Prehistoric Architecture PDF

PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE I. Overview of Prehistoric Architecture Prehistoric architecture spans from the Paleolithic era, characterized by simple shelters like caves and huts, to more complex structures like megalithic tombs. This period highlights early humans' ingenuity in co...

PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE I. Overview of Prehistoric Architecture Prehistoric architecture spans from the Paleolithic era, characterized by simple shelters like caves and huts, to more complex structures like megalithic tombs. This period highlights early humans' ingenuity in construction and reflects their cultural and spiritual beliefs. It showcases the relationship between early humans and their environment, marking the beginnings of architectural innovation. Early architecture primarily focused on providing shelter and safety from the elements. II. Key Characteristics and Principles Functionality: Early architecture served a multifunctional role, including shelter, storage, and communal spaces. These structures protected inhabitants, facilitated social interaction, and supported cultural practices. Materials: Primitive societies utilized readily available materials such as wood, stone, and clay, which varied by region and influenced the design and form of early architecture. Techniques: Initial construction techniques included stacking stones, using timber frames, and creating mud walls. These methods laid the groundwork for architectural advancements and revealed the community's ingenuity in overcoming environmental challenges. Symbolism: Architecture also served as a mirror of cultural identity, showcasing traditions, values, and social structures, as well as embodying spiritual beliefs and rituals. III. Types of Prehistoric Structures Temporary Dwellings: o Tipi: A portable Indian shelter. o Beehive Hut (Clochan): A stone beehive-shaped hut with a corbelled roof, commonly associated with the Irish coastline. o Trullo: A traditional rendered stone dwelling in southern Italy with conical vaulted roofs. o Wigwam: An American Indian dwelling, usually of round or oval shape, formed of poles overlaid with bark, rush mats, or animal skins. o Hogan: A Navaho Indian dwelling constructed of earth and logs covered with mud and sod. o Igloo: An Eskimo house, usually built of blocks of hard snow or ice in the shape of a dome, or when permanent, of sod, wood, or stone. Permanent Structures: o Megalithic Tombs: More permanent edifices, such as tumuli (artificial mounds of earth or stone, especially over an ancient grave).  o Longhouses: Served varied purposes and showed adaptations to different environments and social needs. o Ritual Centers: These spaces, often marked by significant structures like stone circles, illustrate the connection between architecture and spirituality in prehistoric cultures. Early Settlements and Cities: o Jericho: A hilltop city with citizens living in stone houses with plaster floors, surrounded by high walls and towers. o Khirokitia: An early Neolithic village with a complex architectural system, built according to a preconceived plan. Houses were built in limestone, with a circular plan. o Çatal Hüyük: The largest and most well-preserved Neolithic village, consisting of rectangular flat-roofed houses packed together into a single architectural mass with no streets or passageways. IV. Ritual Centers and Megaliths Emergence: Ritual centers emerged as important architectural features, designed for communal worship and spiritual practices. Design: These spaces were often marked by significant structures like stone circles and megaliths. Significance: Their design reflects the cultural significance of ritual practices, illuminating the relationship between architecture and belief systems. Megaliths: Ancient stone monuments. Tombs and temples imitated nature in gigantic forms resembling mountains and other landscape formations. Tumulus: An artificial mound of earth or stone, especially over an ancient grave, also called a barrow. V. Legacy and Influence Contemporary Architecture: The legacy of standing stones and monuments is seen in contemporary architecture and cultural practices. Inspiration: They continue to inspire modern architects and artists, reflecting ongoing interests in history, geology, and spirituality, thereby bridging past and present. VI. Transition to Settled Communities Climate Change: The earth's climate warmed up from the Ice Age to the Neolithic Age. Farming Communities: As settlements became more permanent, hunters started farming communities. New Architecture: New architecture was also developed to represent communal and spiritual values. This review should provide a solid foundation for understanding prehistoric architecture. The key elements include the diverse types of structures, the influence of environment and available materials, and the important role architecture played in both practical and spiritual life. MESOPOTAMIAN ARCHITECTURE I. Overview of Mesopotamian Architecture Mesopotamian architecture is characterized by monumental structures, primarily temples and palaces, built with mud-brick and decorated with glazed brick. The region, known as the "Fertile Crescent" between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, saw the rise of several powerful civilizations including the Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and Persians. The architecture reflects a preoccupation with religious beliefs, the power of the rulers, and the practical needs of urban life. The available materials, mainly mud-brick, and the region's climate significantly shaped the architectural forms and construction methods. West Asiatic architecture encompasses the architectural styles and building techniques developed by the various cultures in the region of Western Asia, specifically including Mesopotamia. II. Key Characteristics and Principles Materials: o Mud-brick was the primary building material. It was made by mixing earth with water and straw, then dried in the sun or baked in kilns. o Burnt and glazed brick were used for facing and decoration. o Stone was used for carved monumental sculptures and sometimes for foundations. Construction Techniques: o Structures were often built upon the ruins of their predecessors. o Walls were articulated by pilasters and recesses. o Buildings were decorated with enameled brick friezes, and colorful tiles, and figures of bulls and lions. Planning: o Monumental temples and palaces were axially planned with a focus on symmetry. o Ziggurats were oriented towards the cardinal points. Religious Significance: Temples and ziggurats were important architectural structures that were used to worship the gods. Royal Power: Palaces were designed to be impressive and luxurious, reflecting the power and status of the rulers. III. Architectural Styles of Different Mesopotamian Cultures Sumerian (5000-2000 B.C.): o Characterized by monumental temples built of sun-dried brick.  