NRSGRC1 Nursing Research Design PDF

NRSGRC1: NURSING RESEARCH Elton John D. Delos Santos, RN, MAEd, MAN Associate Professor, UB-SN  THE RESEARCH PROCESS: Conceptual phase Elton John D. Delos Santos, RN, MA Ed.  THE RESEARCH PROCESS Formulating and Delimiti...

NRSGRC1: NURSING RESEARCH Elton John D. Delos Santos, RN, MAEd, MAN Associate Professor, UB-SN  THE RESEARCH PROCESS: Conceptual phase Elton John D. Delos Santos, RN, MA Ed.  THE RESEARCH PROCESS Formulating and Delimiting the Conceptual Problem Reviewing the Related Literature Phase Developing a Theoretical Framework Formulating Hypotheses Design and ✓ Selecting a Research Design Planning Phase ✓ Analysis 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 4 Elements of a project design Cooks have the reason for cooking To achieve something, Ingredients are cooked according to a recipe to achieve a warm, balanced meal and a happy feeling of fullness and well-being 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 5  Key Design Concepts: Goal – is the reason why you are doing a project to make something better Objective – is what you specifically want to achieve Output – is the result when the project is over Activity – is what action you will do to achieve the objective Input – is what it takes or need to achieve the objective Impact – is what will be the benefit derived from the project 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 6  Characteristics of research designs (researcDetailed explanation of techniques and procedures for data collection and analysis Description of the target hpopulation, design) the location or (sampling setting of the study and design or procedure) the procedure for choice of samples or respondents Clear description of tools & instruments to be used & (instrumentation the statistical treatment and of data to bestatistics) applied 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 7  RESEARCH DESIGNS 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 10  Exploratory, Descriptive, and Explanatory Studies 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 11  EXPLORATORY, DESCRIPTIVE, EXPLANATORY STUDIES Exploratory – conducted when little is known about the phenomenon of interest.. Descriptive- phenomena are described or the relationship between variables is examined. Explanatory studies- search for causal explanations and are much more rigorous than exploratory or descriptive studies. 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 12  Characteristics 1. Detailed explanation of techniques & procedures for data collection & analysis (Research Design) 2. Description of the target population, the location or setting of the study & the procedure for choice of samples or respondents (Sampling Design or Procedure) 3. Clear description of tools & instruments to be used & the statistical treatment of data to be applied (Instrumentation and Statistics) 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 14  Criteria for Choice of Research Design: 1. Logically sound 2. Comprehensive enough to solve the problem 3. Reasonably clear and precise 4. Clearly spelled out 5. Free from weaknesses 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 15  PURPOSE OF RESEARCH DESIGN -to provide maximum control over extraneous variables and other phenomena that can influence the results of the study and affects its validity. 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 17  SOURCES OF RESEARCH DESIGN- SIPAS Spark of inspiration Intellectual curiosity Prescription Analysis of needs Systematic search for a problem 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 18  SYMBOLIC PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH DESIGN Research designs are often easier to understand when seen in a symbolic form. The symbols used to depict the designs are based on the notation scheme of Campbell and Stanlet (1963). 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 19  GENERAL R- random assignment of subjects to groups O- observation or measurement of DV X- experimental treatment or intervention 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 20  GENERAL Xs and Os on one line apply to a specific group. The time sequence is from left to right. If an X occurs first and then an O, the intervention occurred first and then an observation was made. 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 21  GENERAL If a subscript appears after an X or O, the numbers indicate the first treatment, second, first observation, second observation, and so forth. e.g. X1;X2;O1;O 2 Random assignment- a procedure that ensures that each subject has an equal chance of being assigned or placed in any of the groups in an experimental study. 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 22  R O1 X O2 (Experimental group) R O1 O2 (Comparison group) 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 23  MAJOR CATEGORIES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS - experimental; - nonexperimental 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 24  NON-EXPERIMENTAL/ OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH DESIGNS - Basic - applied or action research 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 25  Types of Applied Research Historical Design Descriptive Design 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 26  Historical Studies A. Retrospective design - data being analyzed was either collected in the past or data collection focuses in the past. Retrospective studies are sometimes called ex pacto studies. It uses flashback technique wherein the researcher collects data after the incident has happened. B. Prospective design- the data was collected after the study was designed, but the study is pursued over a long period of time, continuing into the future. 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 27  Correlational Studies CROSS-SECTIONAL DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN- examines subjects at a given point in time after the research design is completed and then gathers data on events occurring at that present time. It can be conducted when the time frame is of short duration, unlike the longitudinal designs. 