Human Behavior in Organizations PDF

Prepared by: JOENECIO K. SAMULDE, PhD Assistant Professor IV Central Philippine State University San Carlos Campus --------------------------------...

Prepared by: JOENECIO K. SAMULDE, PhD Assistant Professor IV Central Philippine State University San Carlos Campus ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Dr. Joen K. Samulde | 1 LESSON 9 LEADERSHIP 9.1. INTRODUCTION Leadership is a very important, if not the most important factor in the success of organizations. This has been pointed out time and again throughout history by leaders like Abraham Lincoln, Julius Caesar, Napoleon Bonaparte, Oliver Cromwell, and many others. In business, the exemplary leadership abilities of Walt Disney, Bill Gates, Akito Morita, John D. Rockefeller, and many others are proofs that with the right kind of leadership, organizations can succeed. 9.2. WHAT IS LEADERSHIP Leadership may be defined as the process of guiding and directing the behavior of people in the organization in order to achieve certain objectives. In a competitive situation, it is often leadership that spells the difference between success and failure. Even when the organization is short of material resources, the right leadership can sometimes get people so inspired that they are able to perform credibly. Leadership is that element that convinces members of an organization to behave in such a manner that will facilitate the accomplishment of the goals of the organization. 9.2.1. The Difference between Leadership and Management Leading is one of the functions of management. The other functions consist of planning, organizing, directing, and controlling. Without sufficient leadership, these other functions can be rendered useless because people will not be motivated to put them in operation. Managers and leaders are different in the following ways: 1. Managers are rational problem solvers, while leaders are intuitive, more visionary; 2. Managers perform other administrative such as planning, organizing, decision- making, communicating; 3. Leaders are primarily concerned with results; managers are function; and ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Dr. Joen K. Samulde | 2  4. concerned with the efficiency of results; and Leaders obtain their power from below; managers obtain theirs from above. 9.3. KINDS OF LEADERSHIP Leadership are of two kinds: 1) Formal; and 2) Informal. 9.3.1. Formal Leadership Formal leadership refers to the process of influencing others to pursue official objectives. Formal leaders are vested with formal authority and as such, they generally have a measure of legitimate power. They rely on expedient combination of reward, coercive, referent, and expert power. 9.3.2. Informal Leadership Informal leadership refers to the process of influencing others to pursue unofficial objectives. Informal leaders lack formal authority. Like formal leaders, they rely on expedient combination of reward, coercive, referent, and expert power. Informal leaders who are satisfied with their jobs are valuable assets of the organization. When they are not satisfied, they become liabilities. Their power to motivate people can be used to convince employees to cause harm to the organization. 9.4. POWER AND THE LEADER The main concern of a leader is to influence people to behave as he wants them to. The leader, however, can influence only if he possess power, and this emanates only from either the group or the leader. The bases of power that the leader may use to convince subordinates may be classified as either: 1) Position power; or 2) Personal power. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Dr. Joen K. Samulde | 3 9.4.1. Position Power Position power is that power derived as a consequence of the leader's position. It consists of the following types: 1. Legitimate power 2. Reward power 3. Coercive power Legitimate Power. Also referred to as authority, this power emanates from a person's position in the organization. A manager, for instance, is given the right by the organization to influence or command certain individuals. Orders from him are followed by the subordinates because he has the legitimate power to command certain subordinates in lower positions. When an order is not followed, the offending subordinate is subjected to disciplinary action. The legitimate power vested in a person is characterized by the following: 1. It is invested in a person's position. Even if the person occupying the position is replaced, the power remains and the new occupant can exercise it. 2. It is accepted by subordinates. The persons working under the supervision of a manager believes that the manager has the right to tell them what to do and what to expect from them. 3. Authority is used vertically. The flow of authority is from the top level down to the lower levels. Reward Power. This power emanates from one's ability to grant rewards to those who comply with a command or request. The leader's capacity to provide promotions, money, praise, and other rewards influences the behaviour of subordinates. Coercive Power. This power arises from the expectation of subordinates that they will be punished if they do not conform to the wishes of the leader. The punishment can take the form of dismissal, suspension, and transfer to a less desirable task, and the I like. power uses fear as a motivator, which can be a powerful force in inducing