o Ziggurats: Stepped structures with outside staircases, and a temple or shrine at the top for worshiping the gods of nature. They were built of mud bricks and oriented toward the cardinal points. The Ziggurat of Ur is an example. Babylonian (2000-1600 B.C.): o Architecture featured mud-brick construction with walls articulated by pilasters and recesses, sometimes faced with burnt and glazed brick. o Palaces and temples were decorated with enameled brick friezes of bulls and lions. o Tower of Babel: A ziggurat described in the Bible, possibly built in Babylon, with 7 tiers covered in glazed tiles. o Hanging Gardens: A royal palace with lush terraced gardens irrigated by water from the Euphrates. The palace was built of mud-brick walls, covered with glazed, colored tiles with animal reliefs. o Ishtar Gate: A large, four-story portal covered in glazed bricks, colorful tiles, and decorative figures of bulls and dragons. Assyrian (900-700 B.C.): o Palaces took precedence over religious buildings. o Architecture featured mud-brick buildings, with stone used for carved monumental decorative sculptures. o External walls were plainly treated, but ornamented with carved relief sculpture or with polychrome bricks. Persian (500-331 B.C.): o Characterized by a synthesis of architectural elements from surrounding countries, such as Assyria, Egypt, and Ionian Greece. o Persepolis: Designed by Darius, this capital city included a great audience hall (Apadana), a throne room, palaces, a harem, a council hall, store rooms, and hillside tombs. However, no shrine or temple has been identified. IV. Key Structures and Architectural Elements Ziggurats: Stepped pyramid-like structures that were the most distinctive religious buildings in Mesopotamia. They were built with mud bricks and oriented towards cardinal points with outside staircases leading to the temple or shrine on top. Temples: Edifices dedicated to the worship or presence of a deity. Sumerian temples, for example, were monumental structures built of mud brick. Palaces: Royal residences that were designed to show off the power and status of the rulers. They often included elaborate decorations, like enameled brick friezes and glazed tiles with animal reliefs, and luxurious gardens. Pilasters and Recesses: Architectural features used to articulate the walls of buildings. Enameled Brick Friezes: Decorative panels of enameled or glazed bricks. Glazed Tiles: Colorful tiles used for decoration. V. Legacy and Influence Mesopotamian architecture, with its use of mud-brick and monumental forms, influenced later architectural styles in the region, as well as in other parts of the ancient world.  The architectural elements and construction techniques developed by the Mesopotamians contributed to the development of architecture in subsequent cultures. The use of arches and vaults, believed to originate with the Etruscans, was later incorporated into Roman architecture, reflecting the cross-cultural exchange of architectural ideas. EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE I. Overview of Egyptian Architecture Egyptian architecture is characterized by its massive scale, axial planning, and the use of precise stonework. It includes monumental tombs and temples, reflecting a preoccupation with eternity, the afterlife, and the worship of deities. The architecture is marked by the use of trabeated construction (post-and-lintel) and the decoration of battered walls with pictographic carvings in relief. Egyptian buildings were often constructed with local materials like limestone and sandstone, and sometimes granite. The Nile River influenced the placement of structures, with pyramids and temples typically built on the west bank, symbolizing death and the setting sun. The main types of structures include pyramids, temples, and tombs. II. Key Characteristics and Principles Axial Planning: Buildings were often laid out along a central axis, creating a sense of order and procession. Monumentality: Structures were designed to be imposing and long-lasting, reflecting the power of the pharaohs and the importance of religious beliefs. Trabeated Construction: The use of post-and-lintel systems, with columns supporting horizontal beams, was a key feature. This system required precise stone cutting and placement. Battered Walls: Walls often sloped inward from bottom to top, which added to their stability and gave a sense of massiveness. Hieroglyphic Decoration: Walls were decorated with carvings and paintings, often depicting religious scenes, historical events, and pharaohs. Symbolism: Architectural elements and designs were rich in symbolism, representing religious beliefs, cosmic order, and the power of the pharaohs. III. Types of Structures Temples: o Cult Temples: Temples dedicated to the worship of deities. The Karnak Temple Complex is a prime example. ▪ These temples often included an Avenue of Sphinxes, a tall portal guarded by a towering pylon, a hypostyle hall (a large hall with many columns), and a sanctuary.  o Mortuary Temples: Temples for offerings and worship of deceased pharaohs. The Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut is a notable example, which also served as a temporary resting place for the barque during the Beautiful Feast of the Valley. o Pylon Temples: Egyptian temple types with monumental gateways formed by two pylons. o Barque Temples: A room or building in which the image of the Pharaoh or deity was revered. o Mammisi: A small Egyptian side temple, kiosk, or tent shrine to celebrate the place where the god of the main temple was born, or where the goddess bore her children. Tombs: o Mastabas: Single-story trapezoidal structures, precursors to the pyramids, with chambers added for family members. o Rock-Cut Tombs: Tombs hewn out of native rock, presenting only an architectural front with dark interior chambers, such as those found in Abu Simbel, with facades carved directly into the sandstone cliff. o Pyramids: Massive masonry structures with a rectangular base and four sloping sides, designed as tombs for pharaohs. ▪ Step Pyramid: Pyramid with stepped sides, such as the Pyramid of Djoser. ▪ Bent Pyramid: Pyramid with a change in slope angle as it rises, like the Pyramid of Sneferu. ▪ Sloped Pyramid: True pyramid with smooth, sloping sides, such as the North Pyramid of Dahshur and the Pyramids of Giza, including the Great Pyramid of Khufu. Obelisks: Tall, four-sided pillars with a pointed tip, often placed at temple entrances. The Washington Monument is a modern obelisk. Kiosks: Freestanding stone canopy structures supported by columns, also referred to as hypaethral or partly open temples. IV. Key Architectural Elements Pylon: A monumental gateway to a temple, usually formed by two towers with a central entrance. Hypostyle Hall: A large hall with many columns, supporting a flat roof. Clerestory Windows: A set of windows in the upper part of a wall that allow light to enter a building. Clerestory windows are often placed above the roof line, or above a lower roof. Columns: Used to support roofs and lintels. Egyptian columns were often adorned with capitals depicting plant motifs, such as lotus, papyrus, and palm leaves. Capitals: The tops of columns, often decorated with motifs of plants, or geometric shapes. Lintels: Horizontal beams that span openings. Entablature: A continuous lintel propped up by the columns, holding the architrave, frieze, and cornice. Architrave: The lowest part of the entablature.  