, medication) from keepers of the animal. Animals kept under this are always few. An example is the foraging animals common in the rural areas and pastoral production of cattle in the arid region of Nigeria. 2. **Semi-intensive:** In this system, the livestock farmers provide some inputs for the upkeep of the animals. Housing and part of the feed needed by the animals are often the major inputs provided. Some medication and health services are also provided. The flock size here is medium, and can range from 10-20. The animals are allowed to forage or graze for their remaining nutritional requirements. An example is the backyard village poultry, goat and sheep production and the agro-pastoral cattle production system. 3. **Intensive:** The system is characterized by the provision of all inputs needed by the reared animals. Housing, feeding and medication are fully provided. It is common in commercial production of animals adopted by large livestock farms. It can also be seen under the traditional method. The flock size is large and the animals are often housed in limited spaces, hence there is always risk of outbreak of diseases. In ruminants production, tethering, stall-feeding, use of cultivated pasture and integration with tree crops are all forms of intensive production system under the traditional animal production system. ### ROUTINE MANAGEMENT (DEFINITION, IMPORTANCE, LIST AND BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF COMMON MANAGEMENT PROCEDURES) Routine management is a series of activities that ensures the welfare of animals under rearing. Routine management procedures may differ under the three major livestock production systems (extensive, intensive and semi - intensive systems). They may be daily or occasional. Management activities include: 1. **Feeding:** this is the adequate provision of feed with requisite nutrients for the animal. Animals need adequate nutrition for growth and maintenance. In addition, proper nutrition provides energy for work and important functions in the animal's body. Examples of these functions are the production of various animal products (such as milk, meat, fat, etc.), reproduction and development of various systems of the body (e.g. skeletal, reproductive, nervous, circulatory, endocrine, etc.) and maintenance of body temperature. Deficient nutrition can negatively affect animals' growth and health leading to increased cost of production, reduced return on investment and even total loss of investment. There are six classes of nutrients namely carbohydrate, protein, water, fats, minerals and vitamins. These nutrients are gotten from roughages and concentrates. Roughages are feed that are high in fiber and low in energy such as grasses, hays and silages. While concentrates are low in fiber and high in energy such as grains. Nutritional requirements of animals differ with age, use and reproductive status. Feed additives, which can be growth regulators or antibiotics, are sometimes added to animal feeds for rapid growth, increased production of animal products and maintenance of good health. 2. **Provision of water:** water is not classified as a nutrient though it is essential for animals and makes up a large proportion of (up to 75%) their bodies. It forms the basis of fluids in the body and it is indispensable for critical functions (digestion, blood circulation and waste removal). It dissolves nutrients and regulates body temperature through perspiration and evaporation. Hence, fresh and clean water should always be provided for the animal. Working animals need more water than others do and more water should be provided for all animals during hot weather. 3. **Good hygiene:** the animal's house and surroundings must be kept clean at all times. This involves removal of feces, urine, litter and other dirt that might have accumulated around the animal. Bushes surrounding the animals' house must also be cleared. Houses, pens and cages of animals should also be fumigated occasionally especially after stock disposal and when restocking. 4. **Proper stocking density:** this is keeping the appropriate number of animals in the required space. This is especially important under the intensive system where the efficient use of space is important. Part of factors to consider when determining stocking density include animal size, feeder space, drinker space, house dimensions, bird welfare, nutrition, breed, performance, etc. For example, one or two cattle should be housed in a space of one m² when keeping cattle in paddocks. For broiler and rabbit, it is 12-16 animals/m² and 10-15 animals/m² respectively. 5. **Vaccination:** vaccination is the introduction of a killed or weakened organism such as bacteria or virus into the body of an animal to bring about immunity in its body against the organism's activities. As a result, the animal becomes protected from the diseases that can be caused by the organism. 6. **Spraying and dipping:** spraying and dipping is done to control ectoparasites on animals. Common ectoparasites are lice, mites, bugs, mosquitoes and flies. While spraying involves sprinkling insecticides on the body of the animals to get rid of the ectoparasite, dipping involves immersing the animal into a bath infused with insecticides to get rid of the ectoparasite on its body. Spraying is not cost efficient and effective as dipping and it is only recommended for young and small animals that cannot be dipped in baths safely. Livestock pesticides can also be made in form of wettable powders, pour-ons, spot-ons, emulsifiable concentrates, smears, feed additives, dusts, injectables, aerosols, impregnated PVC, baits and pastes. Avermectin (Ivomec), Carbaryl (Sevin®), Fenthion (Tiguvon®), Lindane and Permethrin (Permectrin II®) are some of the active compound in the various forms of insecticides. 