Aviation Communication Within and Between Teams (9.7.1) PDF

Communication Within and Between Teams (9.7.1) Learning Objectives 9.7.1.1 Describe communication and explain what, why and how people can communicate (Level 2). 9.7.1.2 Differentiate between the different types of communication that can occur between people (Level 2). 9.7.1.3 D...

Communication Within and Between Teams (9.7.1) Learning Objectives 9.7.1.1 Describe communication and explain what, why and how people can communicate (Level 2). 9.7.1.2 Differentiate between the different types of communication that can occur between people (Level 2). 9.7.1.3 Describe techniques for communication between teams, especially for the handover of information (Level 2). 9.7.1.4 Explain the reasons for poor communication (Level 2). Summary Good communication is important in every industry. In aircraft maintenance engineering, it is vital. Communication, or more often a breakdown in communication, is often cited as a contributor to aviation incidents and accidents. For this very reason it has its own topic in this module. This topic examines the various aspects of communication that affect the AME. Communication is de ned in the Penguin Dictionary of Psychology as: ‘The transmission of something from one location to another. The ‘thing’ that is transmitted may be a message, a signal, a meaning, etc. In order to have communication both the transmitter and the receiver must share a common code, so that the meaning or information contained in the message may be interpreted without error’. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 222 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Within and Between Teams Communication to Assist Teamwork As noted in previous topics, aircraft maintenance workers often work in teams. There is communication within each team and also between teams. Individuals within team’s exchange information and need to receive instructions and guidance. Also, one team will have to pass on tasks to another team, for example at shift handover. Maintenance workers need a good understanding of the various processes of communication. Without this understanding, it is dif cult to appreciate how communication can go wrong, and to correct poor communication techniques. What do we Communicate? People are communicating almost constantly, whether consciously or otherwise. There is a regular communication of: Information Ideas Feelings Attitudes and beliefs. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 223 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  How do we Communicate? Communication is the transfer of information. As such, communication can range from good (successful) to bad (unsuccessful) depending on how the information is received and interpreted by the receiver. Image by Headway on Unsplash Communication is the transfer of information 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 224 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Transmission, Reception, Decoding and Feedback In normal transmission of a message, a person will compose the message and decide on the best way to transmit it. The transmission medium could be speech, email, or any other means. The message is encoded, which means it is sent in a format determined by the sender to be appropriate. This may include language appropriate for the recipient or including graphics. It could be formal, like a business letter, or informal, like a phone call or conversation around a water fountain. The format may be a personal standard that perhaps only the sender and recipient can understand, for example using industry jargon, acronyms or a particular dialect. Or it may be a common standard that could be understood by anybody. When the message is received, the recipient must decode it to give it some sort of meaning. The sender will typically expect some kind of response from the person they are communicating with (the recipient), which could range from a simple acknowledgement that the message has been received, to a considered and detailed reply. The response from the recipient to the sender is called feedback. The fact that the recipient successfully decoded and understood the original message may also be transmitted as feedback. If understanding of the original message is not con rmed, then further confusion may result. Image by Ben White on Unsplash The sender will typically expect some kind of response 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 225 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Types of Communication Communication can be: Verbal/spoken For example, a single word, a phrase or sentence, a grunt. Written/textual For example, printed words and/or numbers on paper or on a screen, handwritten notes. Non-verbal Graphic - for example, pictures, diagrams, hand drawn sketches, indications on a cockpit instrument. Symbolic - for example, ‘thumbs up’, wave of the hand, nod of the head. Body language - for example, facial expressions, touch (such as a pat on the back), posture, crossed arms. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 226 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Verbal and Written Communication Generally speaking, verbal and written communication are purposeful. For a spoken or written message to be understood, the sender has to make sure that the receiver: Is using the same channel of communication Recognises and understands the language of the message Is able to make sense of the message’s meaning. The channel of communication is the medium used to convey the message. For spoken communication, this might be face-to-face, or via the telephone. Written messages might be notes, memos, documents, text messages or emails. In Australia it is assumed that aircraft maintenance workers will communicate in English. But, although English is the universal language for aviation, in maintenance organisations around the world, English may not be used. It is vital that the message coding used by the sender is appreciated by the recipient so they can decode the message accurately. This means engineers must have a similar knowledge of technical language, jargon and acronyms. Assuming the channel and language used are compatible, for the recipient