Frieze: A horizontal band, often decorated with carvings or sculptures, that sits above the architrave. Cornice: The piece of molding just beneath the ceiling. Abacus: The flat, square block that transitions the column to the architrave. Obelisk: A tall, four-sided pillar with a pointed tip, often placed at temple entrances. Causeway: A covered ceremonial route or corridor connecting different parts of a complex, especially in pyramid complexes. Valley Temple: A temple pavilion in a pyramid complex, connected via a causeway to a mortuary temple; used for preparing the Pharaoh for his final journey. Pyramid Temple: A mortuary temple connected to a pyramid. Ka Statue: A statue of the deceased, often placed in a tomb, to house the person's soul. V. Construction Techniques Stone Cutting: Egyptians were skilled in cutting and shaping massive stone blocks with precision. Post and Lintel: The primary structural system, using vertical posts to support horizontal lintels. Ramps and Levers: Construction involved the use of ramps, levers, and sleds to move heavy blocks of stone. Mortar: The use of mud and mortar was important to bind stones together. Quarries: The process of removing the stone from a quarry was an important aspect of Egyptian building projects. VI. Notable Figures Imhotep: The first architect recorded in history, designed the Saqqara complex and the Stepped Pyramid of Djoser. Senenmut: Architect of the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut. Hadrian: Fourteenth emperor of the Roman Empire, was an amateur architect who designed the Pantheon. VII. Pyramid Complex Components A pyramid complex includes the pyramid itself, a mortuary temple, a valley temple, a causeway, and a pyramid temple. Mortuary Temple: Located near the pyramid, used for offerings and worship of the deceased pharaoh. Valley Temple: Connected to the mortuary temple by a causeway, used for preparing the pharaoh for burial. VIII. Legacy and Influence Egyptian architecture has had a lasting influence on subsequent architectural styles and traditions.  Its use of monumental forms, precise stonework, and symbolic decoration has inspired architects and artists for centuries. The design and layout of Egyptian temples and tombs influenced later architectural traditions in the Mediterranean and beyond. The use of columns, obelisks, and other elements continues to be seen in modern architecture. MESOAMERICAN ARCHITECTURE I. Overview of Mesoamerican Architecture Mesoamerican architecture is characterized by its diverse styles and innovative techniques, reflecting the unique cultural and religious beliefs of various civilizations, including the Olmec, Maya, and Aztec. It encompasses a wide range of structures such as temples, pyramids, ball courts, and urban centers, all built without the use of the wheel or draft animals. Mesoamerican architecture is notable for its integration of structures with the natural landscape and its use of materials like stone, earth, and stucco. The architecture served both religious and practical functions, often designed to reflect cosmic and spiritual beliefs, as well as to provide spaces for social and political activities. Mesoamerican civilizations demonstrated advanced understanding of mathematics, astronomy, and engineering, evident in the precise construction of their buildings and cities. II. Key Characteristics and Principles Monumental Scale: Buildings were often massive, intended to demonstrate the power of the rulers and the importance of religious beliefs. Integration with Nature: Structures were frequently built to align with geographical features and astronomical events, showing a deep connection with the natural world. Pyramids: A common structure for religious and ceremonial purposes, which could be step pyramids or those with a sloped profile. Use of Platforms and Terraces: Raised platforms were used to elevate buildings and create imposing structures, often surrounded by stepped terraces. Courtyards: Many structures were designed around courtyards or plazas, which served as gathering spaces. Symbolism: Architecture was rich in symbolic meaning, with specific designs and decorations representing religious, social, and political ideas. Bas-reliefs: Commonly used to decorate structures, these carvings were used to tell stories of the gods or important rulers. Lack of True Arch: Mesoamerican architecture typically did not use true arches, relying instead on corbeling and post-and-lintel systems. III. Types of Structures  Pyramids: o Step Pyramids: These were common in various Mesoamerican cultures, including the Maya and the Olmec, and were often used for temples. Examples include the Pyramid of the Sun in Teotihuacan and the El Castillo pyramid at Chichen Itza. o Pyramids with Temples: These were often built with a temple or shrine at the top, meant for religious rituals and ceremonies. Temples: o Temple Structures: These were the most important buildings in Mesoamerican cities, used for worship, sacrifice, and other religious ceremonies. Temples often contained statues of deities or rulers. o Open Air Altars: Brahmin priests developed open-air fire altars that were constructed and designed using a rigid geometric format and system. Ball Courts: o Enclosed Rectangular Courts: These were used for ritual ball games, which had deep religious and symbolic significance. The Great Ball Court at Chichen Itza is a prominent example. Urban Centers and Cities: o Plazas: Large open spaces surrounded by important buildings, serving as centers of community life. o Causeways: Paved roads or pathways connecting different parts of a city or region, often used for trade. o Fortifications: Some cities had fortifications, usually walls around the settlement to protect it from attack. o Stepped Terraces: These could create the impression of multiple-storied buildings. Other Structures: o Stelae: Tall, sculpted stone shafts, often associated with altars, with a purpose that remains uncertain. Many Stelae were sculpted in low relief. o Vedikas: Stone railings that encircled spiritually significant areas marked by trees and stones. IV. Key Architectural Elements Platforms: Raised foundations upon which structures were built. Terraces: Stepped structures used to elevate buildings and integrate them with the landscape. Pylons: Monumental gateways at the entrances of temple complexes. Colossal Heads: Large, carved stone heads representing rulers or deities, a hallmark of Olmec civilization. Bas-reliefs: Carved images on buildings and monuments, often depicting mythical or historical scenes. Corbeling: A technique of layering stones to create a vaulted or arched shape without the use of a keystone, popular in the Maya civilization. Lintels: Horizontal beams that span openings, often made of stone or wood. Stucco: A coating made from ground marble that was applied to a building. V. Construction Techniques Stone Carving: Mesoamericans were skilled in carving and shaping stone with basic tools. Earthworks: Many structures were built using earth and rubble as core materials. Post and Lintel: System of construction using vertical posts to support horizontal lintels, frequently seen in temples. Layered Construction: Buildings were often constructed in layers, with new structures built over older ones. Ramps and Human Labor: Lacking the wheel and draft animals, construction relied on human labor, ramps, and levers. Irrigation: Construction often involved water management systems, such as canals and reservoirs. VI. Notable Civilizations and Sites Olmec Civilization (1200-1400 BCE): o Known as the "mother culture," they influenced later civilizations. o Famous for their colossal stone heads and platform mounds. o Important sites include Chalcatzingo, La Venta, and San Lorenzo. o Revered caves as places of origin and associated them with female deities. Maya Civilization (2000 BCE-1500 CE): o Developed advanced writing systems, astronomy, and mathematics. o Built grand cities with towering pyramids and elaborate temples. o Key sites include Tikal, Palenque, Copan, and Chichen Itza. o Managed harsh environments by elevating fields, carving out terraces, and creating reservoirs. o Created sacbe or white ways which are paved with white stones. Aztec Civilization (1300-1521 CE): o Built the large city of Tenochtitlan, with canals and floating gardens. o Known for their large-scale ceremonies and powerful warriors. o Their capital city of Tenochtitlan was a unique urban landscape with canals, floating gardens, and sophisticated infrastructure for bathing and agriculture. Teotihuacan o This