Prehistoric Architecture PDF

1. PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE Megalithic structures MEGALITH – a large prehistoric stone structure, often consisting of multiple stones, that is thought to have been used to mark important events and places - many of them were erected for astronomical observatories or communal tombs for privil...

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PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE Megalithic structures MEGALITH – a large prehistoric stone structure, often consisting of multiple stones, that is thought to have been used to mark important events and places - many of them were erected for astronomical observatories or communal tombs for privileged classes - can be found all over the world, ranging from Europe to South America to China - only in Europe 35,000 megaliths have been discovered - megaliths have been used in a variety of ancient cultures and civilizations MENHIR (also a monolith) – isolated single upright stone block, sometimes a number of menhirs are forming long rows (stone avenues) DOLMEN – two upright stones supporting horizontal slab (roughly-hewn), used to be 2-3 together to form the tomb of a prominent man, with earth piled on top, often designed as long corridor-like spaces CROMLECH – stone circles – circularly arranged stones interlocked with stone lintels, astronomically oriented, once a cult - religious centre for the whole region Tombs burial places NEWGRANGE – a prehistoric tomb in Ireland (3200 BC) with corbel vault, using no mortar, 3 types of stone: black granite, white quartz, limestone kerbs with carved decoration Prehistoric urban communities JERICHO, Israel (ca 8000 BC) – fortified settlement CATAL HUYUK, Turkey (6500 – 5700 BC) – dwellings without streets GöBEKLI TEPE – archeological site in Turkey (9500 BC) – worlds oldest known megaliths SKARA BRAE – neolithic village in Scotland (3180 BC) – stones laid without mortar Objects thousands of years old still survive on the islands with a function still not fully explained (tombs or fortresses?) nuraghi on Sardinia torri on Corsica talaiots on Menorca and Mallorca (2000 – 1000 BC) -Menhirs in Carnac, France (5000 - 2000 BC) -STONE SHEPHERD – menhir near the village Klobúky u Slaného, Czechia (4th century BC) 3,4 m high -Dolmen MENGA, Spain (2500 BC) - 25 m long tomb -Cromlech STONEHENGE near Salisbury, U.K. (1800 BC) 2. ARCHITECTURE OF MESOPOTAMIA The fertile lands between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers - The earliest literate civilizations developed in independent urban communities called city states - The rivers were regulated and irrigation canals were constructed, creating a fertile landscape The Babylonian Empire of 1800 B.C. SUMERIANS – formed the world first civilization around 4000 BC - Development of written language (3500 BC) - First numerical systems, calculated calendar - Invention of the wheel, the plough, the potter's wheel - Urban communities developer around religious shrines, temples were hearts of cities - Most buildings were laid up in sun-baked brick (mud shaped in molds and dried in the sun) - Roofs were fabricated from lightweight wooden members or reeds – could not span great distances – small interior spaces Building types temple, palace, city fortifications - Important buildings were given: additional durability by weather-resistant casings for the brick (fired or glazed) greater dignity by being raised on an artificial platform URUK – White Temple (3500 – 3000 BC) – 40 foot high base of rubble, protective coat of whitewash and sun-dried bricK, Entrance to the temple through a chamber in one long side EANNA – two groups of temples flanking a courtyard ornamented by a mosaic of thousands of small terracotta cones (the base of each cone was dipped in black, white or red glaze, creating a polychromatic zigzag pattern) NEO-SUMERIAN PERIOD (2150 – 2000 BC) - Further development of urban temple forms – temple elevated on a tiered artificial mound ziggurat - Constructed of sun-dried brick bonded together with bitumen, reed matting or rope; covered with a weather resistant exterior layer of kiln-fired brick - surface of fired or glazed bricks to make the building last longer (tiling also made of stone slabs), mortar used as bonding material clay or asphalt (also for paving streets) Residential buildings are massive blocks without windows with inner courtyards and roof terraces - the sculptural articulation of the walls and the coloured glazed bricks used to clad entire buildings and city walls - the decor is based on the textile patterns of wall hangings Temple precinct – on an elevated site or terrace, faced with burnt bricks, includes a ziggurat; elevated for a protection from flood waters + giving it visual prominence in the city Ziggurat – tiered tower with 3-7 steeped platforms/terraces and a temple at the top, connecting the heaven and earth – temple is closer to heaven, each tier of the ziggurat di erent colors of symbolic meaning, ziggurats were usually rebuilt and enlarged several times so that the older building remained the core of the larger building Houses – orthogonal houses with open courtyards that provided with light and fresh air to all rooms; blank wall to the streets ensuring privacy Babylonian hanging gardens – exceptional, the only place where stone arches are used (in the foundations of the terraces), the gardens have artificial irrigation and pumping facilities UR (2100 BC) - Walled precinct with the ziggurat and the enclosing city wall - Parts: residential area, administrative and ceremonial center ZIGGURAT (2100 BC) – height 21 m - Best preserved ziggurat served to elevate the temple closer to gods - Sun-dried brick overlaid with ano uter layer of kiln-fired brick and bitumen as protection against weathering HANGING GARDENS – 1st half of the 6th century