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Biological/Physiological Psychology Jade Gomez | MWF | 5:00pm-7:00pm Chapter 3: Anatomy and Research Methods Central Nervous System (CNS) Term Meaning...

Biological/Physiological Psychology Jade Gomez | MWF | 5:00pm-7:00pm Chapter 3: Anatomy and Research Methods Central Nervous System (CNS) Term Meaning Lamina A row or layer of cell bodies separated from It consists of the brain and spinal cord other cell bodies by a layer of axons and dendrites Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Column A set of cells perpendicular to the surface of the cortex with similar properties It consists of the nerves outside the brain and the spinal cord. It has two divisions: Tract A set of axons within the CNS; aka projection Somatic Nervous System It consists of nerves that convey messages from the sensory Nerve A set of axons in the periphery. Either from organs to the CNS and from the CNS to the muscles and glands the CNS to a muscle/gland or from a Autonomic Nervous System sensory organ to the CNS It is a set of neurons that control the heart, the intestines, and other organs. Ganglion A cluster of neuron cell bodies; usually outside the CNS Anatomical Terms Referring to Direction Gyrus A protuberance (bump, lump, ridge, growth) (pl. gyri) on the surface of the brain Term Meaning Sulcus A fold or groove that separates one gyrus (pl. from another Dorsal Toward the back sulci) Ventral Toward the stomach Fissure A long, deep sulcus Anterior Toward the front The Spinal Cord Posterior Toward the rear Superior Above another part It is the part of the CNS found within the spinal column. It communicates with the sensory organs and muscles below the Inferior Below another part level of the head. Lateral Toward the side; away from the midline It is a segmented structure, wherein each segment sends sensory information to the brain and receives motor commands from Medial Toward the midline; away from the side the brain. Proximal Located close to the point of origin or attachment BellMagendie Law It states that dorsal roots enter the spinal cord carrying Distal Located more distant from the point of information from sensory organs; ventral roots exit the spinal cord origin or attachment carrying motor information to muscles and glands. Ipsilatera On the same side of the body l Dorsal Root Ganglia These are clusters of sensory neuron cell bodies located outside Contralat On the opposite side of the body the spinal cord. eral Gray Matter Coronal Plane that shows the brain structures as It lies in the center of the spinal cord, packed with cell bodies and plane seen from the front dendrites. Sagittal Plane that shows the brain structures as plane seen from the side White Matter It lies in the periphery of the spinal cord, composed mainly of Horizonta Plane that shows brain structures as seen myelinated axons. l plane from above Sympathetic Nervous System Terms Referring to Parts of the Nervous System  It is the “fight or flight” system. It prepares the body for action It is the brain structure that lies anterior and ventral to the by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, etc. medulla. Like the medulla, it contains nuclei for several cranial nerves. It consists of two paired chains of ganglia lying near the spinal Its axons cross from one side of the brain to the other. cord’s central regions (thoracic and lumbar areas) and connected by axons to the spinal cord. Cerebellum It organizes sensory information that guides movement. Because the ganglia for the sympathetic nervous system are Reticular Formation and Raphe System near the spinal cord, they often act as a single system. They lie in both the pons and medulla. Both systems affect attention and arousal The sweat glands, adrenal glands, the muscles that constrict blood vessels, and the muscles that erect the hairs of the skin only receive sympathetic input. The Midbrain: Middle of the Brain Tectum Parasympathetic Nervous System It is Latin for roof. It consisted of the superior and inferior colliculus. It is the vegetative nonemergency system. Its activities are generally opposite of sympathetic activities. Tegmentum It is Latin for covering. It is also known as the craniosacral system, because it consists It includes the III and IV cranial nerve nuclei, part of the of cranial nerves and nerves from the sacral spinal cord. reticular formation, and many important pathways. The parasympathetic ganglia are not close to the spinal cord. Substantia Nigra It is the midbrain structure that contains dopamine neurons. Long preganglionic fibers extend from the spinal cord to the ganglia that are located close to the target organs. The Forebrain: The Most Prominent Part of the Human Brain Short postganglionic fibers extend from the ganglia to the It consists of two cerebral hemispheres, one on the left side and nearby organs. one on the right. Neurotransmitters of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Each hemisphere receives contralateral sensory information and System controls contralateral motor movement. Parasympathetic postganglionic fibers release acetylcholine. Limbic System It comprises the olfactory bulb, hypothalamus, hippocampus, Most sympathetic postganglionic fibers release norepinephrine, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus. although a few sympathetic postganglionic fibers use acetylcholine. It is involved in motivational and emotional behaviors (e.g. eating, drinking, sexual activity, anxiety, and aggression) Major Divisions of the Brain Thalamus The thalamus and hypothalamus form the diencephalon. The rest The brain is composed of three major divisions: the hindbrain, of the forebrain makes up the telencephalon. the midbrain, and the forebrain. It provides the main sources of information to the cerebral cortex. The Hindbrain: Posterior Part of the Brain Most sensory information is first processed in the thalamus before going to the cerebral cortex. The one exception is olfactory It consists of the medulla, pons, and cerebellum. information. Brainstem Hypothalamus It consists of the medulla, pons, midbrain, and certain central It is a small structure containing many distinct nuclei. structure of the forebrain. It sends messages to