CHE 408 Chapter 1: Introduction PDF

CHE 408 Chapter 1: Introduction Part A  Learning Objectives: Chapter 1 This replaces textbook Chapter 1 – which is out of date! Basic definitions: safety, hazard, incident, risk, process safety. Engineering ethics. Myths about process safety. Typical chemical plant hazards. Sa...

CHE 408 Chapter 1: Introduction Part A  Learning Objectives: Chapter 1 This replaces textbook Chapter 1 – which is out of date! Basic definitions: safety, hazard, incident, risk, process safety. Engineering ethics. Myths about process safety. Typical chemical plant hazards. Safety culture. Individual and societal risk. Voluntary and Involuntary risk. Safety metrics. Accident and loss statistics. Risk tolerance / acceptance and risk matrix. Codes, standards and regulations. Protecting hazards: Safeguards. AICHE / CCPS 20 elements Inherently safer design. Bhopal accident  Purpose of Course To provide engineering science-based content on process safety to help you develop understanding which you can apply on the job!  Definitions Safety: Strategy for accident prevention - not very well defined. Accident: An unplanned event or sequence of events that results in an undesirable consequence. Example: A leak in a pressurized vessel containing ammonia. Incident: The basic description of an event or series of events, resulting in one or more undesirable consequences, such as harm to people, damage to the environment, or asset / business losses. For chemical plants this includes fires / explosions and releases of toxic or harmful substances. Example: A leak of 10 kg/s caused by corrosion of the storage vessel.  Definitions Hazard: An inherent chemical or physical characteristic that has the potential for causing damage to people, property, or the environment. Hazards are typically always present. Example: A pressurized tank containing ammonia. Consequence: A measure of the expected effects of a specific incident outcome. Example: A 10 kg/s ammonia release resulted in a toxic cloud downwind. Impact: A measure of the ultimate loss and harm of an incident. Example: A 10 kg/s ammonia leak produced a downwind toxic vapor cloud resulting in local evacuations, emergency response, plant downtime and loss of community support.  Definitions Risk: A measure of human injury, environmental damage, or economic loss in terms of both the incident likelihood and the magnitude of the loss or injury. A function of two important things: 1. Probability 2. Consequence Likelihood: A measure of the expected probability or frequency of occurrence of an event. For chemical plants the frequency is most commonly used.  Definitions Process A disciplined framework for managing the Safety integrity of operating systems and processes handling hazardous substances by applying good design principles, engineering, and operating practices. It deals with the prevention and control of incidents that have the potential to release hazardous materials or energy. Such incidents can cause toxic effects, fire, or explosion and could ultimately result in serious injuries, property damage, lost production, and environmental impact.  AICHE Engineering Ethics Statement Applies to all members, including student members: 1. Hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public and protect the environment in performance of their professional duties. 2. Formally advise their employers or clients (and consider further disclosure, if warranted) if they perceive that a consequence of their duties will adversely affect the present or future health or safety of their colleagues or the public. These are only 2 of the 11 items on the AICHE ethics statement. See complete, detailed statement on aiche.org web site.  Myths and Legends 1. The world is flat. 2. There are only 4 elements: earth, water, air, fire. 3. The earth is the center of the universe. 4. Air is everywhere, including outer space. 5. Human flight is impossible. 6. At a velocity exceeding 60 mph the human body will destruct. 7. The air at higher altitudes will have an unbreathable composition. 