BC, Babylon, part of the palace of King Nebuchadnezzar, established above the treasury and planted with rare plants ISHTAR'S GATE – city gate of Babylon founded by King Nebuchadnezzar II, dedicated to Ishtar – goddess of love and fertility and war (575 BC), processional path lined with blue glazed bricks, lions represent the pride and strength of the government, ancient bull - arnochs and mesopotamian dragons are protecting and providing the city 3. HITTITE, ASSYRIAN, PERSIAN AND PHOENICIAN ARCHITECTURE there were plenty of states around near East HITTITES (1800 – 1200 BC) - In the territory of present-day Turkish Anatolia - Building materials: stone, sun-dried brick and wood - cyclopean masonry – random-sized large stones were not held together with mortar - cities built upon hills, citadela and palace are odminating and demonstarting the power of the king, cities had massive protective walls (double wall fortification with tunnels) with entrance gates with lion or sphinx statues - bit- hilani – a porticoed entrance hall built with a stairway approach flanked by pillars, double gateway with corbeled arch, decorated with friezes and protected on either side by a threatening beast figure HATTUŞAŞ (NOW BOĞAZKÖY) – the ancient Hittite capital with temple structures and city walls, most known in Lion Gate (1400 – 1200 BC) YAZILIKAYA – rock sanctuary; Relief carving with the motif of the procession of 12 gods (1400– 1200 BC) ASSYRIANS (1500 – 612 BC) - Southern Mesopotamia – Semitic speaking Assyrians took over and established capitals sequentially at Calah (Nimrud), Dur-Sharrukin (Khorsabad), Niniveh (Kuyunjik) - Territory of present-day Iraq - There were strongly fortified citadels in each capital - Due to expansive size they had access to many resources, they used exotic and expensive materials – bronze gates, cedar support beams, iron, galzed polychrome bricks - Homes, palaces and temples constructed of mud bricks - Bricks are absorbing the heat – better climate in the interior - Massive palaces with courtyards, private apartments, throne room, large kitchen and serving areas - Walls are decorated with relief carvings, that are arranged on stone slabs up to 3 or 4 meters – these slabs are called orthostats - Interiors painted in bright colors - Ziggurats are even bigger that Sumerian ones KHORSABAD (720 BC) – city with 7 gates, apart from the palace there was also residental part called citadela Palace of Sargon II. - on a plateau 50 feet above the level of the town - Orthogonal geometry, palace area was organized by series of courts - Seven-stage ziggurat representing the cosmic order of the seven planets - Lamassu – half-human and animal figures guarding the entrances to palaces and temples, winged bulls or lions with human faces, beards and high crowns like those worn by Mesopotamian gods, protecting from evil - Carved relief figure procession emphasizes the Assyrian power and communicate it to public, glazed polychrome bricks with vivid colors PERSIANS - 6th century BC - 330 BC - Territory of present-day Iran - Material: stone, wood and brick - Building types: palaces, fortresses, royal rock tombs, roads - Artistically they were inspired by conquered cultures, mainly from Egyptians, Hittites and Assyrians - Strong cult of sun and fire – temples of fire - apadana – the audience hall of Persian palaces with porticus and stone columns - Hypostyle hall – hall with flat roof supported by columns - By 525 BC the Persians conquer over all of Mesopotamia, Asia Minor and even Egypt PERSEPOLIS – founded in 518 BC as a ceremonial capital - Great palace with terrace, audience halls in orthogonal layout King Xerxe´s Throne Hall Hall of Hundred Columns (ca. 515 BC) - largest roof space in the palace – for 10 000 people - stone construction – stone columns supported wooden roof beams resting on a double headed capitals carved in the form of bulls and lions - open staircase is flanked by relief sculptures representing delegations from 23 nations bringing tribute to the sovereign, stone figures as a foretaste of the banquets in the palace – carved reliefs were representing the idealized state - decoration in vivid colors and various materials – black and white stone, red floors, gates covered in gold, etc. PASARGADAE – the tomb of Cyrus the Great (530 BC) - a funerary structure in the form of a temple on a six-tiered base - there were also rock tombs (with reliefs carved in the rock) - In 331 BC Persian dominance is defeated, but the army reached India, where Persian architecture became one of the early stone architecture PHOENICIANS - name from the Greek foinos = red (they made purple dye from sea snails) - called themselves Sidonians and the land Canaan - flourished in the late 2nd and early 1st millennium BC (538 BC under the Persian Empire), the area of present-day Syria and Lebanon - skilled traders, craftsmen and seafarers – founded city of Carthage - origin of the Phoenician alphabet – one of the first written alphabet on the world, cradle of Christianity - large temples with double-columned facades approached by a short staircase, enclosed sacred spaces containing cube-like and open-fronted shrines, and such large-scale engineering projects as dams and artificial harbours - high fortification walls included square towers and gates, and were built of mudbricks and limestone (modest domestic buildings) Phoenician capitals – found on Cyprus, inspired Greeks for ionian capital Cyclopean masonry from polygonal stones – made without mortar 4 Ancient Egyptian Architecture Along the fertile Nile valley – grain fields Around 3000 BC, the unification of two countries Belief in the afterlife Building material: the exclusive use of a particular building material for particular types of construction is of symbolic significance: Palaces and profane buildings – as a sign of impermanence made