short-term action. The use of this power, however, has overall negative impact on the individual affected. Coercive power is reduced by the presence of unions a organizational policies on employee treatment. and ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Dr. Joen K. Samulde | 4  Figure 26 TYPES OF POWER IN ORGANIZATIONS 9.4.2. Personal Power The leader's personal power results from his personal characteristics. It may be any or both of the following: 1. Expert power; 2. Referent power Expert power. An expert who possess and can dispense valued information generally exercise expert power over those in need of such information. Doctors, lawyers, and computer specialists are examples of persons who may have expert power. The expert power of the leader depends on his education, training, and experience. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Dr. Joen K. Samulde | 5  Referent Power. This power refers to the ability of leaders to develop followers from the strength of their own personalities. Leaders who possess this power have a personal magnetism, an air of confidence, and a passionate belief in objectives that attract and hold followers. People follow because their emotions push them to do so. Some religious and political leaders like Nelson Mandela of Africa, the late Mother Teresa, and the late Michael Jackson are example of those who have or had referent power. 9.5. THEORIES ABOUT LEADERSHIP There are various theories about leadership and they may be regarded as attempts to explain the various factors that may be identified with successful leadership. Through the years, eminent researchers have forwarded their own theories about leadership. Their outputs may be classified as follows:3 1. Trait theories 2. Behavioral theories 3. Contingency theories Figure 27 LEADERSHIP THEORIES ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Dr. Joen K. Samulde | 6 9.5.1. Trait Theories Trait theories of leadership consider leaders to possess common traits. Early researchers on leadership placed emphasis on traits and had resulted in the determination of a wide span of personal attributes such as physical appearance, intelligence, and self- confidence. It was found out that the average person who occupies a position of leadership exceeds the average number of his group to some degree on the following factors: 1) Sociability 2) Persistence 3) Initiative 4) Knowing how to get things done 5) Self-confidence 6) Alertness to and insight into situations 7) Cooperativeness 8) Popularity 9) Adaptability 10) Verbal facility Later, researchers, guided by their findings, drafted a more general view of what good leaders have in common. These consist of the following: 1. Extraversion - individuals who like being around people and are able to assert themselves. 2. Conscientiousness - individuals who are disciplined and keep commitments that they make. 3. Openness - individuals who are creative and flexible. 4. Emotional intelligence - individuals who are able to understand and manage their personal feelings and emotions, as well as their emotions towards other individuals, events, and objects. A single statement that describes what trait theories assume is that "leaders are born than made." 9.5.2. Behavioral Theories ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Dr. Joen K. Samulde | 7  After some years, trait theories were found to be inadequate in explaining the basis for effective leadership. As a result, researchers shifted their interest to behaviors exhibited by specific leaders. What the researchers developed came to be known as behavioral theories of leadership. These theories propose that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from nonleaders. Four theories related to leadership behavior will be presented i this section. These are as follows: in 1. The Ohio State University studies 2. The University of Michigan studies 3. The Yukl studies 4. The Managerial Grid 9.5.2.1. Ohio State University Studies Ohio State University Studies. An important leadership research program was started at Ohio State University during the late 1940s. The researchers sought to identify independent dimensions of leader behavior. A questionnaire was administered in both industrial and military settings to measure subordinates' perception of their superiors' leadership behavior. Beginning with over a thousand dimensions, they eventually narrowed the list to two categories that substantially accounted for most of the leadership behavior described by employees. The two dimensions were referred to as: 1. Initiating structure; and 2. Consideration. Initiating structure - refers to the extent to which a leader is likely to define his or her role and those of employees in the search for goal attainment. The leader with a high initiating structure tendency focuses on goals and results, so he or she might be seen as similar to a production-oriented supervisor. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Dr. Joen K. Samulde | 8  Structure is initiated by activities such as assigning specific tasks, specifying procedures to be followed, scheduling work, and clarifying expectations. Consideration - describes the degree to which the leader creates an environment of emotional support, warmth, friendliness, and trust. The leader's behaviour would be one that is friendly and approachable, looking out for the personal welfare of the group, keeping the group informed about new developments, and doing small favors for group members. The findings of the Ohio studies indicate that successful leaders are those that are engaged not in one of the two behaviors but in both, i.e., initiating and consideration. 