8. Exploding an atomic bomb will set the stratosphere on fire. 9. A lunar lander will sink into the deep dust layer on the moon’s surface. 10. Seat belts are unnecessary and unsafe. 11. Smoking before a bike race will improve performance. 12. Smoking does not cause cancer. Truths / Myths of Process Safety 1. “Process safety is a soft science with no more than hardhats and safety glasses - not engineering science.” Myth! Textbook: Chemical Process Safety, Fundaments with Applications, 3rd ed. by Crowl and Louvar contains 427 equations, comparable to any chemical engineering text. Truths / Myths of Process Safety 2. “Industry should train graduates in process safety and it should not be part of the undergraduate curriculum.” Myth! Industry needs graduates with process safety instruction – it has enormous value added to industry. All chemical engineering graduates will need process safety no matter where they go: industry, government, university.  Hierarchy of Safety Programs 5: Adapting - safety is a core value of the organization and a primary driver for successful enterprise. 4: Performance monitoring using statistics to drive continuous improvement. 3: Management systems based such as Job Safety Assessment (JSA), lock-out / tag-out, etc. 2: Complying to rules and regulations. 1: Reacting to accidents as they occur. 0: No safety program. Maybe even disdain for Lowest safety.  Comments on Hierarchy of Safety Programs 1. Need to work from bottom up, can’t jump. 2. Rules and regulations do not make a safety program – only at level 2. 3. Where does your KFU lab or UO lab fit into this hierarchy? My KFU research lab: 0 - 5 KFU UO lab : 0 - 5 4. Industry needs students prepared to work at level 5 and most universities are probably sending out students at level 2, at best. Truths / Myths of Process Safety 3. “Process safety only applies to the petrochemical industry.” Myth! Process safety will be required of all chemical engineering graduates, independent of whether they go on to the chemical industry, government labs / agencies, warehouses, oil production, or even academia. A friend of mine was the Process Safety Manager for Friendly’s Ice Cream Company in New Jersey! Truths / Myths of Process Safety 4. “Process safety is the same as personal safety.” Myth! Process Safety addresses the Consequence control and prevention of “high Major Offsite consequence, low frequency Incident events” (such as fires, explosions Process Safety and accidental releases of hazardous materials). Serious Onsite Incident Personal Safety Slips, Trips and Falls Frequency Source: Enform.ca Truths / Myths of Process Safety 5. “Process safety does not include product safety.” Myth! Companies are responsible for all their products during its entire lifetime, even if other companies are using the product. Truths / Myths of Process Safety 6. “Process safety costs lots of money and has a negative effect on the company’s profits.” Myth! Process safety actually saves money. The increased cost of the process safety program is offset by savings due to fewer accidents, less down time, increased production, improved product quality …. There may be extra costs to start-up the safety program.  Aluminum Company of America ALCOA Founded in 1888 by Charles Martin, who discovered an affordable way to produce aluminum via electrolysis. Headquartered in Pittsburgh, PA. 1889: Developed first aluminum tea kettle. 1910: Developed Aluminum Foil. Current annual revenues: $20+ billion. Largest supplier of aluminum in the world.  