of burnt bricks, wood, reeds Temples and funerary buildings – made of natural stone to symbolize eternal duration Egyptian cities oriented according to the four cardinal points with the N-S axis as the natural axis of the city and the E- S axis following the movement of the sun Rectangular street network Time division Old Kingdom (2700-2200 BC) – Sakkara/Memfis; first temples, mastabas and pyramids Middle Kingdom (2200-1500 BC) – Thebes; rock temples, temple at Karnak New Kingdom (1500–1100 BC) – Temples of Luxor, Temple of Hatshepsut Obelisk 4-sided monolithic slender prism materialized ray of sunlight originally erected in pairs at the entrances of temples designed to be wider at its square or rectangular base than at its pyramidal top, which was often covered in gold All four sides are embellished with hieroglyphs, that characteristically include religious dedications, usually to the sun god, and commemorations of the rulers Pylon a tower-like structure in the shape of a conical spire monumental gate of an Egyptian temple it consists of two pyramidal towers, each tapered and surmounted by a cornice, joined by a less elevated section enclosing the entrance between them Egyptian columns with plant motifs, especially aquatic plants: lotus, papyrus columns with two variations of capitals: open or closed flower Funerary architecture the monumental funerary architecture is related to the belief in an afterlife construction used a cylinder, lever and inclined ramp – the force of the lever was used to transport the stone blocks on the ramp to the pyramids, and once the construction was completed the ramp was taken away Mastaba brick structure in the shape of an earthen bench covered by a flat or slightly arched roof the walls are vertical or sloping and it is built of unbaked bricks a funerary structure for the dead of the upper social classes Pyramid above the tomb of the pharaoh symbol of the bundle of the sun's rays, after which the Ka (soul, spiritual qualities and abilities) of the deceased ruler ascends to the sun intentionally confusing elements: false doors, subtle twisting of the direction of the inner corridors The stepped pyramid of King Djoser, Sakkara (2650 BC) - architect Imhotep - Several stacked rectangular mastabas, i.e. individual tombs Bent pyramid for King Snofru, Dahsur (2600 BC) - From the entrance, a passageway leads to a burial chamber in the pyramid's foundation - The refracted pyramid changes the angle of the walls from 54° to 43° halfway up Great Pyramids – Giza Plateau (2600–2500 BC): Pyramids: Menkaura, Chefren, Cheops , Mastabas, Sphinx Pyramid of Cheops - 146 m high and 2.5 million cubic meters of stone blocks The Great Sphinx of Giza - Reclining mythical creature with lion body and human head - Probably served as a guardian - The Great Sphinx at Giza bears the features of the ruler Chephren Egyptian Temple a building with a longitudinal layout around the main axis, at the end of which is a sanctuary entrance pylons, gateway, square courtyard, peristyle flanked by massive columns, hypostyle and the interior of the temple with a chamber in the centre the arrangement of the rooms creates a dynamic rhythm of alternating narrow and wide spaces The Great Temple of Amun Re in Karnak - the double-towered pylon as a monumental entrance to the walled temples - emphasizes the temple facade and enhances protection from enemies - between the pylons there is a large columned hall (hypostyle) - 144 columns with relief scenes - the courtyard is planted with two obelisks Temple Complex in Luxor (1400 BC) - avenue of sphinxes connecting Luxor with Karnak - It is connected to the Temple of Amon at Karnak by an avenue of sphinxes - Longitudinal open corridor with two rows of papyrus columns, reception hall for King Amenhotep III The rock-cut temples of Abú Simbel (1279–1213 BC) Tomb of Tutankhamun (1400 BC) Kahún – temporary settlement for workers (1890 BC) 5. Minoan and Mycenean Architecture MINOAN ARCHITECTURE Based on the Greek island of Crete, ca 2000–1400 BC First civilization on European soil + First literate European civilization Name associated with king Minos and his palace and labyrinth of Knossos Building materials – bricks, timber, stone, metal, clay for pottery Traded with other communities (especially with their pottery) – Egypt, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, Cyprus Unfortified cities and palaces – location on island and great navy System of paved roads connected urban centres with rural villages, that were important for trade (syste m of centralized government) Complex drainage system allowed a slow displacement of water Minoan Column - Minoan columns are smaller at the bottom and wider at the top, a result of inverting the cypress trunk to prevent sprouting once in place - painted red and black and mounted on stone bases with round, pillow-like capitals – abacus Palace of Knóssos (1700–1380 BC) - 20,000 m2, only two entrances, complex floor plan - around the central courtyard, living and representation rooms – throne room with stone throne, sanctuary, altar, processional corridors - Sanctuaries: hall of double-edged axes, bedrooms, bathrooms, toilets, staircase, treasury - Theatre, classrooms, storerooms - Courtyard 45x23m – free development around it as there are no walls - gradual growth - Three floors connected by a series of elaborate staircases, corridors, courtyards, viewpoints - lightwells around staircases are important for air ventillation and daylight - walls of the public rooms decorated with painted stucco – the paintings represent geometric patterns and architectural elements in rich contrasting colours (red, black and yellow), but also dramatic scenes – boys and girls jumping over wild bulls Residential house at Khamaizi, eastern Crete - In the construction of dwellings in Crete, the basic elements of housing were