9.5.2.2. University of Michigan Studies University of Michigan Studies. At about the same time that Ohio State University was engaged in a research program on leadership, the researchers at the University of Michigan were also making attempts to locate behavioral characteristics of leaders that appeared d to be related to measures of performance effectiveness. The effectiveness criteria used are as follows: 1. Productivity for work hour or other similar measures of the organization's success in achieving its production goals; 2. Job satisfaction of members of the organization; 3. Turnover, absenteeism, and grievance rates; 4. Costs; 5. Scrap loss; and 6. Employee and managerial motivation. In the course of their studies, the researchers identified two distinct styles of leadership: 1. Job-centered; and 2. Employee-centered. Job-centered managers set tight work standards, organized tasks carefully, prescribed the work methods to be followed, and supervised closely. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Dr. Joen K. Samulde | 9  Employee-centered managers encouraged group members to participate in goal setting and other work decisions, and helped to ensure high performance by engendering trust and mutual respect. The researchers found out that the most productive work groups tended to have leaders who were employee-centered rather than job- centered. 9.5.2.3. Yukl Studies Yukl Studies. Other researchers like Gary M. Yukl made one step further than the Michigan and Ohio State studies. He and his colleagues tried to seek answers to specific behavior of leaders for varying situations. They were able to isolate nineteen behaviors consisting of the following: 1) Performance emphasis. The extent, to which a leader emphasizes the importance of subordinate performance, tries to improve productivity and efficiency, tries to keep subordinates working up to their capacity, and checks their performance. 2) Consideration. The extent to which a leader is supportive, and considerate in his or her behaviour toward subordinates and tries to be fair and objective. friendly, 3) Praise-Recognition. The extent to which a leader provides praise and recognition to subordinates with effective performance, shows appreciation for their special efforts and contributions, and makes sure they get credit for their helpful ideas and suggestions 4) Decision-Participation. The extent to which a leader consults with subordinates and otherwise allows them influence his or her decisions. 5) Training-Coaching. The extent to which a leader determines training needs for subordinates and provides any necessary training and coaching. 6) Problem Solving. The extent to which a leader takes the initiative in proposing solutions to serious work-related problems and acts decisively to deal with such problems when a prompt solution is needed. 7) Work Facilitation. The extent to which a leader obtains for subordinates any necessary supplies, equipment, support services, or other resources, eliminates problems in the work environment, and removes other obstacles that interfere with the work. 8) Inspiration 9) Structuring reward contingencies 10) Autonomy-Delegation ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Dr. Joen K. Samulde | 10  11) Role Clarification 12) Goal Setting 13) Information Dissemination 14) Planning 15) Coordinating 16) Representation 17) Interaction Facilitation 18) Conflict Management 19) Criticism-Discipline 9.5.2.4. The Managerial Grid The Managerial Grid. The managerial grid is a graphic portrayal of a two dimensional view of leadership developed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton. It is an approach to understanding a manager's concern for production and concern for people. As such, the grid was structured to contain two underlying dimensions labelled Concern for Production and Concern for People. These attitudinal dimensions are coupled through an interaction process. Figure 28 shows each of these concerns as one of the two axes of the grid, so that concerns for both people and productivity are combined in various management styles. Figure 28 THE MANAGERIAL GRID ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Dr. Joen K. Samulde | 11  The Managerial grid proposes that there is a best way to manage people, i.e., the way used by the 9,9 manager, who has 9 units of concern for production and 9 units of concern for people. The grid has 9 possible positions along each axis, creating 81 different positions in which the leader's style may fall. Managers were found to perform best under a 9,9 style rather than the other style like 9,1 (the authority type) or 1,1 (the laissez-faire type). A brief description of selected styles in the grid is provided a 1,1 Impoverished manager, also referred to as the laissez- faire leaders. Leaders in this position have little concern for people or productivity, avoid taking sides, and stay out of conflicts. They do just enough to get by. This leadership style is a form of abdication of responsibility. 