Neolithic Cultures in India PDF

www.tntextbooks.in goat and cattle bones have been found besides Maski, Piklihal, Watkal, Hemmige and Hallur bones of wild animals. in Karnataka, Nagarjunakonda, Ramapuram The Neolithic peop...

www.tntextbooks.in goat and cattle bones have been found besides Maski, Piklihal, Watkal, Hemmige and Hallur bones of wild animals. in Karnataka, Nagarjunakonda, Ramapuram The Neolithic people used a type of and Veerapuram in Andhra Pradesh and pottery with cord impression on the surfaces. Paiyyampalli in Tamil Nadu are the major They used microliths, bone and antler tools Neolithic sites in South India. and terracotta objects. These sites perhaps Some early Neolithic sites have ash flourished till about the middle of the second mounds. Utnur and Palvoy in Andhra millennium BCE. Pradesh and Kodekal, Kupgal and Budihal in Karnataka feature ash mound sites. Soft ash and The Neolithic Culture of decomposed cow dung layers are also found at Eastern India this site. The evidence of habitation in the form The Neolithic sites are found at many sites of houses and burials are found around the ash in Bihar and West Bengal. Birbhanpur is one of mounds. the prominent Neolithic sites in this region along with Kuchai, Golbaisasan and Sankarjang. These Neolithic Culture of cultures show similarities with the Neolithic North-eastern India complexes of east and South-east Asia. Pointed In north-eastern India, Neolithic culture butt celts, chisel and shouldered axes have been appears at to a very late period. The Neolithic found in the region from the Neolithic era. cultures of north-eastern India generally date Neolithic Culture of South India from 2500-1500 BCE or even later. Shouldered axes and splayed celts have been found at the sites The Neolithic cultures in Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Arunachal of South India have been Pradesh. Daojali Hading and Sarutaru are found mainly in Andhra the Neolithic sites in the Assam region. This Pradesh and Karnataka and region bears evidence for shifting cultivation. the north-western part of Cultivation of yams and taro, building stone Tamil Nadu. These sites have and wooden memorials for the dead, and the ash mounds in the centre with settlements presence of Austro-Asiatic languages are the around them. More than 200 Neolithic sites marked features of this region, which shows have been identified as part of the Neolithic cultural similarities with South-east Asia. complex. These sites are found near the granite hills with water sources. These sites have 1.4 The Indus Civilisation been spotted in the river valleys of Godavari, Krishna, Pennaru, Tungabhadra and Kaveri. The Indus Civilisation represents the Sanganakallu, Tekkalakota, Brahmagiri, first phase of urbanisation in India. While the civilisation was in its peak, several cultures, namely, Mesolithic and Neolithic cultures that we discussed earlier in the chapter, prevailed in other parts of India. Nomenclature, Phases and Chronology The civilisation that appeared in the north- western part of India and Pakistan in third millennium BCE is collectively called the Indus Civilisation. Since Harappa was the first site to Neolithic ground stone axe be identified in this civilisation, it is also known Early India: From the Beginnings to the Indus Civilisation 9 11th_History_English Medium_History_Unit 1.indd 9 01-12-2022 18:39:38  www.tntextbooks.in as Harappan Civilisation. This civilisation did (Uttar Pradesh, India) in the east and not appear all of a sudden. The beginnings of the Daimabad (Maharashtra, India) in the south Neolithic villages in this region go back to about are the boundaries of this civilisation. Its core 7000 BCE at the Neolithic site of Mehrgarh. area was in the regions of Pakistan, Gujarat, Harappan culture is divided into various phases: Rajasthan and Haryana.   Early Harappan 3000–2600 BCE The Early Beginnings   Mature Harappan 2600–1900 BCE The Indus region (Mehrgarh) is one of the   Late Harappan 1900–1700 BCE areas of the world where agriculture and animal The urban phase was prevalent in the mature domestication began very early. We do not know Harappan period and began to decline afterwards. if there is any continuity between the Neolithic The Indus valley site of Harappa was cultures of the Indus region and the later urban first visited by Charles Mason in 1826 CE civilisation. The early Harappan phase saw the (AD), and Amri by Alexander Burnes in development of villages and towns in the entire 1831. The site of Harappa was destroyed region. In the Mature Harappan phase, urban for laying the railway line from Lahore to centres developed. Multan. The seal from this site reached Planned Towns Alexander Cunningham, the first surveyor of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan), Mohenjo- Alexander Cunningham visited the site in Daro (Sindh, Pakistan), Dholavira, Lothal, 1853, 1856 and 1875. But the importance