ALCOA in 1987 The company was faltering. Revenues and profits were way down. Had failed product lines and large inventories of unsold product. Investors considered it a “rust belt” company. Employees and unions were unhappy. Alcoa Board of Directors hired a new CEO: Paul O’Neill from International Paper. Alcoa already had an industry leading safety program Paul O’Neill  O’Neill’s 1st Press Conference in October 1987 Attended by press, investors and investment managers. All attendees expected a new financial management strategy. O’Neill: “I want to talk to you about worker safety … I intend to make Alcoa the safest company in America. I intend to go to zero injuries.” One investment manager: “The board put a crazy hippie in charge and he’s going to kill the company! I called my clients and told them to sell their stock.” Paul O’Neill  What were the results? In 1986 Alcoa recorded $264 million in net income on sales of $4.6 billion. When O’Neill retired at the end of 2000, Alcoa boasted record profits of $1.5 billion on sales of $22.9 billion. Alcoa’s lost workday rate per 100 employees dropped from 1.86 to 0.2 by the end of O’Neill’s tenure. On March 8, 2016, it was 0.055. O’Neill: "I knew I had to transform Alcoa. But you can't order people to change. So, I decided I was going to start by focusing on one thing. If I could start disrupting the habits around one thing, it would spread throughout the entire company."  What were the results? Let’s listen to Paul O’Neill in his own words….. Paul O’Neill “We believe that the traits required to achieve excellence in safety are the same as those required to achieve outstanding results in all other aspects of our business” – Ralph Herbert, VP Engineering, ExxonMobil  Typical Chemical Plant Hazards Properties of Chemicals: Toxicity Flammability Reactivity Bio hazards Equipment / Process: High Pressure High Temperature Mechanical Procedures: Normal process operation Vessel entry Hot work permit Management: Performance monitoring Safety culture Hazard identification Important point: Not possible to list all the potential hazards! Hazards may be continuously present or may change based on operations  Safety Culture The common set of values, behaviors, and norms at all levels in a facility or in the wider organization that affect process safety. The normal way things are done at a facility, company, or organization, reflecting expected organizational values, beliefs, and behaviors, that set the priority, commitment and resource levels for safety programs and performance.  Safety Culture On November of 2010 Rex Tillerson, Chairman and CEO of ExxonMobil testified before the National Commission on the BP Deepwater Oil Spill. He stated: “…A commitment to safety therefore should not be a priority but a value – a value that shapes decision making all the time, at every level. Every company desires safe operations – but the challenge is to translate this desire into action. The answer is not found only in written rules, standards and procedures. While these are important and necessary, they alone are not enough. The answer is ultimately found in a company’s culture – the unwritten standards and norms that shape mindsets, attitudes and behaviors. Companies must develop a culture in which the value of safety is embedded in every level of the workforce, reinforced at every turn and upheld above all other considerations. … a culture of safety has to be born within the organization. You cannot buy culture. You have to make it yourself. … make no mistake: creating a strong sustainable culture is a long process.”  Hazard Identification It is a relatively easy to identify the hazards given a specific physical situation. It is a lot more difficult to identify the hazards for a plant that is being designed and doesn’t exist yet. We will rely on our risk based process safety (RBPS) procedures to help us with this.  Definitions 1- Individual Risk: One person exposed to one or more hazards. Usually location dependent. Many Hazards Individual 2- Societal Risk: A group of people exposed to one or more hazards. Hazard and group must be carefully defined. Single Hazard People  Voluntary and Involuntary Risk 3- Voluntary Risk – Risk that is consciously tolerated by someone seeking to obtain the benefits of the activity that poses the risk. Examples: Riding a car, Riding a motorcycle, Mountain climbing, Skiing 4- Involuntary Risk – Risk that is imposed on someone who does not directly benefit from the activity that poses the risk. Examples: Living in the vicinity of a chemical plant, Riding a train, Riding an airplane, Visiting a mall.  