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 28 Retrospective CROSS- PROSPECTIVE Design SECTIONAL DESIGN DESIGN Data collected Data collected on PAST Data collected at after completion EVENTS, a given point in of the research before time in the design with the PRESENT, after study pursued into completion of completion of the the research the FUTURE. research design design FIGURE 2. Cross-sectional, retrospective and prospective research designs 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 29 Example: “The evolution of Nursing Practice from the time of Florence Nightingale to the 21 st Century: Significant Indicators of change and Transition from Past to Present Practice of Nursing” 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 30  NON- EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN (SURVEY STUDIES) -Descriptive studies summarize the status of phenomena observed within the natural environment -without any manipulation or control of variables 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 31  TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN 1. Descriptive Normative surveys- self-reported data are collected from samples for purposes of describing populations in relation to specific given variables --Involves the classification and enumeration of collated data which are gathered using the questionnaires Example: A survey on staff nurses & administrators to obtain their perception on the extent of the nurses’ responsibility for patient education 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 32  TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN 2. Correlational studies- describes how phenomena are interrelated without interfering causality. - Also called explanatory research Example: How is (X) related to (Y) as X increases, does Y also increase? Or, as X increases, does Y decreases? 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 33  Correlation coefficient Positive or direct relationship means that as the value of one variable increases, the value of the other variable also increases. Negative or inverse relationship indicates that as the value of one variable increases, the value of the other variable decreases (INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL) 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 34  Example: Is there any significant correlation between anxiety and mid-term exams among baccalaureate nursing students? As anxiety is higher, the score of the midterm exam is lower. Is there any significant correlation between the academic performance of nursing students and their performance as staff nurses 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 35  TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN 3. Comparative studies- studies that examine several intact groups to find out the difference between and among them in certain dependent variables of interest. - There is no manipulation of independent variables because characteristics of the subjects are inherent such as personality type, educational level, and medical condition 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 36 Comparative studies are applicable to the following: A.Descriptive Study “ Is there any significant differences in readiness to learn about pre-operative teaching (Variable of interest) between pre-op patients who have anxiety levels (G!), compared to pre-op patients who have low anxiety (G2)? 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 37 Comparative studies are applicable to the following: B. Experimental Study “ Is there any significant differences in the pre-op anxiety levels of patients who were exposed to relaxation techniques (Experimental group) and those who were not exposed to these techniques (control group)?” 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 38  TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN 4. Methodological studies or Descriptive Evaluative Surveys - deals with the development, testing, and evaluation of methods, procedures, guidelines,& instruments after which an evaluative judgment is done. - Also used to revise, modify existing programs or develop more effective programs, methods and procedures in nursing for more efficient and effective delivery of health care - Also known as DEVELOPMENTAL OR EVALUATIVE RESEARCH 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 39 Example: “Training programs for new graduate nurses & their Clinical Proficiency” “Development of Feedback Mechanisms for Faculty Performance” “Community Health Programs & the incidence of Dengue Fever in Sampaloc, Metro Manila” 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 40  TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN 5. Problem Solving - All researches are investigations leading to solutions of problems “How much nursing care does a particular patient need?” “ How often is it necessary to take vital signs of a patient in labor?” “ How can a nurse make the patient feel satisfied with nursing care given him?” 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 41  TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN 6. Decision-making - Selects the most feasible course of action from given alternatives to solve problem - Useful in policy making and in improving the image of nursing as a profession Examples: “Should salaries paid to nurses be increased?” “ Is the 12-hour work shift more effective than the 8-hour shift in solving staffing problems?” 