combined without a binding scheme - Houses oriented according to the direction of the winds - There was a structural relationship between the external and internal dividing walls MYCENEAN ARCHITECTURE (1600-1100 BC) named after citadel located on the mainland of Greece influenced by Minoans warriors, so cities are fortified with high and thick city walls – cyclopean masonry with no mortar principle entrance to Myceneae through Lion Gate fortified cities, roads, cisterns and aqueducts megaron – the main reception hall of a Mycenaean palace, consisting of a rectangular hall with a central hearth, fronted by an open, columned porch Lion Gate (1300 BC) - entrance to the city of Myceneae - post-and-lintel construction and ashlar stone - the approaching visitor had to pass along in narrow passageway parallel to the enclosing wall – deferenders can easily attack the enemies - new design of the entrance lintel – above the stone monolith of the lintel, a free triangle is omitted in the masonry for lightness – a thin slab is inserted into the opening, - 3m wide and 3.25m high) - the oldest known European sculpture related to architecture (1300 BC) is mounted in the lintel Tomb of Agamemnon / Treasury of Atreus (1200 BC) - The monumental Mycenaean dome tombs take the form of a hill with a circular base - The vaulting was technically solved by a false vault – corbelling - Access to the tomb was provided by a walled corridor, the so-called dromos - A dome in the shape of a beehive – tholos - dead bodies were placed in the shaft under the dome together with the funerary equipment - the best preserved structure of its kind - measures 14.6 m in diameter 6. Ancient Greek Architecture Chronology (1000–100 BC)  Archaic period (8th-5th centuries BC) – Emergence of monumental stone architecture, Doric order, construction of temples and use of monumental stone sculpture  Classical period (5th-4th century BC) – Greco-Persian wars, Pericles, Ionic order emerges, Corinthian order emerges at the end, sculpture moves away from rigidity and studies the anatomy of the human body  Hellenistic period (3rd-1st century BC) – Alexander the Great and his successors, all three orders are used and combined, baths, parks, theatres and libraries are built The beginnings of Ancient Greece 1200-800 BC – minimal evidence 800 BC – division of the Greek world Original areas (Attica and Peloponnese) - Doric area Aegean islands and the coast of Asia Minor – Ionic area Emergence of city states (polis) – ca 800 BC There was no central state formation Unifying elements – language and religion Greek Architecture Early buildings – made of wood From about 600 BC – stone (especially tu ) Acropolis in 5th century BC – marble Public buildings and temples made of stone Stones of masonry joined dry (without mortar) Sometimes joined with pins or wooden dowels Residential houses made of burnt and unburnt bricks Buildings were coloured/polychromed Post and lintel construction system Typology of Greek Teples Ancient temple (distylos) - the oldest (basic) form, evolved from the megaron Consists of a cell in which a statue of a deity is placed and only priests have access The longitudinal walls of the cell are extended at the front and their ends are provided with antae Parts of a Greek Temple The antechamber (pronaos) The sanctuary (naos) with the cult statue Rear anteroom (episthodomos) Enclosed by a lattice or wall Used to store treasures Main façade and entrance Sacrifices were held on the altar in front of the temple Typology of Greek Temples Two columns inserted between the antennas form the antechamber:  In antis posticum – an anteroom also at the back of the temple (two-anthem temple)  Prostylos – four-column facade  Amphiprostylos – four-column facade also on the back of the temple  Peripteros – continuous row of columns encircling the cell, pronaos and opisthodomos (before mid-7th century)  Dipteros – the colonnaded gallery is doubled  Pseudodipteros – width proportions of the dipteros, but lacking the inner columnar gallery Temple in antes (distylos) – oldest (elementary) form – The treasury in Delphi (ca.500 BC) THE CLASSICAL ORDERS DORIC ORDER Since the mid-6th century BC Massive and austere Called the "masculine style" Fixed proportional relationships: modulus – lower radius of shaft Mainland Greece, also southern Italy and Sicily Doric Column and Temple Built on a crepsis (base) Columns without footing Fluted shaft Capital (necking, echinus, abacus) Height of column – approx. 11 modules (modules are called drums) Three-part beams: o Architrave o Frieze with triglyphs and metopes o Decorated tympanum, akroterion PARTHENON (447–438 BC) - Oktastylos, 70 x 31 m, dedicated to Athena Parthenos - Architects Iktinos and Kallikrates - Interior and exterior sculptural decoration Feidias - themes from the history of the city, statue of Athena HEFAISTON/THESEION (449–430 BC), Athens In the 5th century AD, a Christian temple, the best preserved Greek temple of antiquity THOLOS (380-320 BC), Oracle at Delphi 20 Doric columns around the perimeter, 10 Corinthian columns inside IONIC ORDER From the 7th century BC Lighter, slimmer than Doric Also occurs in wooden form 3 parts: base, shaft, capital Three-part base Shaft long, narrow, fluting Capital with volute To Greece from Asia Minor Temple – columns sometimes replaced by figures: caryatid – an upright statue of a clothed woman used in place of a pillar as a support for a hammer (e.g. in Erechtheion) atlantes – stooping human figures supporting a pulley (e.g. Temple of Zeus) ARTEMÍSION (Ephesus) - 546 BC - the largest temple in the Greek world - Architects: Chersiphron and his son Metagen of Crete - Unroofed walled courtyard with altar ACROPOLIS, ATHENS originally a fortress, then the central sanctuary of Attica, the goddess Athena is worshipped here 480 BC Persians decimate Athens, the