Safety Metrics Used to measure the effectiveness of a safety program. Lagging metrics: data collected after an incident has occurred. Leading metrics: data collected before an incident has occurred.  Accident Pyramid 1-2 Fatalities 10 - 20 Serious Injuries 100 - 200 Minor Injuries erity 1,000 - 2,000 Near Misses Sev  Leading / Lagging Indicators Leading Indicators: Response time for process safety suggestions Number of workers with overdue training Number of operating procedures updated each year Work order backlog Lagging Indicators: Based on accidents that occurred. First aid incidents Loss of primary containment (LOPC) incidents Property damage Injuries Fatalities Lagging indicators are easier to define and tabulate.  Accident Statistics All lagging indicators! 1. Total number of fatalities or injuries / illnesses. 2. Deaths per 100,000 people. 3. Fatality rate, or deaths per person per year. 4. Fatal injury rate based on total hours or total workers. 5. Incidence rate.  Statistics for General Population Total number of deaths Deaths per 100,000 people  100, 000 Total people in exposed population Number of fatalities per year Fatality rate  Total number of people in applicable population It may be difficult to define the applicable or exposed population.  Work Related Statistics Total number of fatalites during period Worker based fatal injury rate  100, 000 workers Total number of employees Total number of fatalites during period Hours based fatal injury rate  200, 000, 000 hours Total hours worked by all employees Number of incidents during period Incidence rate  200, 000 hours Total hours worked by all employees The worker based fatal injury rate and the hours based fatal injury rate are defined so that they have an approximately equal numerical value. Incidence rate used more for injuries and illnesses.  Statistics for General Population - 2014 Injury Class Total Deaths per Fatalities 100,000 people All deaths (occupational and non-occupational): 136,0531 42.7 Poisoning: 42,0321 13.2 Motor vehicle: 35,398 11.2 Falls: 31,959 10.0 Choking: 4,816 1.5 Drowning: 3,406 1.1 Fires, flames and smoke: 2,701 0.4 Exposure to excessive natural cold: 930 Firearm discharge: 270 0.2 Exposure to excessive natural heat: 244 Exposure to electric transmission lines: 58 Lightning: 25 Flood: 8 1 Includes 38,718 fatalities due to drug overdose.  Industry Hours Based 2015 Total Fatalities Fatal Injury Rate1 All industries: 4836 3.4 Construction (overall): 937 10.1 Transportation and warehousing: 765 13.8 Agriculture, forestry, fishing and hunting: 570 22.8 Truck transportation: 546 25.2 Professional and business services: 477 3.0 Manufacturing: 353 2.3 Government (State and local): 338 2.2 Retail trade: 269 1.8 Leisure and hospitality: 225 2.0 Wholesale trade: 175 4.7 Government:, Federal 118 1.3 Restaurants and other food services: 100 1.4 Police and sheriff’s patrol officers: 85 11.7 Financial activities: 83 0.9 Carpenters: 83 6.7 Electricians: 83 10.7 Professional, scientific and technical services: 76 0.8 Roofers: 75 39.7 Taxi drivers and chauffeurs: 54 13.4 Information: 42 1.5 Fire fighters: 29 4.3 Mining (except oil and gas): 28 12.4 Chemical manufacturing: 28 2.0 Fishing, hunting and trapping: 23 54.8 Utilities: 22 2.2 Hospitals: 21 0.4 Colleges, universities and professional schools: 17 Plastics and rubber products manufacturing: 17 3.3 Oil and gas extraction: 6 Chemical and allied products merchant wholesalers: 3  Chemical Industry Fatalities 2015 Gasoline Stations (Retail): 39 Chemical Manufacturing: 28 Fertilizer manufacturing: 6 Basic chemical manufacturing: 5 Soap, cleaning compound and toilet prep manufacturing: 4 Pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing: 3 Paint, coating and adhesive manufacturing: 2 Industrial gas manufacturing: 1 All other chemical manufacturing: 7 Plastics Manufacturing: 13 Petroleum and Coal Products Manufacturing: 12 Asphalt paving mixture and block manufacturing: 5 Petroleum refineries: 4 Asphalt shingle and coating materials manufacturing: 3 Petroleum and Petroleum Products Merchant Wholesalers: 9 Crude Petroleum and Natural Gas Extraction: 6 Rubber Product Manufacturing: 4 Chemical and Allied Products Merchant Wholesalers: 3  2015 Chemical Industry Losses Event Type Property Damage ($US Billions, adjusted to Dec. 2015 $) Explosion: $21.19 Fire: $4.36 Blowout: $2.54 Storm: $2.00 Collision: $1.32 Earthquake: $1.23 Sinking: $0.61 Release: $0.23 Mechanical Damage: $0.27 TOTAL: $33.75 Property damage is only a fraction of the total losses! Source: The 100 Largest Losses 1974–2015, 24th ed. (New York, NY: Marsh and McLennan Companies, March 2016), p. 10.  