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 42  TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN 7. Case Study - In-depth study of a single case or limited number of typical interconnected cases intended to interpret their behavior relative to the occurrences of certain events or phenomenon of interest to the discipline Examples: “A Case study of a patient with problems of Oxygenation” 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 43  TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN 8. Content Analysis - process of synthesizing or dissecting information and messages embodied in documents Examples: “The practical Implications of the Philippine Nursing Law (RA 9173 of 2002) provisions for Nursing Education and Nursing Service ” 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 44  TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN 9. Feasibility Study - Determine the viability of an undertaking or a business venture and establishing an institution or constructing infrastructure Examples: “A Feasibility Study on Nursing Entrepreneurship in the Philippine Setting” 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 45 A. Experimental An inquiry on cause-and-effect relationships, in a specialized setting 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 46  Experimental Research Designs - True experimental - Quasi-experimental - Preexperimental 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 47  1. TRUE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS Researcher has great deal of control over the research situation. Threats to the internal validity are minimized. 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 48 3 CRITERIA FOR A TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: A. Manipulation- introduction of a treatment or intervention B. Control- not giving the intervention or treatment to the Control group that represents the comparative counterfactual C. Randomization- or random assignment with subjects allocated to experimental and control groups, at random to make the groups comparable at the outset (D). Validity- validity of data gathered 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 49 Control 1. CONTROL GROUP- is not subjected to any experimental treatment - Consists of subjects whose performance in relation to a DV is used as basis for evaluating the performance of the experimental group - EXPERIMENTAL GROUP- is subjected to the treatment used by the researcher whose performance is compared and analyzed according to in relation to the performance of the control group on a DV. 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 50  Control Example: “ the use and non-use of external flushing on post partum mothers to determine the extent of post- partum infections. 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 51  Validity A.INTERNAL VALIDITY- the degree to which changes in the DV can be attributed to the IV 1. Selection Bias- when results are attributed to the experimental treatment, when n fact, results are due to differences among the subjects even before the treatment 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 52  Selection Bias “ A study which aims to help people stop smoking. There were 20 volunteers who offered to stop smoking, (experimental group), and 20 volunteers who refused to stop smoking (control group). However, the experimental group may have been motivated to stop smoking even before the treatment started, hence, the selection process may have a biased effect on the results of the study” 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 53  Validity A. Internal Validity 2. History- occurs when some event besides the experimental treatment takes place during the course of the study & affects or influences the DV. Example: “ The incidence of prenatal training among pregnant women after 2 weeks of a teaching program, but during the teaching process, an article is published on the rise of maternal complications. This “history” factor could result in the increased incidence of prenatal training.” 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 54  Validity A. Internal Validity 3. Maturation- takes place when changes within the subjects occur during the experimental study, thus influencing study results. Example: “ The subjects may have gained in height & weight at the time when the pre-test and the post-test were being administered. If the nurse is interested in gain in weight & height of malnourished children, she will keep in mind that change in their size may occur during the treatment or course of the study” 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 55  Validity A. Internal Validity 4. Testing- possible testing threat in studies in which a pre- test is a requisite. This refers to the influence of the pre=test, which already projects the results of the post- test scores. Example: “ Test Scores of the actual study respondents may be altered in the post-test as a result of their knowledge of the pre test results” 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 56  Validity A. Internal Validity 5. Instrumentation change- the existence of a difference between pre-test & post-test results caused by change in the accuracy of the instrument or the ratings, rather than a result of the experimental treatment. Example: “ A mechanical instrument such as the sphygmomanometer used in taking the BP affects the accuracy of reading throughout the study” 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 57  Validity A. Internal Validity 6. Mortality- difference exist between the subjects dropout rates of the experimental groups. Example: “ If a large experimental group scored very low in a pre-test, some respondents may have dropped out of the study. Thus, the average scores in the post-test of the experimental group would be correspondingly low” 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 58  B. External Validity ---degree to which study results can be influenced or affected by other populations and settings. Threats: 1. The Hawthorne Effect- occurs when study participants respond in a particular manner, or there is obvious change of behavior because they are aware that they are being observed. Example: “ A Student nurse applies correct techniques in doing nursing procedures while the researcher observes her ” 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 59  External Validity Threats: 2. The Experimenter Effect- refers to a threat to study results when the researcher’s behavior influences the behavior of the subjects, such as the researcher’s facial expression, gender, & clothing. 3. The Reactive Effect of the Pre-test- occurs when the subjects have been sensitized to the treatment by taking the pretest. 