precinct is rebuilt architects Iktí nos and Mne sikle s - PROPYLAIA – entrance gate - ERECHTHEION (420 BC) - caryatids support the Ionic klades and the portico hides the steps to the underground tomb of Kekropos, king of Athens CORINTHIAN ORDER - From 400 BC - In stone form only - Base and shaft identical to the Ionic Order - Head in the form of a conical cone, decorated with acanthus leaves Building types: AGORA – town centre, commercial centre, largely open space THEATRE – in every city, used for god Dionysos festival - 4th century BC, Epidauros, architect Polykleitos jr. GYMNASION (Ephesus) – school with running tracks, swimming pools and auditoriums, there was also a wrestling school MAUSOLEUM (Halikarnassus) - 4th century BC - Monumental tomb structure - Square base, the whole surrounded by 36 columns, with statues between them - Instead of a roof, a stone pyramid crowned with a quadriga 7. Etruscan Architecture Etruscans (8th – 3rd century BC) greatest flourish in the 6th century BC (territory from Po to Vesuvius) Built mainly city walls, necropolis, regular construction of cities, temples Unclear origin, maybe from the east (Lydia?), settled in Tuscany Loose association of 12 cities, linked by the cult of the goddess Voltumna Economy based on agriculture and international trade with metals (iron) Building materials: wood, burnt bricks, unworked stone (Cyclopean masonry), worked stone for vaults Etruscan builders began to drain the marshes by digging the trench that later became Cloaca Maxima – major sewer of ancient Rome Etruscan city– rectangular plan, two main axes of communication: cardo (north – south) and decumanus (east – west); cities were fortifed, streets were paved Marzabotto – Kainua (5th century BC) - grid plan, with the main streets running perpendicular to one another and intersecting in the center of the town Etruscan temple - built from wood and tu - set on a high podium with staircase, covered with a gable roof - ratio of length to width of Etruscan temple 6:5 - always half occupied by the cell and half by the anteroom - two columns on each side in the extension of the side walls of the cell, on which the beams of the roof trusses are laid - tripartite (three-part) cella – oriented to one direction, generally to the south, related to the Etruscan, later Roman trinity of the main gods Decorative elements the wooden architrave of the Etruscan temple was cladded with painted slabs of baked clay temples also had ridge and front tiles decorated with reliefs (heads with horned helmets) Decorated with vivid colours and terracota statues Reconstruction of Jova´s temple at Capitol in Rome Tuscan order - base - shaft without fluting - ring under the Doric capital called astragal + necking, echinus, abacus VAULT Arched form used to provide a space with a ceiling or roof Etruscans knew a false vault of projecting stones (corbelling) Soon replaced by the technique of vaulting – bricks or wedge- shaped stones built into a semicircular arch By arranging the arches in a row to form a vault – barrel vault Etruscan arch – predecessor of the Roman arch – Arch of Augustus, Perugia (310 BC) – momumental gateway to city Etruscans buried in underground burial chambers (Tarqunia, Cerveteri), round layout with corbeling, made out of stones, or carved in the volcanic rock (tu ) NECROPOLIS OF BANDITACCIA near CERVETERI (7th-6th century BC) - sarcophagi with lids containing life-size statues of the deceased made of baked clay were found in the burial site, anteroom of the TOMBA DEI RILIEVI – decorated with vivid colours - in some tombs the architectural features of doors, roof beams, and furniture like chairs and household items are carved in stone Sarcophagus of the couple (6th century BC) TOMBA DEI CAPITELLI, Cerveteri necropolis - anteroom (end of the 6th century BC) - a room carved in tu , imitating the wooden structure of an Etruscan manor house - two massive pillars are supporting the cross beams - Aeolic capitals (from Asia Minor?) - Tomb benches as beds along the walls of rooms or as sarcophagi in the centre of the tomb 8. Ancient Roman Architecture 6th century BC - 395 AD; republic; many provinces Greatest flowering around 100 Takes technical constructions from the Etruscans and artistic morphology from the Greeks Building materials: concrete, stone, wood, fired brick, ceramics, metals, combinations of brick and stone; often faux marble and stucco in interiors concrete – mix of cement, gravel and water; opus cementicum, di erent types of masonry Engineering structures: road networks, military forts, bridges and artificial harbours, for cities sewer and water systems - bridges and aqueducts Public buildings like baths, theatres, amphitheathres, basilicas, etc. They perfect the technique of vaulting and dome Important is the use of arch and arcade Tuscan/Etruscan column order - Foot composed of plate and arch (plintus and torus) - Shaft - smooth, unfluted shaft - Capital vary Doric order – abacus, echinus and other decorative profiles Roman concrete – Opus Caementicum - made of lime, water, volcanic ash sand – created mortar called cement cement + gravel + water = concrete ROMAN MASONRY Opus incertum - A technique or method where irregular shaped tu blocks were randomly placed into the core of the building which was made of Opus Caementicium Opus reticulatum - A technique or method where diamond-shaped tu block were diagonally placed longways into the core of the building which was made of Opus Caementicium Opus testaceum - A technique or method where fired bricks where placed horizontally into the core of the building which was made of Opus Caementicium ROMAN ATRIUM HOUSE (4th century BC) – windowless frontage to the street, only the entrance to the atrium which formed the centre of the house, mostly columns around its perimeter and a pool inside to catch rainwater; tablinium – reception room, triclinium – dining room INSULAE - 3-6 floors apartment buildings, shops on the ground floor PALACES – Hadrian's Villa in Tivoli (118-134) – villa suburbana with more than 30 buildings TEMPLES – TYPE OF CENTRAL BUILDING – CIRCULAR Pantheon (118-125) - 1st monumental space without supports, temple dedicated to all the gods, circular plan, height and diameter of the vault 43.5 m, oculus in the vault 9 m in diameter, columned portico as an anteroom, pavement and walls covered with multicoloured marble TEMPLES – LONGITUDINAL TYPE Temple of Nimes (16 BC) BATHS – halls with pools surrounded variously tempered sumptuously decorated rooms, peristyle and promenades, in Pompeii also a changing room, resting room and pool Baths of Caracalla (206-217) - 11 hectares in area, supplied with water from the Aqua Marcia aqueduct, richly decorated inside with mosaics and frescoes CIRCUS Circus Maximus (from the 6th century BC) - the largest arena in Rome, 1500 m long, for 400,000 spectators, parts made of wood (frequent fires) THEATRE – stone theatres based on the Greek model, but not set in the terrain, but freestanding building Theatre of Marcellus (13 BC) - combination of arch and architrave, Tuscan order on the ground floor, Ionic order on the first floor AMPHITHEATRES – auditorium in the form of concentrically rising rings around the arena; audience seated according to social status (the emperor had a loggia); basement below the stage with corridors, storage (animals and props), ramps and lifts – used for animal fights and naval battles Colosseum (70-82) - prototype of amphitheatres; exterior formed by arcades framed by classical columns in three rows above each other; interior for 73,000 spectators BASILICA – communal multi-purpose building - used as a marketplace, bank, stock exchange and courtroom, built on a forum in the centre of public life; takes the form of a longitudinal building with a forecourt, an elevated central nave with a series of windows illuminating the interior and a gallery Basilica of Maxentius (308-313) - near the Forum Romana, atypical hall plan AQUEDUCT – brick aqueduct bringing drinking water to the city from the surrounding area Pont du Gard (15 BC), Nimes – water transport 50 km, three levels of arches, water is led through the top level (3 tiers of arches) FORUM – the square where the temple is always located Forum Romanum (from the 6th century BC) Trajan's Forum (107-113) - there was a basilica, a library, Trajan's Column and a triumphal arch Trajan's Column (113) - 40 m tall marble shaft, 200 m long stripe of narrative relief scenes TRIUMPHAL ARCH – erected from the 2nd cent. BC, originally a single arch supported by two wide pillars, attic above with dedicatory inscription and statue (or quadriga), later columns and balusters added, three arched passages (inspiration for French architecture in 19th century) – Triple Arch structure Arch of Constantine (315) – depicting the military victory, scenes from battles CASTRUM – fortified military camp, a square defined by an earthen rampart and moat, two main streets perpendicular to each other (via principalis and via preaetoria), this plan layout was retained by most Roman cities founded in the provinces CITY GATES Porta Nigra – Black Gate, Trier (300) MAUSOLEUM – monumental tomb Angels Castle– Hadrian’s Mausoleum (135-139) - a massive cylinder of brickwork faced with marble rests on a square base; the central column is crowned with a statue of the sun god Helios on a gilded chariot drawn by a four-horse chariot TOMBS – often circular in plan, built outside the city along roads - Roman Christians buried their dead in catacombs (see early Christian architecture) - Use of mausoleums - COLUMBARIUM – an above-ground brick structure with rectangular or semicircular chambers (loculi) with space for two urns 9. Early Christian Architecture Building materials: brickwork combined with poured concrete and stone - Use of vaults - Frequent use of spolium (spolio = secondary building material, e.g. columns, marble, even bricks) - Initially, Christians met in large dwellings; Christianity became a permitted religion in 313, and then the state religion of the Roman Empire in 391 Chapel in Dura Europos (before 256) – conversion of a family house into a house chapel, there was also a room designed as baptistry BASILICA – created from a Roman basilica, it has 3 parts:  atrium – square courtyard with columned gallery and well – paradise courtyard  nartex – an anteroom for the unbaptized  basilica – a longitudinal building with an odd number of naves, most often 3 or 5; the central nave is finished by an apse - Attention of the faithful turned to the altar – located in the apse above the martyr's tomb - Very soon the space is extended by a transept - Interior decoration – mosaics and murals Original St Peter´s Basilica, Rome (324–360) - built by Constantine the Great over the saint's tomb - Around the tomb an apse was built, followed by a transept roofed with wooden beams, and a five-aisle nave continued beyond - In front of it was a rectangular atrium with a colonnade around the perimeter - Graduated pitched roofs - The interior is flanked by colonnades BAPTISTRY – baptismal chapel, central plan, water basin in the centre (with a newly baptised baby immersed in it) Baptistry in San Giovanni in Laterano, Rome (after 319) Mausoleum of Santa Constanza, Rome (approx. 