7. **De-worming:** it is the application of appropriate pesticide to control internal parasite in an animal. It is also referred to as drenching. Internal parasites competes with the animal on the available nutrients derived from feed fed the animal thereby causing malnourishment, disease conditions and reduced productivity. Internal parasites of major concern in livestock include nematodes (roundworms), cestodes (tapeworms) and trematodes (flukes). Young animals should be dewormed between the age of 6-8 weeks and thereafter dewormed once in one or two months interval. Pregnant animals should not be dewormed in early pregnancy but it is recommended 2 - 4 months before parturition to prevent worm from getting to the newborn animal. Adult Animals should be dewormed at least once in a year especially in the rainy season when the pest population is high. Albendazole, Pyrantel and Ivermectin are common anthelmintic. 8. **Debeaking:** it is the partial removal of the anterior tip of the beak from the upper mandible alone or upper and lower mandibles together. It is carried out as a prevention against feather-picking, fighting, and cannibalism in birds under intensive system. Because it is a painful procedure it is recommended to do debeaking early in a bird's life especially within the first ten days of hatching. 9. **Disbudding and dehorning:** Animals are usually dehorned to prevent them and their handlers from injuries that might occur from the horns of the animals. It is also done for easier handling and management of the animals. Disbudding is the removal of the buds of the horn before they grow into horns and they are attached to the skull. It is usually done when the animal is very young (within 4 weeks of birth). Dehorning is the removal of already growing horns in relatively young animals (2 months). It can be done by cauterization (using heat), dehorning paste (chemical), obstetrical wire, dehorning knife and saw (mechanical). 10. **Weighing:** weighing of animal is an important management practice that cannot be over emphasized. Calibrated scales are the tool of choice to determine the weight of an animal. At places where they are absent linear measurements using tapes can be used to estimate weight also. It is done for basic reasons among which are to determine proper feed rations, to administer the proper dosage of medication, to track individual animal growth and their use of feed (feed efficiency) 11. **Castration:** it is the removal of some part of the reproductive system of the male animal thereby making the animal unable to produce spermatozoa and vastly reduce the production of testosterone. Parts that are usually removed are the testes, epididymis and a fraction of the spermatic cords. In addition, castration can be done by destroying the testes without removing it from the body of the animal. When testes are removed, the surgical method is used by using surgery knives, blades and scalpels. When testes are destroyed without removal, Burdizzo or elastrator are used. The operation is normally carried out when the animal is young (within 3 weeks of age) though older animals can also be castrated. Part of the reasons for castration includes improving the quality of meat, control of breeding and improved handling (especially in aggressive animals). ### DISEASES (DEFINITION, COMMON EXAMPLES AND IMPLICATIONS) A disease is a disorder of structure or function in an animal, which produces specific symptoms, and it is not simply a direct result of physical injury. Causes of diseases may be one or the combination of infection, genetic defect and environmental stress. Thus, bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, incomplete diet and poisons can cause diseases. Adverse environmental conditions such as extreme temperatures and humidity, windy situation, etc. can contribute to the incidence and intensity of diseases. Many microorganism especially bacteria, fungi and viruses cause diseases in livestock. Bacteria and fungi infections can be treated with antibiotics and fungicides respectively. Viral diseases cannot be treated with antibiotics but vaccines are effective for preventing some viral diseases. There are treatments for fungal diseases but they can be prevented and treated by maintaining a hygienic environment. Parasites can irritate animal, and some transmit bacteria and viruses. Parasites are categorized as either internal or external, depending on where they live in or on the animal. External parasites such as mites, lice, and ticks generally bite and irritate birds but can also cause blood loss (under heavy infestation) and transmit diseases. Flies, fleas, beetles and mosquitoes transmit diseases like fowl pox between birds and they can also concentrate poisons. Internal parasites can be small (e.g. coccidia) or large (e.g. worms). There are treatments and vaccines for some internal parasites. Microorganisms (fungi and bacteria) produce poisons like botulin and aflatoxin. Poisons that are made by humans, like pesticides or disinfectants, can also cause clinical signs in livestock if they eat or drink them. Nutritional deficiencies can result in signs of illness and death, especially in young animals. Once the nutritional deficit has been identified and corrected, the animal will often make a rapid recovery. Environmental conditions, especially high (more than low) temperatures can kill large numbers of animal and it is among the key causes of high mortality. ### CATEGORISATION OF DISEASES IN LIVESTOCK #### COMMUNICABLE OR NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES Livestock diseases may be communicable or non-communicable. They may also be zoonotic or azoonotic. Zoonotic diseases are livestock diseases that can be transmitted to man while azoonotic diseases do not affect man. #### LETHALITY OF DISEASES Effect of diseases on animals is often lethal and costly because they impair the normal functioning of the animal. Animal diseases and conditions can be divided into three categories. 