Conclusions from Statistics Chemical industry has a low number of fatalities / injuries. These fatalities / injuries are a lot less than other activities that the public considers less hazardous. Thus, the chemical industry has to perform better to convince the public. Financial losses from chemical plant accidents are huge.  Workplace Fatalities Source: US Bureau of Labor Statistics  Risk Tolerance – Risk Matrix Risk Matrix Likelihood 1. Select the severity from the highest box in either of columns 1, 2 or 3. Read the 4 5 6 7 Category and Safety Severity Level from the same row. LIKELY UNLIKELY IMPROBABLE IMPROBABLE. BUT NOT 2. Select the likelihood from columns 4 thru 7. IMPOSSIBLE 3. Read the Risk Level from the intersection of the severity row and the likelihood Expected to column. Expected to happen Expected to Not expected to happen possibly happen possibly happen anywhere TMEF: Target mitigated event frequency several times once over once in the in the division TQ: Threshold Quantity over the life of the life of the division over the over the life of the the plant. plant. life of the plant. plant 1 2 3 Safety 0 to 9 10 to 99 Human Health Fire, Explosion Chemical Severity Severity ≥ 100 years > 1000 years years years Impact Direct Cost in $ Impact Category Level Public fatality 4 possible, Greater than Risk Level Risk Level Risk Level Risk Level $10 MM ≥ 20x TQ CATASTROPHIC TMEF = employee A A B C 1×10-6 fatalities likely Severity Employee fatality From VERY 3 possible. Major $1 MM to < $10 MM 9x to < 20x TMEF = Risk Level Risk Level Risk Level Risk Level SERIOUS A B C D injury likely TQ 1×10-5 From 2 Lost time injury Risk Level Risk Level Risk Level Negligible $100K to < $1 MM 3x to < 9x SERIOUS TMEF = (LTI) likelya B C D Risk TQ 1×10-4 Recordable From 1 $25K to < $100K MINOR TMEF = Risk Level Risk Level Negligible Negligible Injuryb 1x to < 3x TQ 1×10-3 C D Risk Risk Risk Level A: Unacceptable risk, additional safeguards must be implemented immediately. Risk Level B: Undesirable risk, additional safeguards must be implemented within 3 months. Risk Level C: Acceptable risk, but only if existing safeguards reduces the risk to As Low as Reasonably Practicable (ALARP) levels. Risk Level D: Acceptable risk, no additional safeguards required. aLosttime injury (LTI): The injured worker is unable to perform regular job duties, takes time off for recovery, or is assigned modified work duties while recovering. bRecordable injury: Death, days away from work (DAW), restricted work or transfer to another job, medical treatment beyond first aid, or loss of consciousness. Table 1-15: Risk matrix for semi-quantitative classification of incidents. Table 1-16 Threshold quantities (TQ) for a variety of chemicals. Source: AICHE/CCPS 2,000 kg = 4,400 lbm Ethyl acetate 200 kg = 440 lbm Acrylamide Ethyl benzene Ammonia, anhydrous Ammonium nitrate fertilizer Ethylenediamine Carbon monoxide Amyl acetate Amyl nitrate Formic acid Heptane 100 kg = 220 lbm Threshold Quantities (TQ) Bromobenzene Hexane Hydrogen bromide, anhydrous Calcium oxide Methacrylic acid Hydrogen chloride, anhydrous Carbon dioxide Methyl acetate Hydrogen fluoride, anhydrous Carbon, activated n-Heptene Methyl bromide Chloroform Nitrobenzene Methyl mercaptan Copper chloride Nitromethane Sulfur dioxide Kerosene Octanes Maleic anhydride Phenol, molten or solid n-Decane Propylamine 25 kg = 55 lbm Nitroethane Pyridine Chlorine Nitrogen, compressed Silver nitrate Cyanogen Nitrous oxide Sodium permanganate Germane Nonanes