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 60  Validity B. External Validity Threats: 4. The Halo Effect- the tendency of the researcher to rate the subject high or low because of the impression he/she has on the latter. 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 61  How to Minimize external validity Use double blind method to remove the observer’s bias Use double o bserver method to determine the extent of bias between the two observers 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 62  3 TYPES OF TRUE EXPERIMENTAL A. BASIC EXPERIMENT 1. PRE-TEST-POST-TEST CONTROL GROUP DESIGN or Before-After - Data are collected before and after the experimental manipulation, thereby permitting an analysis of change 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 63 PRE-TEST-POST-TEST CONTROL GROUP DESIGN or Before-After R O1 X O2 (Experimental group) R O1 O2 (Comparison group) 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 64  Example: “ Effectiveness of the use of Guava Leaves for external flushing to post partum patients to prevent infection” 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 65  3 TYPES OF TRUE EXPERIMENTAL 2. POSTTEST-ONLY CONTROL GROUP DESIGN or After-only - Involves collecting data only once— after the introduction of the treatment 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 66 POSTTEST-ONLY CONTROL GROUP DESIGN R X O1 (Experimental group) R O1 (Comparison group) 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 67  Example: “ Health teachings on patients with urinary incontinence”. 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 68  3 TYPES OF TRUE EXPERIMENTAL B. SOLOMON FOUR-GROUP DESIGN R O1 X O2 (Experimental group 1) R O1 O2 (Comparison group 1) R X O2 (Experimental group R O2 (Comparison group 2) 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 69 Ex: “Effects of Genetic Counseling & Prenatal Supervision on the incidence of maternal complications in high risk women GROUPS Before After -with Genetic counseling (EG1) X X with pre-test -w/o Genetic counseling (CG1) X w/o pre-test - With Prenatal supervision (EG2) X X with pre-test - w/o prenatal supervision(CG2) X without pre-test 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 70  3 TYPES OF TRUE EXPERIMENTAL C. FACTORIAL DESIGN- There is simultaneous manipulation of two or more IV which permit testing of multiple hypotheses in a single experiment. A separate analysis is done on the effects of the IV on the DVs and the interaction effects between these variables. 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 71 Example: An experiment to know the performance of male and female (sex-IV) in the relief of pain (DV) under the effects of varying amounts of same drug dosage measured in milligrams (IV2). The researcher is concerned with differences in pain relief related to: a. Sex b. The amount of drug taken, and c. The interaction effect of sex and drug 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 72  Example: In this experiment, there is a two way classification of data: data according to sex, and classification of the same data according to the drug dosage. The scores of the 2 groups (M & F) shall be subjected to analysis of variance to determine a significant difference between the relief of pain of males & females when under the effects of varying amounts of drug, and if there is significant difference b/n the scores of the whole group under the effects of varying amounts of the drug. The interaction effect b/n sex & drug, shall be analyzed and determined, if these two factors (sex & drugs) helped each other in terms of pain relief. (Downie & Heath, 2000) 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 73  3 TYPES OF TRUE EXPERIMENTAL D. RANDOMIZED BLOCK DESIGN- There are two IVs, but one IV is not experimentally manipulated due to the heterogeneous randomized assignment of subjects. This is called the blocking variable. The blocking variable allows the researcher to control the sample size if it is perceived to be a confounding variable 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 74  Example: “Effects of touch and Music Therapy on the Heart Rates and Respiratory Rates of Premature and Full Term Newborn” The blocking variable could be the birth status of the NB. The full-term NB is not manipulated since premature & full-term NB will respond differently to the touch & music therapy. Hence, the premature NB will only be the one manipulated. 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 75  3 TYPES OF TRUE EXPERIMENTAL E. CROSS-OVER DESIGN- different people are randomly assigned to different treatments. Subjects are exposed to 2 different treatments or conditions. The influence of one treatment on the subjects may be carried over the next treatments. Therefore, a difference existing between each treatment can be accurately ascertained by the subjects of the study. This type of within-subject design has a high equivalence advantage since the participants are exposed to the same treatments or conditions. 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 76  Example: “Both Premature and Full-term Newborn will be exposed to touch and music therapy. Results will be analyzed according to how each group respond to both treatments.” 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 77  2. QUASI- EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS -Controlled trials without randomization -Involve intervention but lack randomization. -there is neither no comparison group nor subjects randomly assigned 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 78 Example: “Administering a drug to a group of infants whose mothers are heroin addicted, to see if the treatment will result in weight increase or decrease of low birth weight infants” The foregoing study used only an experimental group, the infants of heroin addicted mothers. No control group was used such as administering a drug to those infants whose mothers are not heroin addicted 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 79 2 TYPES OF QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL A. NON EQUIVALENT CONTROL GROUP BEFORE-AFTER DESIGN -Involves the use of comparative group that was created thru random assignment & the collection of pretreatment data that permit an assessment of initial group equivalence. -comparability of groups can sometimes be enhanced thru matching on individual characteristics or by propensity matching on a propensity score for each subject. 