of and Surkotada (Gujarat, India), Kalibangan the site and the associated civilisation were (Rajasthan, India), Banawali and Rakhigarhi not realised until Sir John Marshal took over (Haryana, India) are the major cities in the as the Director General of ASI and initiated Harappan period. Fortification, well-planned research at the site.Sir John Marshal played streets and lanes and drainages are noticed an important role in the development of in the Harappan towns. A civic authority archaeology in India. perhaps controlled the planning of the towns. Later in the 1940s, Mortimer Wheeler The Harappans used baked and unbaked excavated the Harappan sites. After the bricks, and stones for construction. The partition of the Indian subcontinent, many towns had a grid pattern and drainages were of the Harappan sites went to Pakistan and systematically built. The houses were built thus archaeologists were keen to trace the of mud bricks while the drainages were built Harappan sites on the Indian side. Kalibangan, with burnt bricks. Houses had more than one Lothal, Rakhi Garhi and Dholavira are the floor. Indian sites that have been since excavated. The site of Mohenjo-Daro had a planned The explorations and excavations conducted town, built on a platform. It has two distinct after the 1950s have helped to understand the areas. One is identified as a citadel and Harappan Civilisation and its nature. another as the lower town. The houses had bathrooms paved with burnt bricks and proper Geographical Area and the drains. Some houses had stairs indicating the Settlements existence of an upper floor. The houses had The Indus Civilisation and the multiple rooms. Many of the houses had a contemporary cultures covered nearly 1.5 central courtyard with rooms all around. million sq. km area in India and Pakistan. The citadel area had important residential The settlements of Sutkagen-dor in the west structures that were either used by the public on the Pakistan–Iran border; Shortugai or select residents. In Mohenjo-Daro, a (Afghanistan) in the north; Alamgirpur building has been identified as a warehouse. 10 Early India: From the Beginnings to the Indus Civilisation 11th_History_English Medium_History_Unit 1.indd 10 01-12-2022 18:39:38  www.tntextbooks.in The Great Bath is a tank situated within birds. Evidence of boar, deer and gharial has a courtyard. The corridors were present on all been found at the Harappan sites. four sides and stairs are seen on the northern Craft Production and southern sides. It was well paved with several adjacent rooms. The bricks were Craft production was an important part laid watertight with gypsum mortar. It had of the Harappan economy. Bead and ornament drainage. It is associated with ritual bathing. making, shell bangle making and metalworking were the major crafts. They made beads and ornaments out of carnelian, jasper, crystal, and steatite, metals like copper, bronze and gold and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay. The beads were made in innumerable designs and decorations. They were exported to Mesopotamia and the evidence for such exported artefacts have been found from the excavations in Mesopotamian sites. Certain Harappan sites specialised in The Great Bath the production of certain craft materials. The Subsistence and Economic following table presents the major centres of Production craft production. Agriculture was an important source of Material Site or Source subsistence for the Harappans. The Harappans Shell Nageshwar and Balakot cultivated diverse crops such as wheat, barley, Lapis lazuli Shortughai lentil, chickpea, sesame and various millets. Agricultural surplus was an important stimulus Carnelian Lothal for a number of developments. They adopted a Steatite South Rajasthan double cropping system. Copper Rajasthan and Oman The Harappans used ploughs. They perhaps ploughed the land and then sowed the seeds. Pottery Ploughed fields have been found at Kalibangan. The Harappans used diverse varieties They used both canal and well irrigation. of pottery for daily use. They use well-fired pottery. Their potteries have a deep red slip and Archaeobotanists study ancient black paintings. The pottery are shaped like agriculture, and human and environmental dish-on-stands, storage jars, perforated jars, relationships. goblets, S-shaped jars, plates, dishes, bowls and Animal Domestication Pastoralism was also practised by the Harappans. They domesticated sheep, goat and fowl. They had knowledge of various other animals including buffalo, pig and elephant. But horse was not known to them. The Harappan cattle are called Zebu. It is a large breed, often represented in their seals. They also ate fish and Harappan painted pottery Early India: From the Beginnings to the Indus Civilisation 11 11th_History_English Medium_History_Unit 1.indd 11 01-12-2022 18:39:39  www.tntextbooks.in pots. The painted motifs, generally noticed on the Mesopotamians