city had a very large pyramid called the Pyramid of the Sun. o It also contains a volcanic tube cave, beneath the base of the Pyramid of the Moon. Kaminaljuyu: An early Mayan site in Guatemala that had a flourishing trade in salt, fish, and shells coming from the coast, and cacao, jaguar skins, and other items from the jungle. VII. Religious and Ceremonial Sites Temples: Used for worship, sacrifices, and other religious ceremonies. Ball Courts: Sites for ritual games that symbolized cosmic struggles between good and evil. The losing team would often be sacrificed to the gods. VIII. Legacy and Influence Mesoamerican architecture has greatly influenced modern Mexican culture, especially in language, traditions, and architectural styles. Its achievements in urban design, astronomy, and architecture continue to inspire architects and historians globally. The integration of architecture with nature and the cosmos continues to be admired and studied by contemporary architects and historians. The sophisticated understanding of astronomy, as evident in the alignment of structures with celestial events, remains an area of great interest. GREEK ARCHITECTURE I. Overview of Greek Architecture Greek architecture is known for its delicacy of outline, perfected proportions, and refined treatment. It is characterized by mathematical ratios and optical corrections. The architecture evolved from simple wooden structures to sophisticated designs using limestone and marble. Greek architecture is columnar and trabeated, often ornamented with sculptures, colors, and mural paintings. The primary building type was the temple, but other structures like theaters, stoas, and public buildings were also significant. II. Periods of Greek Architecture Aegean Period (800-300 B.C.): o Structures were generally rough and massive. o Characterized by cyclopean walls (large stones without mortar) and megarons (single-story dwellings with a central room and porticoed entrance). o The capital of columns featured a square abacus and a circular bulbous echinus. Hellenic Period (Classical): o The temple became the chief building type. o Refinements to correct optical illusions such as entasis (swelling of columns) were introduced. o Materials used included timber, stone, and terracotta, with major public buildings constructed from limestone and marble. o Structures were ornamented with sculptures, colors, and mural paintings. o This period emphasized proportion and mathematical computation. Hellenistic Period: o Greek culture was modified by foreign elements. o A diversion from religious building types occurred; civic structures were also built.  o The design and layout of buildings were symmetrical and orderly. o Moldings were used for decoration and utilities, such as drip molds. o Temple entrances typically faced east. III. Key Architectural Elements and Principles Columnar and Trabeated: Structures were built using columns supporting horizontal beams (trabeated). Mathematical Ratios: Proportions were based on mathematical ratios, creating harmonious designs. Optical Corrections: Refinements were used to correct optical illusions, ensuring the buildings appeared straight and balanced. Entasis: The slight swelling of columns to make them appear straight. Intercolumnation: The systematic spacing of columns, expressed as multiples of column diameters. o Pycnostyle: 1.5 diameters o Systyle: 2 diameters o Eustyle: 2.25 diameters o Diastyle: 3 diameters o Araeostyle: 4 diameters IV. The Greek Orders An order is one of the predominant styles in classical architecture. The three main orders are: o Doric: ▪ Oldest, simplest, and most massive of the three orders. ▪ Developed in Greece in the 7th century B.C. ▪ Fluted columns with no base. ▪ Capital consists of a square abacus at the top and a rounded echinus at the bottom. ▪ Plain architrave with a frieze of triglyphs and metopes. o Ionic: ▪ Developed in the Ionian Islands (now western Turkey) in the 6th century B.C.. ▪ Used for smaller buildings and interiors. ▪ Fluted columns with molded bases. ▪ Capital features spiral volutes. ▪ Entablature consists of an architrave of three fascias, a richly ornamented frieze, and a cornice. o Corinthian: ▪ Named after the city of Corinth. ▪ Similar to the Ionic order in its base, column, and entablature. ▪ Capital is adorned with flowers and leaves, flaring outward, which gives a sense of height. V. Temple Architecture Chief building type of the Hellenic period. Greek and Roman temples are described according to the number of columns on the entrance front, the type of colonnade, and the type of portico. Number of Columns o Henostyle: One column o Distyle: Two columns o Tristyle: Three columns o Tetrastyle: Four columns o Pentastyle: Five columns o Hexastyle: Six columns o Heptastyle: Seven columns o Octastyle: Eight columns o Enneastyle: Nine columns o Decastyle: Ten columns o Dodecastyle: Twelve columns Temple Elements o Naos (Cella): Principal chamber where the cult image was kept. o Pronaos (Anticum): Open vestibule before the cella. o Epinaos (Posticum): Rear vestibule. o Opisthodomos: A small room in the cella, often used as a treasury. o Temenos: The sacred area or enclosure surrounding a classical Greek temple. o Prolypaea: A monumental gateway to a sacred enclosure, fortification, town, or square. Types of Colonnades and Porticos: o Distyle in antis: Columns are between anta and at the front. o Amphi-antis: Double anta, at front and rear. o Prostyle: Portico at front only. o Amphiprostyle: Porticoes at front and rear. o Peripteral: Columns on all sides. o Pseudo-peripteral: Columns attached to naos. o Dipteral: Double line of columns surrounding the naos. o Pseudo-dipteral: Like dipteral, but inner columns are attached to the naos. VI. Civic Buildings Agora: A market or meeting place, the hub of public life. Theatron: Designed for the presentation of plays with choral songs and dances. o Example: Theater of Dionysus Eleuthereus Stoa: A covered walkway or colonnaded court, often used for public gatherings. Prytaneion: A building for the town council or leaders. Bouleuterion: A council house. Odeion: A building constructed for musical performance. Stadion: A running track or stadium. Hippodrome: A race course for horses and chariots.  Palaestra: A wrestling school. Gymnasion: A place for physical exercise. VII. Residential Buildings Megaron: A single-story dwelling with a central room, porch, and entrance. Prostas: A dwelling entered from the street via a passage to an open courtyard, with rooms accessed via an anteroom. Pastas: A dwelling with a courtyard in the center of the south side and a columned veranda providing access to the rooms. Peristyle: A dwelling with an open courtyard surrounded by colonnades on all sides, often more luxurious than a prostas or pastas house. VIII. Urban Planning Hippodamian Grid System: A rectilinear town layout with blocks of dwellings divided by narrow side streets and wider main roads. Developed by Hippodamus of Miletus in the 5th Century BC. IX. Notable Structures and Sites Acropolis: A "city on the height," a city stronghold or fortress constructed on higher ground, the most famous is in Athens. o Parthenon: A Doric temple dedicated to Athena, known for its refined proportions and optical corrections. o Erechtheion: An Ionic temple known for its asymmetrical design and caryatid porch. o Propylaea: A monumental gateway to the Acropolis. o Temple of Athena Nike: A small Ionic temple on the Acropolis. Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae: Notable for its mix of Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian elements. Temple of Artemis at Corfu: The earliest known Doric temple completely made of stone. Temple of Poseidon at Isthmia: Early example of Doric order with stone columns. Temple of Hera (550 BCE) and Temple of Poseidon (460 BCE) in Paestum: Examples of Greek temples in central Italy, with the later Temple of Poseidon opening up the cella by means of an inner colonnade. Telesterion at Eleusis: A square, windowless building with tiers of seats used for religious festivals. Treasury of Athens at Delphi: Example of a smaller temple that used the Doric order. Temple of Athena Polias at Priene: An example of an Ionic temple with formalized proportional systems. Altar of Zeus in Pergamon: U-shaped Ionic structure that served as both a sacrificial site and a political monument. Sanctuary of Athena at Lindos: Built around an older temple with a winged stoa and broad flight of stairs.  Dionysus Theater, Athens: Example of a classical Greek theater. X. Materials and Construction Materials: o Timber: Used in early structures and for roofs. o Stone: Limestone and marble were primary materials for major public buildings. o Terracotta: Used for roof tiles and decorations. o Bronze and Iron: Used for pins to hold stone blocks in place, often set in molten lead. Construction Techniques: o Post and Lintel: A system where horizontal lintels are supported by vertical posts. o Stone Cutting: Stones were brought to the site in a nearly finished state, allowing for detailed work. o Cyclopean Walls: Large stones without mortar, laid on clay bedding. o Corbeling: Used to create arches and vaults. ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE I. Overview of Etruscan Architecture Etruscan architecture flourished in central Italy from the 8th to 3rd century BCE. It is characterized by a unique style that, while influenced by Greek architecture, developed its own distinctive features. Etruscan architecture is known for its frontal and axial temple designs and the use of mud-brick and terracotta as primary building materials. Etruscan innovations include the arch, vault, and dome, which were later adopted by the Romans. Etruscan architecture significantly influenced Roman architecture. Etruscan tombs provide insights into their beliefs about the afterlife. The Etruscans were known for their trade, exchanging iron for ivory, among other things. The Tuscan order is an Etruscan contribution to classical architecture. II. Geographical and Cultural Context Etruria was a region of central Italy encompassing parts of modern-day Tuscany, Lazio, and Umbria. The central region in Italy known as Tuscany was named after the Etruscans. The Etruscans had dry summers and cool, rainy winters. Herodotus believed the Etruscans descended from people who invaded Etruria from Anatolia before 800 BCE. Dionysius of Halicarnassus argued that the Etruscans were of local Italian origin. The Etruscans prospered through their local mineral resources like iron and trade.  A shift in power occurred as Rome grew in size at the end of the 5th and beginning of the 4th century BCE. The Etruscan civilization was largely obliterated by the conquering Romans and time. III. Materials and Construction Techniques Mud Bricks: Made by mixing earth with water, placing the mixture in molds, and drying them in the air. Terracotta: Made from fairly coarse, porous clay, shaped, and then fired until hard. It was used for roof tiles and decorative elements. The terracotta was placed on top of the roofs. Wood: Used in the construction of temples, often combined with mud brick. Stone: Used for the podiums or base platforms of temples. Stucco and Plaster: Used to cover and protect the organic materials of temples, often with painted decorations. IV. Key Architectural Elements Temples: o Characterized by a frontal and axial design. o Often had more than one cella. o Had wide eaves, low-pitched roofs, and terracotta roof tiles to protect the organic materials. o Acroterions were placed along the ridgepole, cornice, and peaks to decorate the temple. o The altar for animal sacrifices and ritual ceremonies was located outside the temple. o Often had three cellas, dedicated to the chief gods Tinia (Zeus), Uni (Hera), and Menrva (Athena). o Built using wood and mud brick, with stucco, plaster, or painted decorations. Arches, Vaults, and Domes: The Etruscans are believed to have originated these architectural elements. Orders: o Often used with arches. o Carefully placed to contribute to the scale and proportion of the overall design. Tuscan Order: o One of the classical orders developed by the Romans, influenced by the Doric order. o Features unfluted columns and a simpler entablature without triglyphs or guttae. o The simplest of the classical Roman architectural orders, with a simple base, unadorned columns and an unadorned entablature. Podium: A base platform made of stone, used for temples. Acroterions: Decorative elements placed on the ridgepole, cornice, and peaks of temples. V. Building Types  Temples: o Etruscan temples were different from their Greek counterparts with frontal and axial designs and more than one cella. o They are usually covered with Stucco, Plaster, or painted decorations. o The use of organic material such as wood and mud brick was protected by wide eaves and terracotta roof tiles. Tombs: o Built with the same materials as houses and designed to resemble them. o Reflected the belief in an afterlife. o Contained paintings, decorations, gold jewelry, and dinner sets to comfort the dead on their journey to the afterlife. o Had carved beds for the dead to lie on, and some even had pillows. o There are two famous large Etruscan cemeteries: the necropolis near Cerveteri (Banditaccia) and the necropolis of Tarquinia (Monterozzi). VI. Notable Sites Cerveteri (Caere): An important Etruscan city with an area more than 15 times larger than the modern town. Known by the ancient Romans as Caere, and previously by the Etruscans as Caisra or Cisra, and as Agylla by the Greeks. Banditaccia Necropolis (Cerveteri): The most famous attraction in Cerveteri, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It contains about 1,000 tombs often housed in mounds. The name "Banditaccia" comes from the leasing (bando) of land areas to the Cerveteri population by local landowners. It is the largest ancient necropolis in the Mediterranean area. Monterozzi Necropolis (Tarquinia): Contains 6,000 graves cut in the rock, including 200 painted tombs. VII. Influence on Roman Architecture Etruscan architecture significantly influenced Roman architecture. The Romans adopted the arch, vault, and dome from the Etruscans. The Tuscan order is an example of direct Etruscan influence on Roman architectural styles. Roman buildings often incorporated Etruscan construction techniques, especially in their early phases. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE I. Overview of Roman Architecture Roman architecture is characterized by ostentation, with elaborately ornamented interiors and austere exteriors.  