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 80 NON EQUIVALENT CONTROL GROUP BEFORE-AFTER DESIGN -similar to the pretest-posttest control group design except that there is no random assignment of subjects to the experimental and comparison groups. O1 X O2 (Experimental group) O1 O2 (Comparison group) 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 81  2 TYPES OF QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL B. TIME-SERIES DESIGN -- no comparison group; information on the DV is collected over a period of time before and after the treatment. - Often used in single-subject experiments 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 82 TIME-SERIES DESIGN -- the researcher periodically observes or measures the subjects. The experimental treatment is administered between two of the observations O1 O2 O3 X O4 O5 O6 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 83 C. PREEXPERIMENTAL -- is the name applied by Campbell and Stanley (1963) to experimental designs that are considered very week and in which the researcher has little control over the research 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 84  2 KINDS OF PREEXPERIMENTAL 1. ONE-SHOT CASE STUDY - a single group is exposed to an experimental treatment and observed after the treatment. X O 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 85  2 KINDS OF PREEXPERIMENTAL 2. ONE-GROUP PRE-TEST-POSTTEST DESIGN provides comparison between group of subjects before and after the experimental treatment. O1 X O2 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 86  EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES Explains & establishes causal Dangerous, particularly if human relationships of variables beings are used as subjects Increases purity of observations Difficult to create conditions Creates conditions in the Time constraints experimental setting that Non-cooperation approximates the natural setting Population constraints Free from the pressures of daily life when conducted in a Generalization may not be controlled unit reliable if done in an artificial setting 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 87  Quantitative Research Designs 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 88  It is a study concerned with objectivity, tight controls over the research situation, and the ability to generalize findings. Traditional scientific approach used by many of the other disciplines; others view it as “hard science”. E.g. concerned with the level of pain people are experiencing. 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 89  STEPS IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH The research process includes both scientific and technical steps (Swansburg & Swansburg, 1999). Unlike a scientific problem-solving method (having only 6 steps: define the problem, collect data, formulate hypothesis, select a method to test hypothesis, test hypothesis, and formulate conclusions), the true research process can have as much as 18 steps (Niewiasdomy, 2008, Polit & Beck, 2004). Polit and Beck divided the 18 steps into 5 phases 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 90  SCIENTIFIC PROBLEM- PROBLEM-SOLVING PROCESS NURSING PROCESS SOLVING METHOD 1. Define the problem 1. Recognize the existence 1. Assessment of a problem 2. Collect data 2. Collect data 3. Formulate hypothesis 3. Analyze data; specify 2. Diagnosis problem 4. Select a method to test 4. Determine ways to 3. Outcome hypothesis achieve a solution to the identification problem 4. planning 5. Test the hypothesis 5. Execute the planned 5. implementation actions 6. Formulate conclusion; 6. Judge the effectiveness 6. Evaluation evaluate hypothesis of selected actions Adapted from: Craven, RF, and Hirnlie, CJ (2003).Similarities and Differences Among the Scientific Problem-Solving Method, the Problem-Solving Process, and the Nursing Process, p. 143 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 91 STEP NO NIEWIASDOMY (2008) POLIT & BECK (2004) 1 Identify the problem PHASE I- CONCEPTUAL PHASE Formulating and delimiting the problem 2 Determine the purpose Reviewing the related literature of the study 3 Review the literature Undertaking fieldwork 4 Develop a theoretical/ conceptual Defining the framework framework and developing conceptual definitions 5 Identify the study Formulating the hypotheses assumptions 6 Acknowledge the limitations of the study PHASE II- THE DESIGN AND PLANNING PHASE Selecting a research design 7 Formulate the hypotheses or research questions Developing protocols 8 Define study variables/terms Identifying the population to be studied 9 Select the research design Designing the sample plan 10 Identify the population Specifying the method to measure the research variables 11 Select the sample Developing methods for safeguarding human/animal rights 12 Conduct a pilot study Finalizing and reviewing the research plan 13 Collect the data PHASE III- THE EMPERICAL PHASE Collecting data 14 Organize the data for analysis Preparing the data for analysis 15 Analyze the data PHASE IV- THE ANALYTIC PHASE Analyzing the data 16 Interpret the findings Interpreting the results 17 Communicate the findings PHASE V- DISSEMINATION PHASE 18 Utilize the findings 9/22/2024 Communicating the findings 92 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed  Qualitative Research Designs 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 93 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH, BROADLY DEFINED: “Any kind of research that produces findings not arrived at by means of statistical procedures or other means of quantification.