Tetrahydrofuran Hydrogen sulfide Oxygen, compressed Toluene Nitric acid, red fuming Paraldehyde Phosphoric acid Triethylamine Vinyl acetate Sulfuric acid, fuming Complete table and risk Potassium fluoride Potassium nitrate Zinc peroxide 5 kg = 11 lbm Acrolein matrix provided in Sulfur Tetrachloroethylene 500 kg = 1,100 lbm Acetaldehyde Arsine Diborane Reference materials on Undecane Acrylonitrile Calcium cyanide Dinitrogen tetroxide Methyl isocyanate course web page. 1,000 kg = 2,200 lbm Carbon disulfide Nitric oxide, compressed Acetic anhydride Cyclobutane Nitrogen trioxide Acetone Acetonitrile Diethyl ether or Ethyl ether Ethane Phosgene Phosphine Each company customizes Aldol Ammonium perchlorate Ethylamine Ethylene Stibine the risk matrix for their Aniline Arsenic Furan Hydrazine, anhydrous operation. Barium Hydrogen, compressed Benzene Lithium Benzidine Methylamine, anhydrous Butyraldehyde Potassium Carbon tetrachloride Potassium cyanide Coper chlorate Propylene oxide Copper cyanide Silane Cycloheptane Sodium Cycloheptene Sodium cyanide Cyclohexene Sodium peroxide Dioxane Trichlorosilane Epichlorohydrin  Example – Risk Matrix A leak of 1,500 kg of acetone results in an explosion with a financial loss of $1,500,000. The last incident of this type occurred 15 years ago. Use the risk matrix to determine the Severity Category, the Safety Severity Level and the Risk Level. Solution: The Threshold Quantity (TQ) for acetone from the table is 1,000 kg. The release of 1,500 kg is 1.5 times the TQ. From Column 3 of the Risk Matrix – Chemical Impact - this is a MINOR severity category. From the financial loss of $1,500,000, under column 2 of the Risk Matrix – Fire, Explosion Direct Cost in $ - this is VERY SERIOUS.  Risk Tolerance – Risk Matrix Risk Matrix Likelihood 1. Select the severity from the highest box in either of columns 1, 2 or 3. Read the 4 5 6 7 Category and Safety Severity Level from the same row. LIKELY UNLIKELY IMPROBABLE IMPROBABLE. BUT NOT 2. Select the likelihood from columns 4 thru 7. IMPOSSIBLE 3. Read the Risk Level from the intersection of the severity row and the likelihood Expected to column. Expected to happen Expected to Not expected to happen possibly happen possibly happen anywhere TMEF: Target mitigated event frequency several times once over once in the in the division TQ: Threshold Quantity over the life of the life of the division over the over the life of the the plant. plant. life of the plant. plant 1 2 3 Safety 0 to 9 10 to 99 Human Health Fire, Explosion Chemical Severity Severity ≥ 100 years > 1000 years years years Impact Direct Cost in $ Impact Category Level Public fatality 4 possible, Greater than Risk Level Risk Level Risk Level Risk Level $10 MM ≥ 20x TQ CATASTROPHIC TMEF = employee A A B C 1×10-6 fatalities likely Severity Employee fatality From VERY 3 possible. Major $1 MM to < $10 MM 9x to < 20x TMEF = Risk Level Risk Level Risk Level Risk Level SERIOUS A B C D injury likely TQ 1×10-5 From 2 Lost time injury Risk Level Risk Level Risk Level Negligible $100K to < $1 MM 3x to < 9x SERIOUS TMEF = (LTI) likelya B C D Risk TQ 1×10-4 Recordable From 1 $25K to < $100K MINOR TMEF = Risk Level Risk Level Negligible Negligible Injuryb 1x to < 3x TQ 1×10-3 C D Risk Risk Risk Level A: Unacceptable risk, additional safeguards must be implemented immediately. Risk Level B: Undesirable risk, additional safeguards must be implemented within 3 months. Risk Level C: Acceptable risk, but only if existing safeguards reduces the risk to As Low as Reasonably Practicable (ALARP) levels. Risk Level D: Acceptable risk, no additional safeguards required. aLosttime injury (LTI): The injured worker is unable to perform regular job duties, takes time off for recovery, or is assigned modified work duties while recovering. bRecordable injury: Death, days away from work (DAW), restricted work or transfer to another job, medical treatment beyond first aid, or loss of consciousness. Table 1-15: Risk matrix for semi-quantitative classification of incidents. End of PowerPoint Lecture. Chapter 1, Part A Questions?