350) - daughter of Constantine the Great, next to the Basilica of St Agnese - the mausoleum is a central building with a gallery, the anteroom of which is adjacent to the basilica; 12 windows, 12 arcades, the gallery is vaulted and contains the oldest known Christian mosaics Temple of Sant'Ambroggio, Milan (386) Temple of San Lorenzo, Milan (c. 370) CATACOMBS - Underground burial chambers carved mostly in tu - 2 to 5 storeys, often with intricate corridors - Loculus / loculi – grave niche - Arcosolium – niche with an arch for a sacrophage - Cubiculum – tomb – family or by profession Iconography – Frequently used motifs/symbols: - Orant – figure of a martyr/prayer with raised palms (praying) - Palm tree – victory over death - Anchor – hope - Peacock – immortality - Fish / lamb – Christ - The Good Shepherd carrying a lamb representing Christ Catacombs of San Callisto (Callixtus), Rome (2nd century) RAVENNA Mausoleum of Gally Placidia (425) Baptistery of the Orthodox (c. 458) - Baptismal chapel of the episcopal church - Octagonal central chapel, niches in arches only hinted at, vaulting established later - Symbolism of the number 8 as eternal life and bliss – this is promised to Christians after baptism - The iconography also refers to baptism Arian Baptistery (late 5th century) Mausoleum of Theodoric (c. 525) Sant'Apollinare Nuovo (505–526) Sant'Apollinare in Classe (533–549) Basilica of San Vitale (535–545) - octagon with two-storey gallery, atrium to the west, presbytery to the east, mosaic decoration in it and in the apse - the dome rests on arches, which are supported by pillars - niches between the pillars, opening through columned arcades into the gallery 10. Byzantine Architecture Byzantine Empire (330–1453) - Founding of Constantinople by Emperor Constantine the Great on the site of the Greek settlement of Byzantion (330) - Near the marble quarries, on the hills of the rugged terrain of the Bosphorus (New Rome, capital of the Roman Empire) - Constantine founded in the city the churches Hagia Sophia, Hagia Eire ne , Hagia Apostoli, the imperial forum Augustaion, the senate, the imperial palace, the hippodrome, the first city walls - 395 - division of the Roman Empire into eastern and western parts - the two empires culturally drift apart, Constantinople was the seat of the emperor, buildings are built to consolidate the authority of the state and the church (temples, palaces, triumphal arches,...) - Uniform character of the buildings – imperial workshops distributed capitals and columns throughout the empire - Cultural peak under Emperor Iustinian (527-565) – the dome becomes the central building element as the completion of the unity of the ground plan and the interior space - 1453 – fall of Constantinople, end of the Byzantine Empire - Religion of the empire was orthodox Christianity (Orthodoxy) and it served imperial representation - Temples dedicated to Divine Wisdom, Divine Peace etc. BUILDINGS - Building material: fired bricks on a thick layer of mortar, construction of hewn stone (in the interior it forms smooth walls suitable for decoration), light tu bricks – used for domes, weighs about 20 % of the weight of clay bricks, marble - Columns as supporting elements, new type of composite capitals – combination of Ionic and Corinthian - Benefit: vaulting of dome over square plan – use of pendentives and squinches - Temples: first Old Christian basilicas (without transept), central over circular and octagonal plan, then novelty: dome basilica type and dome temple on Greek cross plan - Interior enclosed and coherent character, multicoloured marbles – wall, floor and colonnade tiles; use of frescoes and mosaics – biblical themes; spatial e ects emphasised by subtle use of light, play of light and shadow, brilliance of golden background of mosaics; interior harmony important, sometimes to the task of the exterior - Iconography of temple decoration: in the dome usually the head of Christ Pantocrator (world ruler), on the walls motifs of the Crucifixion, Last Judgement, Hell, Paradise, Annunciation, etc. - The facades of the temples are decorated with horizontal brick bands, interspersed with bands of stone; colour is important, the decor is not plastic - Other building types: fortresses, roads, bridges, cisterns, hippodromes, monasteries (on Mount Athos, Meteora, rock monasteries in Cappadocia) DOMED BASILICA - connection of the dome with the longitudinal nave - the dome is inserted into the central part of the nave, its pressure is captured by 4 pillars built in a square and connected by vaulted passages - the transition between the square plan and the dome is made possible by the use of pendentives - between the dome and the masonry there is a tambour/tholobate/drum – in shape of cylinder, visually increases the dome and illuminates the interior of the dome covered with paintings or mosaics – broken by a row of windows (excludes weakening of the vault by window openings – these are located around the perimeter of the cylinder) - Clerestory or a row of windows above the ground floor of the nave in order to let light into the church - The focus on church´s apse or half dome alcove at the front of the church - above the nave another dome is often erected (W of the main dome – Hagia Eire ne ), or space under the central dome extended by applying half domes in the longitudinal axis (Hagia Sophia) - side aisles enriched with vaulted stands for tectonic reasons Squinches and pendentives - architectural elements that help support the dome, they fit into the corners of space and bridge the di erence between a dome and a square room on which it sits - Pendentives – spherical triangles of masonry in the corners of the square – they allow greater height and sense of weightlessness - Squinches – small wegdes that fit into a corners of a space HAGIA SOPHIA (Temple of Divine Wisdom), Constantinople (532-37) - architects: Anthe mius of Thrall, Isodo ros of Miletus - perfect domed basilica – longitudinal central, tambour under the dome - dome on pendentives 31.5 m in diameter - the half domes are on squinches - the main dome collapsed after the earthquake of 557 because it was too flat, the vault was raised by 6 metres during the reconstruction (by the architect Isidore, nephew of Isidore of Miletus) - it is supported by 4 massive