1,9 Country club manager. Leaders in this position have great concern for people and little concern for production They try to avoid conflicts and concentrate on well-liked. To them, no task is more important than good interpersonal relations. Their goal is to keep people happy being 9,1 Authority-obedience manager. Leaders in this position have great concern for production and little concern for people. They desire tight control in order to get tasks done efficiently. They consider creativity and human relations unnecessary. 5,5 Organization man manager, also called middle-of- the-road manager. Leaders in this position have medium concern for people and production. They attempt to balance their concern for both people and production, but are not committed to either. 9,9 Team manager. The leadership style of this manager is considered to be ideal. He has great concern for both people and production. He works to motivate people to reach their highest levels of accomplishment. 9.5.3. Contingency Theories The trait and behavioral theories failed to point out that leadership situations are not similar, and it is easy to presume that there is no single leadership style that will fit all situations. This line of thinking led researchers to engage in research activities that were later called contingency. The individual researchers share a fundamental assumption: successful-leadership occurs when the leader's style matches the situation." ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Dr. Joen K. Samulde | 12  The various theories related to the situational approach to leadership consist of the following: 1. Continuum of Leadership Behavior - by Tannenbaum and Schmidt 2. The Contingency Leadership Model - by Fiedler 3. The Path-Goal - by House and Mitchell 4. The Hershey - Blanchard Situational Leadership Theories 5. The Leader-Member Exchange Approach - by Graen 6. The Normative Decision Model - by Vroom and Jago 7. The Muczyk - Reimann Model 9.5.3.1. Continuum of Leadership Behavior Continuum of Leadership Behavior. The first contingency model of leadership o was developed by Robert Tannenbaum and Warren H. Schmidt and is referred to as the continuum of leadership behavior. This model consists of seven alternative ways for managers to approach decision making, depending o they want to allow subordinates in the decision making process. on how much participation Shown in Figure 29 are the alternative behaviors of the leader which à are situated between the two extremes of authoritarian and participative approaches. Figure 29 CONTINUUM OF LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR The leader's choices depend on three factors: ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Dr. Joen K. Samulde | 13  1. Forces in the manager; 2. Forces in subordinates; and 3. Forces in the situation. Under this approach, the effective leaders are flexible, able t select leadership behaviours needed in a given time and place. to Forces in the manager consist of: the manager's background, knowledge, values, and experience. How the manager will lead will primarily be influenced by these forces. For example, if the r manager worked for ten years as a subordinate of a well-performing leader who adapted the participative style, he will tend to be a participative leader himself. In choosing an appropriate leadership style, the manager must also consider the forces in subordinates. The leadership style of greater participation and freedom can be exercised by the manager if the subordinates: 1. Are craving for independence and freedom of action; 2. Want to have decision making responsibility; 3. Identify with the organization's goals; 4. Are knowledgeable and experienced enough to deal with the problem efficiently; 5. Have experience with previous managers that lead them to expect participative management. When the above conditions are absent, managers will have to lean toward the authoritarian style. Lastly, the manager's choice of leadership style must reckon with situational forces such as: the organization's preferred style, the specific work group, the nature of the group's tasks, the pressures of time, and environmental factors. There are instances when the organization's top management favors certain leadership style, and most managers will have to move towards it. There are groups that are more likely to perform well in an environment of participation rather than its opposite, the authoritarian form. An example is that group of accountants working in an accounting firm serving clients. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Dr. Joen K. Samulde | 14  The nature of the problem and time pressures are examples situational factors that may influence the choice of leadership style. For example, the team leader of the emergency crew of a large hospital has no option but to adapt an authoritarian leadership style. 