the pituitary gland, altering its release of hormone. Medulla It is important for motivated behavior (e.g. eating, drinking, Also known as medulla oblongata; It controls breathing, heart etc.) and temperature regulation. rate, vomiting, coughing, and other vital reflexes through the cranial nerves (a set of 12 nerves that carry sensory and motor information Pituitary Gland to the head) It is the endocrine (hormone-producing) gland attached to the base of the hypothalamus. Pons It is Latin for bridge. Basal Ganglia  It is a group of subcortical structures including the caudate, Cells in the cerebral cortex are also arranged in columns (cells putamen, and globus pallidus. with similar properties, organized perpendicular to laminae). Its deterioration is prominent in Parkinson’s disease and The cerebral cortex can be divided into 4 lobes, named for the Huntington’s disease. skull bones that lie over them: occipital, parietal, temporal, and frontal. Basal Forebrain These are structures in the dorsal surface of the forebrain, The Occipital Lobe including the nucleus basalis (a key part of the brain’s arousal system). It is the posterior (caudal) portion of the cerebral cortex. It is part of the visual pathway system. Hippocampus It is a large structure between the thalamus and cerebral cortex, mostly toward the posterior of the forebrain. Primary Visual Cortex (striate cortex) It is the most posterior region of the occipital lobe. This structure is important for new memory storage. Destruction of any of its part causes cortical blindness (total or partial loss of vision in a normal-appearing eye). The Ventricles The Parietal Lobe These consist of four fluid-filled cavities within the brain (two lateral ventricles, a third ventricle, and a fourth ventricle). It lies between the occipital lobe and the central sulcus (one of the deepest grooves in the surface of the cortex. Central Canal It monitors all the information about the eye, head, and body It is a fluid-filled channel in the center of the spinal cord. positions, and passes it on to brain areas that control movement. It is vital for perception and integration for sight, hearing, Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) taste, smell, and touch. It is the clear fluid found in the ventricles and central canal. , , and writing are some important functions of It is formed by the choroid plexus (cells found inside the four Cognition speech parietal lobe. ventricles). It cushions the brain against mechanical shock when the head moves and provides a reservoir of hormones and nutrients for the brain and spinal cord. Hydrocephalus It is the obstruction and accumulation of the CSF within the ventricles or in the subarachnoid space. This condition is usually associated with intellectual disability. Meninges These are thin membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord. CSF flows through the spaces between the brain and the meninges. The Temporal Lobe The Cerebral Cortex It is located laterally in each hemisphere, near the temples. It is the primary target for auditory information and part of the cerebral cortex. It consists of the cellular layers on the outer surface of the It plays a role in memory, enables people to process sound and cerebral hemispheres. vision, and is crucial for recognizing depth and language. It constitutes a higher percentage of the brain in primates (monkeys, apes, and humans) than in other species of comparable Kluver-Bucy Syndrome size. It is a set of behavior seen after temporal lobe damage. Previously wild and aggressive monkeys fail to show normal fear Corpus callosum and anterior commissure or anxiety. These are two bundles of axons that allow the two brain hemispheres to communicate with one another. Humans Animals Organization of the Cerebral Cortex Tumor Extraordinary tameness The cerebral cortex contains up to 6 distinct laminae (layers of Surgery Lack of fear cell bodies that lie parallel to the surface of the cortex and are Trauma Put anything in mouth separated from each other by layer of fibers).  This practice was almost completely abandoned after effective Visual Agnosia placid drug therapies became available. Hypersexuality It commonly resulted in: Dementia Loss of ability to plan and take initiative Amnesia Memory disorders Distractibility, and Apathy Loss of emotions expression The Frontal Lobe In addition, people with prefrontal damage lost their social inhibitions and often acted impulsively. It is located in the most anterior area of the cerebral cortex, and extends to the central sulcus. Functions of the Prefrontal Cortex It is the largest of the 4 lobes of the brain. It is located at the front of the brain, behind the forehead. It is now believed to be important for working memory (the It is responsible for high-level cognitive skills and primary ability to remember recent stimuli and events). motor functions. Is is also believed to be important for context-dependent It is also the center for our personality and communication behaviors. abilities. It is thought to be the center of executive functions and an Delayed Response Task : A subject must remember where a important area for memory, learning, and cognition, among other stimulus was hidden prior the introduction of a time delay. Damage to functions. the prefrontal cortex leads to deficits on this task. It contains the primary motor cortex and prefrontal cortex. Research Methods Precentral Gyrus It is also known as the primary motor cortex. It is located just anterior to the central sucus. Effect of Brain Damage It is specialized for the control of fine motor movements, such as moving one finger at a time, primarily on the contralateral side of The French neurologist, Paul Broca. Pioneered modern neurology the body. when he discovered that damage to a particular region in the left It receives signals from the sensory cortex and send motor frontal hemisphere is associated with a loss of the ability ti speak. commands to the body’s muscles through the spinal cord. This area of the brain is known as Broca’s Area. It is specialized for sending signals down to the spinal cord for movement. Ablation is the removal of a brain area. To precisely damage Any damage to this area of the brain can result in movement