It is heavily influenced by the Etruscans and combined their use of the arch, vault, and dome with the Greeks’ columns. The invention and development of concrete led to a sophisticated system of vaulting and demonstrated their advanced engineering skills. Roman architecture placed an emphasis on monumental public buildings. Sophisticated building services, such as plumbing, heating, and water supply, were essential features of Roman structures. On an urban scale, Roman architecture produced an impressive array of planning elements. Key principles of Roman architecture are firmitas, utilitas, and venustas (durability, usefulness, and beauty). Roman architecture was also influenced by Hellenistic design notions, such as symmetry. II. Materials and Methods Concrete: o A mix of volcanic ash (pozzolana), lime, sand, water, and gravel. o Strong, cheap, and easy to use. o Did not need to be quarried, cut, or transported like stone. o Could set underwater, facilitating the design of ports and harbors. Facing Materials: o Marble, granite, and alabaster were primary facing materials, as well as stucco and mosaics. Opus: o Plural opera, “work” (Latin); an artistic composition or pattern, especially as used in relation to Roman stonework and walling construction. o Different types of stonework included: ▪ Opus reticulatum: Meshwork. ▪ Opus quasi reticulatum: Similar to opus reticulatum. ▪ Opus africanum: African work. ▪ Opus isodomum, opus quadratum: Coursed ashlar. ▪ Opus pseudoisodomum: Similar to isodomum but with courses of varying height. ▪ Opus spicatum: Herringbone brickwork. ▪ Opus craticium: Wattle and daub. ▪ Opus signinum: Rough render. ▪ Opus caementicium, opus concretum, opus structile, structura caementic: Concrete. III. The Roman Orders The orders of ancient Roman classical architecture are: o Tuscan or Etruscan Order: ▪ Influenced by the Doric order but with unfluted columns and a simpler entablature with no triglyphs or guttae.  ▪ Characterized by a simpler base, unadorned columns, and unadorned entablature. o Composite Order: ▪ Combines elements of the Ionic and Corinthian orders, often seen in highly decorative structures. IV. Key Architectural Elements and Principles Arch: o A curved structure for spanning an opening, designed to support a vertical load primarily by axial compression. o Constructed of individual voussoirs and a central keystone. o Different types of arches included: ▪ Round arch: A semicircular arch. ▪ Segmental arch: An arch having a continuously curved intrados that is less than a semicircle. ▪ Rampant arch: An arch having an intrados that widens above the springing, narrowing to a rounded crown. ▪ Cusped arch: An arch having a cusped intrados with three or more foils. ▪ Pointed arch: An arch having a pointed crown. ▪ Equilateral arch: A pointed arch having two centers and radii. Vault: o An arched structure of stone, brick, or reinforced concrete forming a ceiling or roof over a hall, room, or other space. o Different types of vaults included: ▪ Barrel vault (tunnel vault, wagon vault): A vault having a semi-circular cross-section. ▪ Stilted vault: A form of a round vault having an impost which springs from a higher level so that the ridges are at the same level. ▪ Groin vault: Formed by the intersection of two barrel vaults. Dome: o An arch rotated around its center point, with vertical lines called meridians and horizontal lines called parallels. Compression Building: Allowed for the design of the arch, vault, and dome, enabling the enclosure of large spaces. Emphasis on Monumentality: Roman structures were designed to impress, with a focus on large scale and imposing forms. V. Building Types Temples: o Often built on a podium, with a frontal orientation and axial symmetry. o Entrances were emphasized with statues or obelisks. o The interior included a large courtyard and a hall with massive columns. Basilica:  o A large, elongated hall with two or four side aisles separated from the main hall by columns. o Side aisles are lower than the central hall to allow for clerestory windows. o Usually has an apse at one of the long ends. o Used as law courts, public meeting places, and later adopted as a model for churches. o Components include: ▪ Tribune (apse, podium): A raised platform. ▪ Navis media (nave): Central aisle. ▪ Aisle: Side aisles. ▪ Chalcidicum (porch): A porch. ▪ Porticus (portico, colonnade): A colonnade. Imperial Fora: o A sequence of open, colonnaded, and enclosed spaces, with elements bonded together without direct spatial or axial connections. Forum Romanum: o The oldest forum in Rome; served as the city's marketplace and center of public business. o Rectangular in shape, enclosed by different institutional and public buildings. Triumphal Arches: o Freestanding monumental arches built to celebrate military victories. Circuses: o Venues for chariot races and other public spectacles. o Components include: ▪ Balbides (carceres): Starting gates. ▪ Porta triumphalis: Triumphal gate. ▪ Spina: Dividing wall. ▪ Meta prima and meta secunda: Turning posts. ▪ Quadriga: Four-horsed chariot. Aqueducts: o Structures to transport water to cities, often utilizing arches to span valleys. Baths (Thermae): o Large public bath complexes that included different rooms for various bathing experiences. o Main features included: ▪ Caldarium: Hot baths, often with groin vaulting. ▪ Tepidarium: Warm baths, often domed. ▪ Frigidarium: Cool baths, with cruciform vaulting. ▪ Open-air swimming pool. ▪ Open-air exercise courts. Theaters and Amphitheaters: o Venues for dramatic performances, gladiatorial contests, and other public events. o Amphitheaters were oval-shaped and free-standing structures. o Theaters were typically vaulted semicircles. o The Coliseum (Flavian Amphitheater) was the most famous, with a hierarchical seating plan.  ▪ Seating Levels: Included ground-level marble boxes for the emperor, seating for nobles and wealthy citizens, male citizens, women, and standing room for noncitizens and slaves. Palaces: o Grand residential complexes for rulers, such as the Palace of Domitian. VI. Urban Planning Grid System: Roman cities were often laid out on a grid plan, with main streets (cardo and decumanus) intersecting at right angles. o Decumanus: The principal east-west street. o Cardo: The shorter main north-south street. Importance of City Planning: Resulted from population growth and the need for improved sanitation and fire safety. Cloaca Maxima: The main sewer system in Rome, initially a trench and later vaulted in stone, demonstrating advanced engineering. VII. Notable Structures and Sites Pantheon, Rome: o A well-preserved ancient monument with a traditional temple entryway and a large circular room with a concrete dome. o Features a portico, columns, and a triangular pediment. o The dome is supported by massive piers and arches, using heavy basalt at the base and lightweight pumice at the top. Pompeii: o A well-preserved Roman town offering insight into Roman daily life, including its urban planning and architecture. o Features a forum, basilica, public baths, and residential buildings. Temple of Fortuna at Praeneste: A temple built on a hillside, with a symmetrical arrangement, inspired by Hellenistic design notions, and demonstrates the use of concrete. Cosa: A Roman colony with a rectangular forum, a Comitium, a curia, and a basilica. Basilica of Pompeii: A wide, elongated hall, with a raised podium at the narrow southern end and an unroofed law court on the eastern flank. Tomb of Marcus Vergilius Eurysaces: A unique tomb designed with the theme of a panarium (bread storage). Monument of the Julii in St.