9.5.3.2. The Contingency Leadership Model The Contingency Leadership Model. This is a leadership model developed by Fred Fiedler which proposes that effective group performance depends on the proper match between the leader's style and the degree to which the situation favors the leader. Fiedler measures leadership' style through the use of the Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) Scale which is actually an instrument that assesses the degree of positive or negative feelings held by a person toward someone with whom he or she least prefers to work. Low scores on the LPC is a reflection of the leader who is task-oriented, or controlling, and with a structuring leadership style. High scores reflect a leadership style that is relationship-oriented, or one that is passive and considerate. To determine how favorable the leadership environment is, Fiedler maintains that it will depend on three factors: 1. Leader-member relations 2. Task structure 3. Position power Leader-member relations refer to the degree of confidence, trust, and respect the followers have in their leader. Task structure refers to the extent to which the tasks the followers are engaged in are structured. Tasks structure is high when the task is clearly specified and known as to: 1. What followers are supposed to do; 2. How they will do it; 3. When and in what sequence it is to be done; and 4. What decision options they have. Task structure is low when the task in unclear, ambiguous, or unspecifiable. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Dr. Joen K. Samulde | 15  Position power refers to the power inherent in the leadership position. Generally, greater authority means greater position power. The leader with a strong position power will find it easier to perform his job. Some positions, such as the presidency of a big manufacturing firm, carry a great deal of power and authority. The president of a civic organization, on the other hand, has less power over members. Thus, leaders with high position power can easily influence subordinates, while those with less position power finds it difficult to perform their tasks. Together, the three factors determine how favorable the situation is for the leader. The most favorable situation exists when there is good leader-member relations, high task structure, and strong position power. The least favorable situation happens when there is poor relations, low degree of structure, and weak position power. After identifying the leadership style of the manager or leader, and after defining the situation, the next move is to match the situation to the leader. Fiedler believed that task- oriented leaders tend to perform better in situations that are either highly favorable or highly unfavorable. On the other hand, relationship-oriented leaders perform best when the situation is moderately favorable or moderately unfavorable. Thus, if a leader is moderately liked and possesses some power, and the job tasks for subordinates are somewhat vague, the leadership style needed to achieve the best results is relationship- oriented. 9.5.3.3. The Path-Goal Model The Path-Goal Model. This is a leadership model developed by Robert House and Terrence Mitchell that states that the leader's job is to create a work environment through structure, support, and rewards that helps employees reach the organization's goals.5 The two major roles involved are: 1. The creation of a good orientation; and 2. The improvement of the path toward the goals so that they will be attained, The path-goal process is illustrated in Figure 30. The first step is for the leader to identify employee needs, then to provide appropriate goals, and then to connect goal accomplishment to rewards that may be expected. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Dr. Joen K. Samulde | 16  Figure 30 THE PATH-GOAL LEADERSHIP PROCESS House and Mitchell identified four leadership behaviors: 1. The directive leader. This is the type of leader who lets followers know what is expected of them, schedules work to be done, and gives specific guidance as to how to accomplish tasks. 2. The supportive leader. This is the type of leader who is friendly and shows concern for the needs of followers. 3. The participative leader. This is the leader who consults with followers and uses their suggestions before making a decision. 4. The achievement-oriented leader. This is the leader sets challenging goals and expects followers to p their highest level. who perform at According to House, leaders are flexible and any of them c display any or all of these behaviours depending on the circumstances. 9.5.3.4. The Hershey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Theory ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Dr. Joen K. Samulde | 17  The Hershey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Theory. Developed by Paul Hershey and Kenneth Blanchard, the Situational Leadership Theory (SLT) suggests that a leader's style should be determined by matching it with the maturity level (or readiness) c can each subordinate. The leader must know follower's readiness and then use a leadership style that fits the level. Readiness refers to the ability and willingness of subordinates to take responsibility for directing their own behavior. Readiness consists of two concerns: 1. Job readiness (or task competence); and 2. Psychological readiness (or commitment). A person who has high task competence has the knowledge and abilities to perform the job without a manager structuring or directing the work. A person who has high commitment has the self-motivation and desire to do high quality work. Based on the foregoing, subordinates may be classified as follows: 1. Those with low competence and low commitment (D-1); 2. Those with low competence but with high commitment (D-2); 3. Those with high competence but with low commitment (D.3); and 4. Those with high competence and high commitment (D-4).. To match the various states of readiness by subordinates, Hershey and Blanchard devised four leadership styles available to leaders: 1. A "directing" style that is best for low follower readiness. The direction provided by this style defines roles for people who are unable and unwilling to take responsibility themselves; it eliminates any insecurity about the task that must be done. 2. A "coaching" style that is best for low to moderate follower readiness. This style offers both task direction and support for people who are unable but willing to take task responsibility; it involves combining directive approach with explanation and reinforcement in order to maintain enthusiasm. 