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# Joan of Arc (1412-1431) Joan of Arc was a peasant girl from Domremy, France. She claimed divine guidance from saints, leading her to fight for Charles, the French crown prince, against the English. Her role in the Battle of Orléans was pivotal. After her victory, Charles was crowned king. Howe...

# Joan of Arc (1412-1431) Joan of Arc was a peasant girl from Domremy, France. She claimed divine guidance from saints, leading her to fight for Charles, the French crown prince, against the English. Her role in the Battle of Orléans was pivotal. After her victory, Charles was crowned king. However, the English later captured Joan, charged her with heresy and burned her at the stake. # The Hundred Years' War The Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) was a series of conflicts between England and France. It involved political and religious disputes. Often the English monarchs ruled areas of France, but the French kings sought unification of their lands. Edward III of England declared himself king of France and invaded that country. The English were initially victorious, notably at Crécy (1346) and Agincourt (1415). English longbows and early cannons gave them an advantage. Joan of Arc played a crucial role in turning the tide for the French. Ultimately, France's victory unified the nation and strengthened the power of the French monarchy. The war also had significant effects on England. England's nobles were bitter about the loss of French territories, leading to internal conflicts during the Wars of the Roses, resulting in the rise of Henry Tudor as King Henry VII of England. # Jews and Muslims in Spain During the Middle Ages, Muslims controlled much of the Iberian Peninsula (present day Spain and Portugal). Muslim culture flourished. Christians eventually fought to reclaim these lands in a struggle known as the Reconquista. By 1469, Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile had united their realms, driving out the last Muslim kingdom of Granada. Initially, Jews lived freely under Muslim rule in Iberia. However, as Christian control increased, there were instances of persecution, leading many Jews to convert to Christianity. Ferdinand and Isabella, anxious to enforce religious uniformity, ordered Jews to convert or leave Spain in 1492, while Muslims were given the same choice. A majority chose to either leave or convert to Catholicism.