-Rémy: A sedate tomb consisting of a socle, a four-sided arch, and a delicate round tempietto on top. Kbour-er-Roumia (Algiers): A tumulus tomb with a diameter of 60 meters, resting on a square base and a ring of Ionic half-columns. Mausoleum of Augustus (Rome): An imposing structure with a tall circular base covered in travertine, with two obelisks and bronze tablets. VIII. Influences and Legacy  Etruscan Influence: Romans adopted the arch, vault, and dome from the Etruscans. Greek Influence: Roman architecture incorporated Greek columns, and the concept of the classical orders. Vitruvius: Roman architect who wrote De Architectura (On Architecture), outlining principles of firmitas, utilitas, and venustas. Technological Innovations: The development of concrete and advanced engineering techniques enabled the Romans to build large-scale structures. Long-lasting Impact: Roman architecture had a profound influence on both western and eastern Europe, continuing for centuries after the empire's fall. EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE I. Historical Context and Origins Early Christian architecture emerged from the need for places of worship following the rise of Christianity in the Roman Empire. The period of Early Christian architecture is generally considered to be from about 300 to 600 AD. Constantine was the first Roman Emperor to accept Christianity, which led to the legitimization of the religion and the construction of churches. The Edict of Milan in 313 granted religious freedom to Christians. Prior to the Edict of Milan, Christians often met secretly in tombs and private houses, known as house churches. After Christianity gained legal status, many Roman temples, which had become useless for their original purpose, were utilized for the new faith, and new churches were built on the model of old Roman basilicas. The Early Christian architectural style was a gradual development of the Roman style after "Christianizing" it. The western Roman empire is typically associated with Early Christian Architecture, while the architecture of the eastern part of the empire during the same period is called Byzantine Architecture. The Roman Empire was divided into the Western (Roman) and Eastern (Byzantine) empires in 364 AD. The Early Christian style influenced the later Romanesque style. Early Christian art and architecture is the art produced by Christians or under Christian patronage from the earliest period of Christianity, sometime between 260 to 525. II. Influences and Adaptations Early Christian builders were not particularly skilled craftsmen. They reused Roman elements and materials, including columns, naves, apses, and altars.  Roman basilicas served as a primary model for early churches, which are therefore called "Basilican churches". The basilica, a public meeting hall used by the Romans as a courtroom, was the closest Roman building type suited to Christian needs. Early Christian architects adapted the Roman basilica plan, modifying the entrance and adding features like transepts. The orientation of the church was typically with the narthex (entrance hall) to the west and the altar to the east. The churches also had forecourts surrounded by arcades. Early Christian buildings also utilized materials from Roman temples. Materials were often taken from abandoned Roman buildings because early Christian builders were not good craftsmen. Roman building methods using rubble or concrete walls covered with plaster and mosaic were also utilized. Early churches were generally simple and functional in their design, with little regard paid to external architectural effect. III. Key Architectural Features of Basilican Churches Nave and Aisles: The basilican church featured a high central nave suited for processions and gatherings, flanked by one or more side aisles. o Some churches had three aisles, while others had four or five. o The aisles provided space for the public, shrines, and other secondary functions. Columns: Roman columns were reused, often spaced closely together, and connected by semi-circular arches. o They were typically crowned with an entablature. Roofs: Early ceilings were often flat due to the use of wood for roofs. o Roofs were made of wood, either flat or sloped if the span was large. Clerestory: The nave, higher than the aisles, was illuminated by high clerestory windows. Apse: The altar was located at the end of the nave, in an apse, often decorated with mosaics. o The cathedra, or throne, of the bishop, was sometimes set in the apse of cathedrals. Transepts: Extensions to the north and south met the nave at the crossing, forming a cruciform shape. o The development of transepts may have been driven by the need for additional space for worshipers and pilgrims and to separate the graves of saints from other tombs. Entrances: Churches were entered through an atrium and narthex. The narthex was essentially a covered porch preceding the basilica's entrance. The atrium was a preparatory space for worshipers. Materials: Walls were constructed of masonry; roofs were spanned by large wooden members.  Decoration: Interior decoration included glass mosaics. Floors were paved with colored stones in geometric patterns, and the walls above the columns were often painted. The half dome over the apse was often lined with mosaics. Windows: Windows were usually small. IV. Centralized Structures Early Christians also adopted centrally planned structures, in which the main parts of a building radiate from a central point. These were used for baptisteries and mausoleums. Santa Costanza is an example of a centrally planned structure, built as a mausoleum for Constantine’s family. o It features a central altar within a ring of paired columns supporting a dome and clerestory. o It includes a circular corridor called the ambulatory, which is barrel-vaulted and decorated with mosaics. o Four large niches in the walls define the shape of a Greek cross. The cross circumscribed by the circular plan symbolized salvation and eternal life. V. Specific Examples of Churches and other Structures Old St. Peter’s Basilica, Rome: Prototype for Christian architecture, with a narthex, atrium, nave, side aisles, transepts, and a wooden gable roof. The interior was adorned with precious materials like marble columns, mosaics, and frescoes. It was both a martyrium and a basilica used for worship. St. John Lateran, Rome: Marks the first use of the basilica plan for Christian architecture. It was the first church commissioned by Emperor Constantine. It was built as the Cathedral of the Bishop of Rome. S. Clemente, Rome: Example of a 3-aisled church, built in the 5th century and rebuilt in the 11th. S. Maria Maggiore, Rome. S. Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna. Baptistery of S. Constantine, Rome. S. Stefano Rotunda, Rome: Example of a martyrium. Tomb of Theodoric, Ravenna: A two-level tomb with a decagon floor. Church of Nativity. Church of the Holy Sepulchre. VI. Baptisteries Baptisteries were buildings where the rituals of baptism were held. They started as an attachment to the forecourt of the church but later became separate buildings. Baptisteries adopted the form of the Roman tomb as a model. The interior columns were transformed from decorative to structural ones. Baptism was not by sprinkling babies, but by immersion. VII. Martyria Martyria, also called martyrium, are structures built at a site that bears witness to the Christian faith. o They often refer to an event in Christ's life or passion, or they shelter the grave of a martyr. Martyria often had a sunken floor to bring the faithful closer to the remains of the saint, and a small opening, the fenestella, going from the altar-stone to the grave itself. Later, martyria were turned into churches or made as an extension of a mausoleum. VIII. Interior Decoration Interiors were more important than the exterior, unlike the earlier Roman phase. Mosaics and frescoes were used on the interior. Glass mosaic was used for interior decoration. Floors were often paved with colored stones in geometric patterns and strong colors. The half dome over the apse was painted or lined with mosaics illustrating religious themes. Walls were constructed according to Roman methods: rubble or concrete walls covered with plaster and mosaic. IX. Materials and Construction The early Christians utilized materials from old Roman temples and buildings. They used rubble or concrete, faced with plaster, brick, or stone. Columns were primarily Roman and taken from abandoned buildings. Roofs were made of wood, either flat or sloped. Timber roofs covered the central nave. Nave arcades often rested directly on the capitals without any entablatures. X. Symbolism and Meaning The decorated interior contrasted with the plain exterior, subtly reminding visitors that the beauty of the inner spirit was more important than external, physical adornment. Mosaics in the apse often depicted Christ, Saints Peter and Paul, and the Emperor Constantine, with inscriptions emphasizing the triumph of Christianity. The cruciform shape created by the transepts symbolized the cross and was a key feature of Christian churches. XI. Comparison to Roman Architecture Early Christian architecture was heavily influenced by Roman architecture, but it adapted Roman forms for Christian purposes. Unlike Greek and Roman temples, which sheltered gods, the Christian church was designed to shelter worshippers.  