3. A "supporting" style that is best for moderate to high follower readiness. Able but unwilling followers require supportive behavior in order to increase their motivation; by allowing followers to share in decision making, this style help enhance the desire to perform a task. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Dr. Joen K. Samulde | 18  4. A "delegating" style that is best for high readiness. This style provides little in terms of direction and support for the task at hand; it allows able and willing followers to take responsibility for what needs to be done. 9.5.3.5. The Leader-Member Exchange Approach The Leader-Member Exchange Approach. This refers to the leadership theory developed by George Graen and his associates which recognize that leaders develop unique working relationships with each group member. Leaders and their followers exchange information, resources, and role expectations that determine the quality of their interpersonal relationships. The effect of leader-member relations come into view when the leader, knowingly or unknowingly, creates in-groups and out-groups within the organization. Subordinates with in-group status will have higher performance ratings, less turnover, and greater job satisfaction. In-group members have attitudes and values similar to those of the leader and interact frequently with the leader. They are given additional rewards, responsibility, and trust in exchange for loyalty and performance. They become part of a smoothly functioning team headed by the formal leader. Out-group members are treated in accordance with a more formal understanding of supervisor-subordinate relations. They have less in common with the leader and operate in a way that is somewhat detached from the leader. They are less likely to experience good teamwork. The quality of the relationship between the leader and each g member has important job consequences. Good relationships lead to important effects such as higher productivity and satisfaction, improved motivation, and smoother delegation. group can 9.5.3.6. Normative Decision Model Normative Decision Model. Also known as "the leader. participation model" and "decision making model of leadership", the normative decision model was developed by Victor and Philip Yetton, Some years later, the model was revised by Vroom and Arthur Jago to make it more accurate. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Dr. Joen K. Samulde | 19  The model views leadership as a decision making process in which the leader examines certain factors within the situation to determine which decision making style will be most effective. Five decision making styles are presented by the normative model, each reflecting a different degree of participation by group members: 1. Autocratic I - the leader individually solves the problem using the information already available. 2. Autocratic II - the leader obtains data from subordinates and then decides. 3. Consultative - the leader explains the problem to individual subordinates and obtains ideas from each before deciding. 4. Consultative II - the leader meets with group of subordinates to share the problem and obtain inputs, and then decides. 5. Group II - the leader shares problem with group and facilitates a discussion of alternatives aiming to reach a group agreement on a solution. The normative decision model is based on the following assumptions: 1. The leader can accurately classify problems according to the criteria offered. 2. The leader is able and willing to adapt his or her leadership style to fit the contingency condition he or she faces. 3. The leader is willing to use a rather complex model. 4. The employees will accept the legitimacy of different styles being used for different problems, as well as the validity of the leader's classification of the situation at hand. The normative model will be useful if all these assumptions are valid. 9.5.3.7. The Muczyk-Reimann Model. The Muczyk-Reimann Model. This model was developed by Jan P. Muczyk and Bernard C. Reimann, and it suggests that "participation" behavior is concerned with the degree to which subordinates are allowed to be involved in decision making. It is separated from "direction" which is viewed as the degree of supervision exercised in the execution of the tasks associated with carrying out the decision. Muczyk and Reimann propose that leaders should be allowed to adapt to different situations. This paves the way for delegation which covers decision making and execution. To make delegation effective, four leadership styles are considered: ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Dr. Joen K. Samulde | 20  1. The directive autocrat. The leader makes decisions unilaterally and closely supervises the activities of subordinates. 