to extract meaning, they have to understand the content of the message. This means it has to be clear and unambiguous. The message must also be appropriate to the context of the workplace and preferably be compatible with the receiver’s expectations. Where any ambiguity exists, the recipient must seek clari cation. Image by mentatdgt from Pexels Where any ambiguity exists, the recipient must seek clari cation 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 227 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Non-verbal Communication Non-verbal communication can accompany verbal communication, such as a smile during a face-to- face chat. It can also occur independently, for instance, a colleague may pass on his ideas by using a sketch rather than words. It can also be used when verbal communication is impossible, such as a nod of the head or a wink in a noisy environment. Non-verbal communication is the predominant manner by which systems communicate their status. For instance, most displays in an aircraft cockpit present their information graphically. Body language can be very subtle, but often quite powerful. For example, the message ‘No’ accompanied by a smile will be interpreted quite differently from the same word said by a sender with an angry face. Non-verbal communication is very important when other forms of communication are impossible or suffer from interference, like in noisy aviation environments. Gestures such as hand signals are very common in aviation. Image by Donald Tong from Pexels Positive non-verbal gesture 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 228 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Communication within Teams Individual aircraft maintenance workers need to communicate: Before starting a task, to nd out what to do; During a task, to discuss work in progress, ask colleagues questions, con rm actions or intentions, or ensure that others are informed of the maintenance state at any particular time; At the end of a task, to report its completion and highlight any problems. Spoken communication makes up a large proportion of day-to-day communication within aircraft maintenance teams. Communication relies on both clear transmission of the message (i.e., not mumbled or obscured by background noise) and the recipient’s ability to hear it (i.e., active listening followed by accurate interpretation of the message). Good communication within a team helps to maintain group cohesion. Image by National Business Aviation Association Toolbox meeting Spoken messages provide considerable exibility and informality to express work-related matters when necessary. The key to such communication is to use words effectively and obtain feedback to make sure your message has been heard and understood. It is much less common for individuals within teams to use written communication, although they may use email or messaging services for short, informal communication. They would, however, be expected to obtain applicable written information communicated by approved data and work cards and to complete documentation associated with a task. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 229 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Communication between Teams Communication between teams is critical in aircraft maintenance engineering. It is the means by which one team passes on tasks to another team. This usually occurs at shift handover. The information conveyed will include: Tasks that have been completed; Tasks in progress, their status, any problems encountered, etc.; Tasks to be carried out; General company and technical information. Communication between teams will involve passing on written reports of tasks from one shift supervisor to another. Ideally, this should be backed up by spoken details passed between supervisors and, where appropriate, individual engineers. This means that, wherever necessary, outgoing engineers personally brief their incoming colleagues. The written reports (maintenance cards, procedures, work orders, logs, etc.) and warning ags / placards provide a record of work completed and work yet to be completed - in other words, they provide traceability. Furthermore, information communicated at shift handover ensures good continuity. It is important that handovers are not rushed, to minimise omissions. Communication between teams is critical in aircraft maintenance engineering 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 230 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Shift Handover It is universally recognised that at the point of changing shift, the need for effective communication between the out-going and in-coming personnel in aircraft maintenance is extremely important. The absence of such effective communication and inadequate shift handover have been evident in many accident reports from various industries. Image by Larkin Communication Consulting Effective communication between the out-going and in-coming personnel in aircraft maintenance is extremely important There are a number of well-known examples. A report on a North Sea oil rig explosion in 1988 (Piper Alpha platform) concluded that one of the factors which contributed to the disaster was the failure to transmit key information at shift handover. Past experiences of poor shift handover contributing to accidents and incidents are common, yet there is little regulatory or guidance material as to what constitutes a good handover process in aircraft maintenance. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 231 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Elements of Effective Handover Effective shift handover depends on three basic elements: The outgoing person’s ability to understand and communicate the important elements of the job or task being passed over to the incoming person. The incoming person’s ability to understand the information being provided by the outgoing person. A formalised process for exchanging information between outgoing and incoming people and a place for such exchanges to take place. Common shift handover standards stress two characteristics that must be present for effective shift handovers to take place: ownership and formality. Individuals must assume personal ownership and responsibility for the tasks they perform. They must want to ensure that their tasks are completed correctly, even when those tasks extend across shifts and are completed by somebody else. When a shift handover process is de ned in the Maintenance Organisation Exposition (MOE), managers and supervisors are committed to ensuring that cross-shift information is effectively delivered. © Sedgman 2018 Shift handover process 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 232 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Aids to Effective Communication at Shift Handover Research has shown that certain processes, practices and skills aid effective communication at shift handover. When summarising the work status to hand over to an in-coming shift, information can be transmitted in written or spoken form. Gestures (nonverbal or body language) may assist with the handover but are probably not effective on their own. If only one medium is used, there is a risk of mistakes being made in the transmission or the reception of the information. Using more than one way of communicating, i.e., a written summary PLUS a verbal discussion, this greatly reduces risk of miscommunication. The availability of feedback to allow questioning and testing of comprehension during the communication, increases the accuracy. The ability for two-way communication to take place is therefore important at shift handover. Firstly, and most importantly, ample shift overlap time, adequate job aids and dedicated facilities for the handovers to take place must be provided. A part of the shift handover process is to facilitate the formulation of a shared mental model of the maintenance system, aircraft con guration, tasks in work etc. Misunderstandings are most likely to occur when people do not have this same mental picture of the state of things. This is particularly true when deviations from normal working have occurred such as having the aircraft in ight mode at a point in a maintenance check when this is not normally done. Other considerations are when people have returned following a lengthy absence (the state of things could have changed considerably during this time) and when handovers are carried out between experienced and inexperienced personnel (experienced people may make assumptions about their knowledge that may not be true of inexperienced people). In all these cases handovers can be expected to take longer and should be allowed for. Written communication is helped by the design of documents, such as a handover log, which consider the information needs of the people who are expected to use them. Involving the workers who conduct shift handovers, such as asking them what key information should be included and in what format it should appear, promotes accurate communication and their ‘buy-in’ contributes to its use. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 233 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Photo by ThisisEngineering RAEng on Unsplash Shift handover should facilitate the formulation of a shared mental model of the tasks in work Barriers to Effective Communication at Shift Handover Research has also shown that certain practices, attitudes and human limitations act as barriers to effective communication at shift handover. Key information can be lost if the message also contains irrelevant information. It requires time and effort to interpret what is being said and extract the important information so only key information should be presented, and irrelevant information excluded. The language we use in everyday life can often seem ambiguous. Effort therefore needs to be expended to reduce ambiguity by: Carefully specifying the information to be communicated e.g., by specifying the actual component, tooling or document. Encouraging two-way communication which permits clari cation of any uncertainty (e.g., do you mean the inboard ap or outboard ap?). Misunderstandings are a natural and inevitable feature of human communication and effort has to be expended to identify, minimise and repair misunderstandings as they occur. Communication therefore has to be two-way, with both participants taking responsibility for achieving full and accurate communication. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 234 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  People and organisations frequently refer to communication as unproblematic, implying that successful communication is easy and requires little effort. This leads to over-con dence and complacency becoming common place. Organisations need to expend effort to address complacency by: Emphasising the potential for miscommunication and its possible consequences Developing the communication skills of people who are involved in shift handovers. The guidelines for shift handover apply best for operations that are manned on multiple shifts to allow for continuous 24-hour maintenance. When shifts are adopted which do not cover a full 24-hour period, for example early and late shifts with no night shift, handovers where face-to-face communication is not possible possess an inherent risk. In such cases, organisations should be aware that the potential for ineffective and inef cient communication is much higher. Image by Mohamed Hassan from Pixabay Communication should be two-way, with all participants taking responsibility for achieving full and accurate communication 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 235 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Handover Techniques For effective handover, the main considerations are: Good communication allows continuity of the work which increases the ef ciency of the organisation; Written communication provides evidence and traceability, whereas verbal communication only is not traceable. The following are some techniques contribute to effective handover that may be used in any combination. Written reports or instructions Care taken with printed words, documents on a screen, hand-written notes; Spoken details Care taken with individual words, phrases, sentences. Allow feedback; Non-verbal communication Using appropriate graphics, symbols and body language; Channels of communication Ensure sender and receiver use same channels, more than one channel is best; Feedback Allow feedback to verify comprehension, face-to-face is best, written communication does not allow feedback; Open logbook entries Open maintenance log entries protect against errors of omission (forgetting to do something). 