and also with various the pottery, are pipal leaves, fish-scale design, cultures of India. The Harappan seals and intersecting circles, zigzag lines, horizontal materials have been found in the Sumerian bands and geometrical motifs with floral and sites in Oman, Bahrain, and Iraq and Iran. faunal patterns. The Harappan pottery is well- The cuneiform inscriptions mention the baked and fine in decorations. trade contacts between Mesopotamia and Harappans. The mention of “Meluhha” in the Metals, Tools and Weapons cuneiform inscriptions refers to the Indus The Harappan civilisation belongs to the region. A Harappan jar has been found in Bronze Age civilisation and Harappans knew Oman. Harappan seals, weights, dice and how to make copper and bronze tools. Although beads are found in Mesopotamia. Carnelian, they produced bronze implements, they needed lapis lazuli, copper, gold and varieties of wood various kinds of tools for agriculture and craft were exported to Mesopotamia. Harappans production. The Harappans used chert blades, also interacted with various regions of India copper objects, and bone and ivory tools. The and acquired raw materials and processed tools of points, chisels, needles, fishhooks, razors, them. weighing pans, mirror and antimony rods were made of copper. The chert blades made out of Weights and Measures Rohrichert was used by the Harappans. Their Harappans had developed proper weapons include arrowheads, spearhead, celt and weights and measures. Since they were axe. They did not have the knowledge of iron. involved in commercial transactions, they needed standard measures. Cubical Rohri chert : The chert, a fine grained chert weights have been unearthed from sedimentary rock, was found in the region Harappan sites. The weights exhibit a binary of Rohri in Pakistan. It was used by the system. The ratio of weight is doubled as Harappans for making stone blades and tools. 1:2:4:8:16:32. The small weight measure of 16th ratio weighs 13.63 grams. They also used Textiles and Ornaments a measuring scale in which one inch was The Harappans wore clothes and used metal around 1.75 cm. Weights made of chert were and stone ornaments. They had knowledge of cubical. They used binary numbering system cotton and silk. The image identified as a priest (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc.). They might have been is depicted wearing a shawl-like cloth with used for weighing jewellery and metal. flower decorations. The terracotta images of Seals, Sealing and Scripts women are shown wearing different types of ornaments. The image of dancing girl found The seals from various at Mohenjo-Daro is shown wearing bangles in media such as steatite, large numbers up to the upper arm. They made copper, terracotta and carnelian, copper and gold ornaments. Some ivory are frequently found of them had etched designs and they exported in the Harappan sites. them to the Mesopotamian world. Faience, The Harappan script has not yet been convincingly Indus seal stoneware and shell bangles were also used. The ornaments produced were either sold or deciphered. About 5,000 texts have been exchanged as part of the trade activities. documented from the Harappan sites. The longest text has about twenty six signs. Some Trade and Exchange scholars are of the view that it is Dravidian. Seals One of the sources of Harappan might have been used as an identity marker on economy was trade and exchange activities. the materials that were transported. They might Harappans had close trade contacts with have indicated the ownership. 12 Early India: From the Beginnings to the Indus Civilisation 11th_History_English Medium_History_Unit 1.indd 12 01-12-2022 18:39:39  www.tntextbooks.in Arts and Amusement the dead. Burials were made elaborately and evidence of cremation is also reported. The The terracotta Harappan burials have pottery, ornaments, figurines, the paintings jewellery, copper mirrors and beads. These on the pottery, and the suggest their belief in an afterlife. bronze images from the Harappan sites suggest Polity the artistic nature Uniformity in pottery, seals, weights and bricks of the Harappans. The priest king reveals the existence of a polity. Labour mobilisation “Priest king” of may also suggest the existence of a political system. steatite, dancing girl of copper (both from Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro might have had a Mohenjo-Daro), and stone sculptures from city-state like polity. The uniformity in the cultural Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Dholavira are materials and measurement units point to a central the important objects of art. Toy carts, rattles, authority during the Harappan times. wheels, tops, marbles and hop scotches exhibit the amusement of the Harappan people. Authorship and the Making of Indian Cultur e Faith and Belief System One school of thought argues that the The Indus people authors of Harappan