2. The permissive autocrat. This leader makes decision unilaterally but allows subordinates a great deal of latitude in execution. 3. The directive democrat. This leader wants full participation but closely supervises subordinate activity. 4. The permissive democrat. This leader allows high. participation in decision making and in execution. Muczyk and Reimann maintains that there are situations that would be right for each of the leadership styles they presented. For instance, the directive autocrat would be the appropriate leader for subordinates who are less skilled, less mature psychologically, and given limited time to perform. 9.6. SUMMARY Leadership is regarded as a very important ingredient of success in organizational pursuits. Leading and managing are two different matters. Leadership may be formal or informal. Without power, the leader is helpless. Power may be derived from the leader's position or from his personal characteristics. Position power consists of legitimate power, reward power, and coercive power. Personal power may be classified as expert power and referent power. Or There are various theories concerning leadership. They may be classified as belonging to either trait theories, behavioral theories, contingency theories. Trait theories consider leaders to possess common traits. Behavioral theories proposes that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from nonleaders. Contingency theories assume that successful leadership occurs when the leader's style matches with the situation. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Dr. Joen K. Samulde | 21  CASE ANALYSIS KNIGHTS OF COLUMBUS: Stranger on the Shore Ernie is a very likable person. When he passed the board examination for electrical engineers as a topnotcher, he applied for a teaching job in the state university where he obtained his bachelor's degree. He and some former classmates were hired by the university. Ernie enjoyed teaching and it was in the course of his employment when he finished his doctoral studies in engineering. He was elected vice president of the national association of electrical engineers. Within ten years, he was s appointed dean and then vice president of the university. After twenty years of excellent performance in his job, he was installed as president of his alma mater. It was not very hard for him to perform the job of the president because of his, long years of association with the university, first as a student and later as a professor. Some of the professors occupying critical positions are his friends. His subordinates think of him as one who is not only respected in the academic community, but one who is fair and honest in his dealings with people. They supported him in many activities and projects including the social affairs he sponsored. During his term, the university enjoyed a period of academic excellence. A few months after Ernie retired from the university, he was elected grand knight of the council of the Knight of Columbus. His position is the equivalent of the CEO of a private firm. He was very enthusiastic in his first month in office. Later, he found out that managing the council is not as easy as managing the state university. Of the 200 members of the council, not more than 30 are regularly attending the monthly meeting. Ernie finds it hard to improve the number of active members. He could not even get the required number to attend the necrological services for deceased members. Ernie is now thinking hard to find a solution to his problem. Questions: 1. What could be the reason why Ernie is not very successful in his current position? 2. What must Ernie do? ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Dr. Joen K. Samulde | 22  QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW AND DISCUSSION 1. What is leadership? 2. What is informal leadership? 3. What is coercive power? 4. What are trait theories of leadership? 5. How may the Ohio State University Studies on Leadership be described? 6. What is the difference between a job-centered manager and an employee- centered manager? 7. How may the Managerial Grid be described? 8. What is assumed under the contingency theories of leadership? 9. Under Fiedler's contingency leadership model, what factors are used to determine how favorable the leadership environment is? 10. What major roles are involved in the path-goal model of leadership? SUGGESTED ITEM FOR RESEARCH Prepare a three-page report on the relevance of leadership on the teaching profession. Guide questions: Is it proper for professors to behave as leaders? If so, what style should they adapt? EXERCISE ON LEADERSHIP STRENGTHS, ASSETS AND SKILLS 1. What can you say about yourself in terms of your strengths, assets, and skills in leadership? _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________. 2. How do you feel about yourself in light of this information? _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Dr. Joen K. Samulde | 23  _________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________. 3. In relation to other people (your peers, family, teachers, etc.), how do you feel they see you in terms of your leadership skills, strengths and weaknesses? _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________. 4. Do you feel you are ready to lead in your group/class and/or in your community? Explain your answer. _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Dr. Joen K. Samulde | 24