1. **Category 1** - Death in the flock is very high - often up to 100%. - Multiple organ systems (respiratory, digestive, nervous, reproductive, etc,) are affected by these diseases. - Trade restrictions may be associated with these diseases; quarantines and notification of animal health authorities may be required. - Prevention through vaccination and bio security are the only options for controlling the disease is ineffective. Destroying the whole flock may be the only option for controlling the disease once animals are infected. 2. **Category 2** - Mortality is lower than in Category 1 disease and treatment is possible. - Only one or a few organ systems are involved. - These diseases limit how much income a community can earn from poultry flocks. - They result in the death of some animals, decrease reproduction, and lower feed conversion rates. - There are medications, vaccinations, and other treatments available for these diseases. 3. **Category 3** - These are conditions rather than diseases, and are not caused by organisms that are spread between animals. - They may affect multiple organ systems. - They are mainly environmental in origin and control is mostly through providing adequate housing and sanitation. - Medication may be available for some conditions in this category. ### DIRECT IMPACT OF DISEASES ON LIVESTOCK INDUSTRY Disease is one of the major factors that prevent full utilization of animal resources and products in many regions in the tropics. Various infectious and transmissible (viral, rickettsial, bacterial, protozoan and helminthic) diseases are widespread in the tropics and exert a heavy toll on the livestock industry. This situation also discourages investment in the livestock industry by the private and public sectors. For example, in Africa alone, it is estimated that 125 million head of cattle could be accommodated in the tropical rain belt if the disease and other animal husbandry factors could be resolved. Impact of livestock diseases on the livestock industry include; 1. Loss of animal products 2. Laying off of workers 3. Ban on exportation of animal products 4. Increased cost of production 5. Cost on quarantine, culling, whole scale eradication of flocks and their disposal 6. Decreased consumption of animal protein products. 7. Loss of income of livestock farmers ### DISEASED ORGAN SYSTEMS AND THEIR CLINICAL SIGNS | Organ system | Function | Examples of clinical signs | |-------------|--------------------------|--------------------------------------| | Respiratory | Breathing | Gasping, coughing | | Digestive | Eating, defecating, weight gain | Thin animals, abnormal faeces | | Skin & feathers | Protection from the environment | Sores, feather loss | | Nervous | Coordination, standing, walking | Twisted neck, rolling, can't maintain balance, paralysis | | Reproductive | Laying eggs, reproducing young ones, milk production | Decreased eggs, foetus, infertility, abortion | | Muscles & skeleton | Walking, flapping wings | Cannot stand, swollen joints | | Immune | Protection from disease, response to vaccination | Frequent infections | ### EXAMPLES OF SOME COMMON DISEASES, THEIR CONTROL AND TREATMENT | No | Disease | Animal | Causal organism | Symptom | Control/treatment | |---|--------------------------------------------|--------------------------|-------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------| | 1 | Peste des petits ruminants | Goat(mostly) and sheep | Virus | Coughing, sneezing, eyes and nose discharge, sudden death, diarrhoea, drop in egg production | Good hygiene, vaccination | | 2 | Newcastle disease (zoonotic) | Poultry | Virus | Late pregnancy abortion, reduced milk, weak young ones, fever | Adequate ventilation, vaccination and good hygiene | | 3 | Brucellosis (zoonotic) | Cattle | Bacteria | Lack of appetite, unkempt appearance, bloody faeces, difficult breathing | Good hygiene, vaccination | | 4 | Coccidiosis | Poultry, cattle, goat, rabbit, sheep | Protozoa (Eimeria spp.) | | Proper housing to protect from cold and wind , antibiotics, coccidiostats, vaccination | | 5 | Pneumonia | Cattle, goat, sheep, rabbit | Bacteria, mycoplasma | Coughing, nasal discharge, sudden death, gasping, tremors of the head and neck, diarrhoea | Good hygiene, adequate nutrition, vaccination | | 6 | Avian influenza (zoonotic) | Poultry | Virus | Anaemia, fever, reduced productivity, death | Adequate nutrition, good hygiene, antibiotics, use of resistant breeds | | 7 | Trypanosomosis | Cattle, goat and sheep | Protozoa | High fever, anaemia, sudden death, Dipping, rotational grazing, antibiotics | | 8 | Babesiosis | Cattle, goat and sheep | Protozoa | | Dipping, antibiotics | | 9 | Heartwater | Goat and Sheep | Rickettsial | Sudden death, fever, lack of appetite, inbalance, consumption, diarrhoea | Dipping, antibiotics | | 10 | Fowl cholera | Poultry | Bacteria | Fever, reduced consumption, diarrhoea | Antibiotics, vaccination, good hygiene | | 11 | Aflatoxicosis | Poultry | Fungi | Depression, lack of appetite, reduced production, convulsions, mortality | Good hygiene, not feeding contaminated feed, antibiotics, supply of increased proteins, vitamins and trace elements. | | 12 | Ergotism | Chicken | Fungi | Reduced production, ruffled feather, necrosis | Good hygiene, not feeding contaminated feed, antibiotics, supply of increased proteins, vitamins and trace elements. | | 13 | Mange | Cattle, sheep, goat, rabbit | Parasitic mites | Itching, skin lesions, alopecia, dandruff | Avoidance of overcrowding, good hygiene, dipping. | | 14 | Flea and louse infestation | Cattle, sheep, goat, poultry | Flea and louse | Itching, restlessness, skin lesions, alopecia, anaemia | Avoidance of overcrowding, good hygiene, dipping, spraying | | 15 | Heamonchonsis | Goat and sheep | Gastrointestinal nematode | Anaemia, loss in weight, dark coloured faeces, sudden death | Hygienic pasture and fodder, avoidance of overcrowding, anthelminthics, immunisation, use of resistance breeds |