While Roman basilicas were used for legal and commercial purposes, the early Christian churches used them as places of worship. BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE I. Historical Context and Origins Byzantine architecture is associated with the Eastern Roman Empire, which was centered in Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul). The period of Byzantine architecture is generally considered to be from about 300 to 1450 AD. However, some sources mention 330-726 AD as the early Byzantine period. The architecture of the eastern part of the Roman Empire during this period is called Byzantine architecture, while the architecture of the western part of the empire is considered early Christian architecture. The Roman Empire was divided into the Western (Roman) and Eastern (Byzantine) empires in 364 AD. Constantinople became the new capital and an important center for the development of this style. Byzantine architecture evolved from the synthesis of early Christian and Roman architectural styles and was also influenced by the proximity of Asia Minor and Syria, which were fertile centers of new artistic ideas that developed independently of Rome. The art and architecture of Constantinople became known as Byzantine and extended throughout the entire Christian East. II. Key Architectural Characteristics Materials: Byzantine architecture is characterized by masonry construction using brick, stone, and concrete. Arches and Domes: The style is known for its use of round arches and shallow domes carried on pendentives, which allow for domes to be placed over square spaces. Pendentives: Pendentives are a key element of Byzantine architecture that transfer the weight of the dome to the piers below. This feature was a significant architectural innovation, transforming building where stress was counteracted by mass, into organic architecture where thrust was compensated by thrust. Emphasis on Interior: Byzantine architecture is known for the extensive use of rich frescoes and colored glass mosaics to cover whole interiors, contrasting with the often austere exteriors. This is similar to Early Christian architecture, in that the interiors were given more importance than the exteriors. Centralized and Longitudinal Plans: Byzantine architecture utilized both longitudinal (basilica) and centralized (circular or polygonal) plans for churches. Combination of Basilican and Centralized Plans: A characteristic feature of Byzantine architecture is a combination of longitudinal basilicas and centralized churches. This is exemplified by structures like Hagia Sophia.  Facades: Facades of Byzantine structures typically faced west. III. Structural Elements Domes: Domes are a defining characteristic of Byzantine architecture. They are often shallow and carried on pendentives or squinches. Squinch: A niche or arch in the corner of a square that transforms it into an octagon, over which a dome can be placed. Piers: Massive piers support the weight of the dome and transfer it to the ground. Columns: Columns were made of marble and selected for their color and variety. Roofs: Roofs were constructed with domes, semi-domes and vaults. Arches: Round arches were commonly used for support and decoration. IV. Interior Features Mosaics: Byzantine interiors are extensively decorated with mosaics, using colored glass to create rich and detailed images. Frescoes: Frescoes were another common form of interior decoration, providing additional color and detail to the buildings. Galleries: Churches often had galleries, or upper levels, usually for women. Apses: The apse was usually semi-circular and located at the east end of the church. Bema: The bema, an altar platform or stage for the clergy, was an important feature in Byzantine churches. Synthronos: The synthronos, a seating area for the clergy, was also located in the apse. Ambulatories: Ambulatories were used in centralized structures and are corridors that go around a central area Narthex: Byzantine churches included a narthex as a vestibule or entrance V. Comparison to Early Christian Architecture Transition: Byzantine architecture grew out of early Christian architecture and is sometimes viewed as proto-Byzantine. However, over time, Byzantine architecture developed its own distinct characteristics. Material Use: Both used masonry and rubble, but Byzantine used brick more frequently. Exterior Decoration: Early Christian architecture tended to have plain exteriors with decorated interiors, while Byzantine structures often had more complex exteriors and even more elaborate interiors. Spatial Arrangement: Both used basilican and centralized plans. However, Byzantine architecture combined the two, which was less common in Early Christian churches. Domes: While Early Christian churches could include domes, they were not the defining feature the way they were in Byzantine architecture. VI. Specific Examples of Byzantine Structures  Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (Istanbul): A prime example of Byzantine architecture, it combines longitudinal and centralized elements. It has a large central dome supported by pendentives. St. Mark's Basilica, Venice: A notable example of Byzantine architecture that features a Greek cross plan, multiple domes, and elaborate mosaic decoration. Saints Sergius and Bacchus, Constantinople: A centralized building with a dome on an octagonal base. Church of St. Eirene (Irene), Constantinople: A basilica roofed by two domes in echelon. Church of the Holy Apostles, Constantinople: A cruciform church with a dome at the crossing and another on each of the arms of the cross. Monastery of St. John the Baptist of Studium, Constantinople: A basilica with tribunes and narthexes. Church of the Acheiropoietos at Thessalonica: A basilica with tribunes and narthexes. St. John of Ephesus: A cruciform plan inspired by the church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople. Qal'at al-Sim'an, Syria: A martyrium built around the column of St. Simeon Stylites, featuring a central octagon adjoined by four basilica-shaped arms. Basilica Cistern, Istanbul: An underground cistern with domes supported on columns. Binbirdirek Cistern (Thousand and One Columns), Istanbul: Another impressive underground cistern. St. Basil's Cathedral, Moscow: While having some distinct features, this structure includes the use of domes and rich decoration. VII. Influence and Legacy Byzantine architecture influenced later architectural styles, particularly Romanesque and Islamic architecture. The use of domes, arches, and mosaics became widespread in various parts of the world, thanks to Byzantine examples. The centralized plans of Byzantine structures influenced church designs for centuries.