structures in the inferior of the brain. disorders or paralysis. Stereotaxic Instrument is when researchers compare animals Prefrontal Cortex with lesions to animals with sham lesions to control for all procedures It is the most anterior portion of the frontal lobe. It forms a except the actual lesion. large portion of the brain in large-brained species. It receives information from all of our senses. Gene-Knockout Approach is when researchers direct a mutation It is involved in a wide range of higher-order cognitive functions, to a particular gene that is important for certain types of cells, including: transmitters, or receptors. Speech formation (Broca’s area) Gaze (frontal eye fields) Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation is the application of an Working memory (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) intense magnetic field to a portion of the scalp. It can be used to Risk processing (ventromedial prefrontal cortex) temporarily interrupt brain activity. After causing damage to an Regulating critical body functions (e.g. movement, animal’s brain, the main problem is to specify exactly how the creativity, impulse control, emotional responses, moral behavior has changed after the damage. behavior, fear responses, intuition, perseverance, and self-awareness). Optogenetics enables researchers to turin on activity in targeted neurons by using a device that shines a laser light within the brain. The Rise and Fall of Prefrontal Lobotomies Effects of Stimulating a Brain Area Prefrontal Lobotomy Brain stimulation is useful for understanding behaviors that are A prefrontal lobotomy involves disconnecting the prefrontal solely mediated by a single brain area , such as seeing a flash of light. cortex from the rest of the brain to control psychological disorders.  However, this approach is not as informative in complex Powered by strong magnetic Powered by low doses of behaviors , as they typically involve the coordinated contributions of fields. radiation. many brain areas. Being inside an MRI is like being Most people are comfortable Electroencephalogram (EEG) inside a large tube. This causes with a CT Scan, as the machine The endocrine system, primarily the pituitary gland and the some people to experience is donut-shaped and not fully claustrophobia or anxiety due enclosed. gonads, orchestrates the onset of puberty, triggering hormonal to the length of the exam. changes that lead to secondary sexual development. Lasts at least 30 minutes. Lasts 5-10 minutes Magnetoencephalogram (MEG) The hormonal dance between the nervous and endocrine system MRI machines make loud noises, CT machines make soft, so you will need headphones or whirring noises and have regulates the menstrual cycle, marked by hormone changes that earplugs. flashing lights. prepare the body for potential conception. You may be asked to hold your Holding breath is not required Positron Emission Tomography (PET SCAN) breath from time to time. as much. Coordination between systems is crucial for fertilization, where Patients with metal or certain CT scan can be performed with hormones from the endocrine system prepare the uterus and medical imprints are not able no risk to medical implants or regulate the implantation of the fertilized egg. to undergo MRIs due to the metal. magnetic pulses. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (FMRI) After childbirth, prolactin from the endocrine system facilitates Brain Size and Intelligence: Are Bigger Brains Better? milk production, while oxytocin promotes uterine contraction and Not necessarily. While brain size can correlate with certain maternal bonding. cognitive abilities, intelligence is more about the structure, connectivity, and efficiency of brain networks than just size. Many species with smaller brains exhibit complex behaviors, and Brain Anatomy and Behavior human intelligence relies on factors like environmental influences Phrenology and learning experiences as well It is a process developed by Franz Joseph Gall in the 1800s that related skull anatomy to behavioral capacities. Comparisons Across Species Overall brain organization is maintained across species, but the Computer Axial Tomography (CT or CAT SCAN) size of the brain varies both across and with species. It is an x-ray technique that can reconstruct images of the Researchers have tried to determine whether these size brain on a computer. differences are related to intelligence. Magnetic Resource Imaging (MRI) Comparison Among Humans An MRI device applies a powerful magnetic field to align all axes Older studies have found very low correlation between brain size of rotation (al atoms with an odd-numbered atomic weight has an axis and intelligence. This lack of relationship was most likely due to or rotation), and then hits them with a brief radio frequency field. problems with the measurement of both intelligence and brain size. When the radio frequency is turned off, the atomic nuclei release Current studies using MRI scans have found moderate positive electromagnetic energy as they relax and return to their original correlations between brain size and IQ. Further studies have found axis. that general intelligence is correlated with gray matter thickness The MRI device measures the released energy and forms an throughout the cortex. image of the brain. Comparisons of Men and Women MRI Scan CT Scan IQ correlates positively with brain size for men or women separately. However, men have larger brains than women but equal Designed for looking at soft Better suited for imaging IQs. tissues, tendons, ligaments, injuries from trauma, staging Male and female brains differ anatomically in several areas and spinals cords, and the brain cancer, and diagnosing follow different developmental timelines. conditions in blood vessels. Behavioral differences between men and women are fairly small Bony structures less detailed Bony structures are more clear and these differences may be better explained as differences in compared to CT Scan and detailed. interest than as differences in abilities. Chapter 4: Genetic and Evolution of Behavior Mendelian Genetics It was founded on Gregor Mendel’s principles: It explains how traits are inherited through dominant and recessive alleles.