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 236 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Shift Handover Meetings It could be said that the primary objective of the shift handover is to ensure accurate, reliable communication of task-relevant information across shifts. However, this does not recognise the incoming shift’s needs for other information which may also be required to form a complete mental model for safe and ef cient continuation of the maintenance process. Examples of such information could be manning levels, licence or authorisation coverage, staff sickness, people working extended hours (overtime), personnel issues, etc. An important aspect of individual shift handover is when it actually begins. The common perception is that shift handover occurs only at the transition between the shifts. However, shift handover should really begin as soon as the shift starts. Image by Pixabay on Pexels The primary objective of the shift handover is to ensure accurate, reliable communication of task-relevant information across shifts Throughout their shift, people should be thinking about, and recording, what information should be included in their handover to the next person or shift. The shift handover process starts with a meeting between the incoming and outgoing shift managers/supervisors, conducted in an environment free from time pressure and distractions. Shift managers/supervisors need to discuss and update themselves on tactical and managerial matters affecting the continued and timely operation of the maintenance process. The purpose of this meeting is therefore to acquaint themselves with the general state of the facility and the overall status of the work for which they are responsible. Outgoing managers/supervisors should summarise any signi cant problems they have encountered during their shift, especially any problems for which solutions have not been developed or are still in progress. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 237 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  The following topics should be covered in a managers’/supervisors’ handover meeting: Status of the facility Workstands/docking Visitors Construction work Health and safety issues. Work status Aircraft being worked Scheduled aircraft incoming/departing Deadlines Aircraft status against planned status. Manpower levels and status Licence or authorisation coverage Certifying staff Non certifying staff Numbers and names of personnel working overtime Numbers and names of contract staff Sickness Injuries Training Other personnel issues. Problems Outstanding/in work/status Solved. Data, documents and information ADs, SBs, and other data required to complete tasks Company technical notices Company policy notices. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 238 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Supervisor and worker communication 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 239 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Walkthroughs After the meeting between shift managers, and assignment of tasks, there is usually a need for supervisors and certifying staff to meet and exchange detailed information related to individual jobs and tasks. An effective way to communicate this information is for incoming and outgoing personnel to discuss the task issues while examining the jobs on the hangar oor or at the workplace. A mutual inspection and discussion of this nature is sometimes called a walkthrough. The following are the sort of topics that should be covered in the supervisors/certifying staff’s walkthrough meeting: Jobs/tasks in progress Work cards being used Last step(s) completed Problems encountered Outstanding/in work/status Problems that have been solved, and how they were solved Unusual occurrences Unusual defects Resources required/available Location of removed parts, tooling etc. Parts and tools ordered and when delivery is expected Parts shortages Proposed next steps Communication with Planners, Tech Services, workshops Communication with managers etc. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 240 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Image by Tiger Lily from Pexels Incoming and outgoing personnel discussing tasks 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 241 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Task Handover The handing over of tasks from one person to another does not always occur at the point of changing shifts. Tasks are frequently required to be handed over during a shift in two situations: When a task is being handed over to someone who is present at the time When a job is being stopped part way through. Fotolia © Gorodenkoff A task handover to someone from the next shift who is present Handing Over a Task Directly to Another Person When the task is being directly handed over to someone who is present at the time the process and concepts are the same as previously described for a walkthrough. That is to say, it is done face-to-face using verbal and written communication. In these cases, the written element normally involves ensuring that the task cards or non-routine process sheets are accurately completed, clearly identifying what stage in the task the job has reached. Any deviations from normal working practices or procedures must be clearly highlighted during the walkthrough. An example of this is if in changing a valve, a clamp not required to be removed by the maintenance manual is disturbed to aid removal and installation. Many mishaps have occurred in these circumstances as the person taking over the job assumes that the task was being performed as per the maintenance manual, drawings, procedures, etc. Ideally, any deviation is recorded by the outgoing person, and it is essential from a communication effectiveness point of view that this is reinforced during the walkthrough. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 242 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Handing Over a Task that Somebody will Complete Later It is not uncommon that a job is left incomplete during a shift, say, when someone is called away to attend to a more urgent task on another aircraft. In these cases, it is often not known who will eventually pick up the job of completing and certifying the release to service. These situations present a far greater risk and challenge to effectively communicate the stage of task accomplishment and what is required to complete the job. Face to face communication is not possible therefore total reliance has to be placed on written communication, a single medium with no redundancy and opportunity to question and test a true understanding by the person expected to nish the job. Image by Glenn Carstens-Peters on Unsplash Written communication 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 243 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Handover for Scheduled Tasks Task cards are issued at the beginning of each planned maintenance opportunity. Task cards are the normal paperwork form and method associated with scheduled maintenance tasks. The cards may have been written by the manufacturer, maintenance organisation or operator of the aircraft. In all cases the card and associated task stages usually assume that the same person will start and nish the job. But the cards can still be used as a handover document to provide information about the status of a job. Task cards break down jobs into discrete stages. Ideally, jobs should always be stopped at one of these stages so that the last sign off on the card is the exact stage of the job reached. In this case, the signatures/stamps on the card become the handover. However, a job is sometimes stopped between the stages identi ed on the card. Or sometimes the stage sequencing has not been followed, or a deviation from normal work has occurred (such as the removal of additional hardware to allow for removal and installation of a valve). When this occurs, additional written information must be used to clearly identify the point of exit from the task and what is required to complete the job and restore serviceability. Non-routine cards or sheets should then be used to record and transmit the necessary information. © Aviation Australia Example of a task card 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 244 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  In the case above, the job has been accomplished fully up to stage (d). In stage (e), the hydraulic system has been depressurised, but the transmitter operating link has not been connected. Therefore, only part of stage (e) has been accomplished. A supplementary card, worksheet, discrepancy report or non-routine sheet (the terminology will vary from one company to another) must be raised to highlight the fact that the task card does not re ect the true state of the aircraft. In this case the wording could be: © Aviation Australia A supplementary card, worksheet, discrepancy report or non- routine sheet The combination of documents provides suf cient information for the person picking up the job to know what stage the work is up to and what is required to complete it. Handover for Non-scheduled Tasks Complex or lengthy non-scheduled tasks should always be broken down into a number of discrete steps using stage or process sheets (the terminology will vary from one company to another). Many incidents have occurred when people have started a straightforward job but had to exit the task part way through without anybody to hand it over to. These situations, by their nature are unplanned and are normally associated with time pressure or emergency situations. In spite of this unplanned nature, it is vital that time is taken by the person leaving the job to comprehensively record what activities have taken place and what is required to complete the job. It should be recorded on stage sheets or worksheets and should emphasise any deviations from the normal or expected way of working. Management and supervisors have a responsibility to ensure that adequate time is given to maintenance staff to record their work if they require tasks to be suspended for any reason. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 245 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Communication Problems There are two main ways in which communication can cause problems. These are: Lack of communication Poor communication. The former occurs when an aircraft maintenance worker forgets to pass on pertinent information to a colleague, or when a written message is mislaid. The latter is typi ed by the engineer who does not make it clear what they need to know and consequently receives inappropriate information, or by the engineer who writes a report in barely legible handwriting. Both problems can lead to subsequent human error. Communication also goes wrong when one of the parties involved makes some kind of assumption. The sender of a message may assume the receiver understands the terms used. The receiver of a message may assume the message means one thing when in fact they have misinterpreted it. Assumptions may be based on context and expectations, which have already been mentioned in this chapter. Problems with assumptions can be minimised if messages are unambiguous and proper feedback is given. Ways of Minimising Poor Communication Basic rules of thumb to help all aircraft personnel minimise poor communication are: Think about what you want to say before speaking or writing Speak or write clearly Listen or read carefully Seek clari cation wherever necessary. 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 246 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Major Risk Areas for Poor Communication When work continues over a shift change When safety systems have been over-ridden When work is conducted without following a recommended sequence When work deviates from normal working methods Following a lengthy absence from work When handovers are between experienced and inexperienced staff. © Aviation Australia Communication breaks down for a number of reasons 2023-01-12 B-09 Human Factors Page 247 of 340 CASA Part 66 - Training Materials Only