Civilisation were speakers worshipped nature. of the Dravidian languages. The archaeological They worshipped the evidence shows movement of the Harappans pipal tree. Some of to the east and the south after the decline of the terracotta figures their civilisation. Some of the Harappan people appear to be mother could have moved into different parts of India. Harrappan Burials goddess. Fire altars However, only the decipherment of the script have been identified at Kalibangan. They buried would give us a definite answer. Indus Civilisation and Tamil Civilisation Indus cities and towns The Indus Civilisation represents the first urbanisation of Indian history. The origin and authorship of the Indus Civilisation are keenly debated historical questions. The Indus script has not yet been conclusively deciphered and hence the authorship is not certain. The graffiti found on the megalithic burial pots of South India and the place names presented are cited to establish the relationship between Indus and Tamil cultures. The archaeological evidence points to several groups of people living in Tamil Nadu and South India continuously from the Mesolithic period. One cannot rule out the migration of a few groups from the Indus region. More research is necessary before arriving at any definite conclusion. The towns of ancient Tamizhagam such as Arikamedu, Keezhadi and Uraiyur that flourished are part of the second urbanisation of India and these towns are quite different from the Indus cities. Early India: From the Beginnings to the Indus Civilisation 13 11th_History_English Medium_History_Unit 1.indd 13 01-12-2022 18:39:40  www.tntextbooks.in Contemporary Cultures of the    SUMMARY Indus Civilisation „„The history of India began in the pre- Several groups including pastoral people, historic times about 2 million years ago. farmers and hunter-gatherers lived in the „„Numerous groups of people moved into Indus region. The Indus region had villages this land from the pre-historic times. These and large towns. The population of that groups adapted to their environment and time was mixed. Innumerable communities created specific ways of life according to the of hunters-gatherers, pastoral people and ecological moorings. farmers, from Kanyakumari to Kashmir and „„People who made hand axes lived in Gujarat to Arunachal Pradesh could have India from two million years ago. Various existed during this period. Their history is also communities occupied the entire breadth equally important, as cultural and ecological and width of the country from the knowledge of all these groups contributed to Mesolithic times and laid the cultural Indian culture. foundations of India. While the Indus Civilisation was flourishing „„The combined contribution of all these in the north-western part of India, several groups contributed to India’s pluralistic cultures were developing in different parts of culture today. India. In the southern part of the subcontinent, „„The diverse languages and cultures of India Kerala and Sri Lanka were given to hunting and reveal the complex processes associated gathering. The Harappans who had knowledge with Indian history. of water crafts might have had connections „„The first urbanisation emerged around and interactions with South India, but no clear the Indus Valley Civilisation about 2600 archaeological evidence on this is available. The BCE. While Indus Valley Civilisation was northern part of South India, i.e. the Karnataka a major cultural system in north-western and Andhra region, had Neolithic cultures, India, several cultures existed across India engaged in pastoralism and plough agriculture. contemporaneously. Similarly, the Chalcolithic cultures were prevalent in Deccan and western India, while EXERCISE Neolithic cultures permeated northern India including Kashmir, Ganges valley and central Q.R.Code and eastern India. Thus India was a cultural I. C  hoose the mosaic during the time of the Harappans. Correct Answer Decline 1.The period before the development of script is called ______________. The Indus Valley Civilisation declined (a) Pre-historic (b) Historic from about 1900 BCE. Changes in climate, decline of the trade with the Mesopotamia, (c) palaeolithic (d) Neolithic and the drying of the river and water resources 2. Th  e earliest age in history is called due to continuous drought are some of the ______________. reasons attributed by historians for the decline. (a) Old Stone Age (b) New Stone Age Invasions, floods and shifting of the river (c) Copper Age (d) Iron Age course are also cited as reasons for the ruin of 3. The first Palaeolithic tools were identified in Indus civilisation. In course of time, the people ______________. shifted to the southern and eastern directions from the Indus region. (a) 1860 (b) 1863 (c) 1873 (d) 1883 14 Early India: From the Beginnings to the Indus Civilisation 11th_History_English Medium_History_Unit 1.indd 14 01-12-2022 18:39:40