supporting arches above the pillars – a new design of the space - fusion of the central space and the basilica, niches with columns - marble panelling and golden mosaics in the interior CHURCH OF STS. SERGIUS AND BACCHUS, Constantinople (525) - central building with dome, 16-part dome - CENTRAL TEMPLE - First on a circular and octagonal plan with a gallery around the central part (San Vitale in Ravenna, Sergius and Bacchus in Constantinople) - Central church with a cross plan – from the 6th century onwards - Vaulting the same as the domed basilica - Nave in a form of Greek cross (sometimes called Eastern cross) – width is equaling its length - Cross-in-square plan: 4 pillars support the dome, creating the visual impression of a crossshaped space in the interior, the building looks longitudinal or square on the outside, the corner space between the arms of the inscribed cross is part of the interior of the temple - Sometimes there are 4 smaller domes in the corners of the square plan - Used mainly in Balkans, Greece, Russia KARIYE CAMII – Constantinople (1300) - Cross-in-square plan: main dome supported by 4 pillars erected above the centre of the crossing of the two naves, 4 smaller domes stand above the arms of the cross - The extension of the western arm of the cross creates a domed central basilica SAN MARCO – Venice (after 1063) - Greek-cross plan, formed by five domes HAGIOI APOSTOLOI (St. Apostles), Thessaloniki, 2nd half of the 9th century - new type – cross-in-square plan enriched with 3 apses and nartex ST. SOPHIA CATHEDRAL, KYIV (ca. 1100) - Cooperation between Byzantine masters and local craftsmen - Five-aisle domed cathedral with 12 pillars on a cruciform plan, 5 apses and 13 domes on tambourines - The pressure of the vaulting is captured by the open arcaded gallery - Interior richly decorated with mosaics Other buidling types: YEREBATAN CISTERN, Constantinople (6th century) – there are no water streams in Instanbul, so the cisterns were built for storing rainwater, 336 columns, 8 meters high 11. Chinese and Japanese Architecture CHINA early architecture survived rarely because the main building material is wood, which is subject to climatic influences – oldest still standing is from 3rd century original settlements – timber pile buildings with large rectangular meeting houses building material – stone, wood, bamboo, reed, clay, terracotta excel in lacquer work, goldsmithing, cloth weaving, wood, stone and ivory carving wooden buildings decorated with lacquer and bright colours a flair for landscape, bending roofs, feng shui principles, building gardens hall – rectangular plan, basic form of Chinese architecture, it is a room divided by partitions as needed central hall with a tent or conical roof – the round shape symbolises the principle of heaven, the square the principle of earth pagoda – a brick or stone tower with a series of floors and overhanging roofs pai-lou – a freestanding entrance structure in front of a set of buildings or a structure built in memory of important people roofs – their corners stretched upwards, the colour of the roof is determined by social significance, the heads of the brackets brightly coloured Chinese pagoda - brick or stone multistory tower with layered roofs - was intended to house the relics of eminent masters and sacred writings - derived from the Indian stupa - Buddhist and Taoist shrine Songyue pagoda, Dengfeng (523) – oldest surviving brick structure in China 12sided, hollow through the center, 15 tiers of roofs but without means of access to the top Pai-lou near Beijing – a ceremonial gate with five entrances, leading to the royal tombs of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) Great Wall of China (joined together in the 3rd century BC) - 4000 km long Tomb of Emperor Qin Shi Huangti (260–210 BC) – Terracotta Army Chang'an, Throne Hall in the Imperial Palace (634) – the buildings stand on trapezoidal terraces of brick, the heavy roofs rest on intricate timber truss structures, the buildings are connected to each other by corridors covered with yellow tiles (imperial colour) JAPAN inspiration from China and India building material – wood, stone, burnt bricks, bamboo the design and layout of the dwellings must be well thought out, based on rules proven by development, and must be able to withstand earthquakes – pagoda pai-lou consistently asymmetrical garden art – the emergence of Zen influence, building harmonious stone gardens where there is a connection between architecture and nature Tatami – floor mats made of rice straw (1.82 x 0.91 m) - the dwellings are as open as possible to the outside, the size of the rooms is determined by the number of tatami Tomb of Emperor Nintoka (5th century) Yakushiji pagoda (7th century), 710 moved to Nara Nara – Horju-ji Monastery (2nd half of the 7th century) - the most important Buddhist monastery complex in Japan, it has a pagoda, a gate and a kondo KONDO – also known as the "Golden Hall", the main cult hall of the Buddhist monastery, inside one narrow high room, in it a gilded statue of Buddha, repository for religious images Shinto shrine of 300 BC – construction on stilts NAIKU – Shinto shrines built of wood in the manner of the original Japanese stilt houses, inside there is a prayer room and a shrine, a veranda circles around the whole structure Izumo – Naiku Shrine, rebuilt after the 1744 collapse Torii – a sacred gate without a door, which in Shinto shrines decorates the way to the shrine (naiku) Todai-ji – wooden temple (8th century) – one of the largest wooden building in the world garden art – the emergence of Zen influence, building harmonious stone gardens where there is a connection between architecture and nature: Ryoanji – zen temple in Kyoto – garden karesansui (end of 15th century, artist Soa mi) Daitoku-ji in Kyoto – garden Daisen-in (end of 15th century)