“ (Strauss & Corbin, 1990) “field research; disciplined enquiry examining the personal meanings of individuals’ experiences & actions in the context of their social environments” (Polgar & Thomas, 1991) ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 9/22/2024 94  To gain more in-depth information that my be difficult to convey quantitatively (Multerud, 2001) To better understand any phenomenon about which little is yet known or knowledge is incomplete To gain new perspectives on things about which much is already know 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 95  In Summary: …….. A generic term for investigative methodology that is systematic, that describes culture, life experiences and their meanings. QR : beyond numbers 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 96  FEATURES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 1. It occurs in natural setting, where human behaviour and events occur 2. It is based on assumptions that are very different from quantitative designs. 3. The researcher is the primary instrument in data collection rather than some inanimate mechanism. 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 97  FEATURES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 4. Data that emerge from this study are descriptive, i.e., data are reported in words (primarily by the participants’ words) or pictures, rather than numbers. 5. The focus is on participants’ perceptions and experiences, and the way they make sense of their lives. The attempt, therefore, is to understand not one, but multiple realities. 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 98  FEATURES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 6. Focuses on the process that is occurring as well as the product or outcome. Researchers are particularly interested in understanding how things occur. 7. Idiographic interpretation is utilized. In other words, attention is paid to particulars, and data are interpreted in regard to the particulars interested in understanding how things occur 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 99  FEATURES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 8. It is an emergent design in its negotiated outcomes. Meanings and interpretations are negotiated with human data sources because it is the subjects’ realities that the researcher attempts to reconstruct. 9. This research tradition relies on the utilization of tacit knowledge (intuitive and felt knowledge) because often then nuances of the multiple realities can be appreciated most in this way. Therefore, data are not quantifiable in the traditional sense of the word. 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 100  FEATURES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 10. Objectivity and truthfulness are critical to both research traditions. However, the criteria for judging differ from quantitative. First and foremost, the researcher seeks believability, based on coherence, insight and instrumental utility and trustworthiness through a process of verification (Palispis, 2004). 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 101  2 MOST COMMON TYPES Semistructured interviews Participant observation OTHER METHODS Open-ended questionnaires Life histories Diaries Personal collections- letters, photographs Official documents 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 102  SAMPLE SIZE Generally smaller than quantitative researches. However, no set rules about the necessary sample size for quantitative studies. 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 103  Evaluating Qualitative Samples Adequacy Appropriateness VALIDITY & RELIABILITY IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Validity & reliability in qualitative research translates into “do the data reflect the truth?” 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 104  VALIDITY The findings “reflect reality, and the meaning of the data is accurately interpreted” (Hinds, Scandrett-Hibden, & McAulay, 1990, p. 431) 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 105  RELIABILITY “Repeatability of scientific observations, and sources that could influence the stability and consistency of those observations” (Hinds et al., 1990, p. 431) 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 106  TRUSTWORTHINESS OF DATA: Credibility Dependability Confirmability Transferability 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 107  QUALITATIVE VALIDITY CRITERIA PRIMARY CRITERIA: Credibility Authenticity Criticality Integrity 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 108  QUALITATIVE VALIDITY CRITERIA SECONDARY Explicitness Vividness Thoroughness Congruence Sensitivity 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 109  ANALYSIS OF QUALITATIVE DATA 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 110  USING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IN CLINICAL PRACTICE Explaining the findings of quantitative studies Learning more about the health care problems from the standpoint of the patient/families Monitoring treatment impact (e.g., quality of life) 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 111  USING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TO SOLVE PROBLEMS IN HC DELIVERY Understanding organizational behavior Evaluating organizational processes Tracking the impact of organizational change Elaborating leader’s roles and functions Other?? – Understanding access and service delivery from point of view of individuals & families 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 112  IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 1. Conduct inquiry-limits disruption of the natural context of the phenomena 2. Participation of the researcher 3. Inductive approach 4. Reports in a literary style rich with participant commentaries. 5. belief in multiple realities 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 113  IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 6. commitment -participants’ viewpoint 7. Emergent design – reflects what is being learned – flexible, elastic 8. Requires ongoing analysis of data to formulate subsequent strategies and determine when field work is done 9. Study design evolves over the course of the project 10. Data decisions– are made in the field 11. merging of various data sources 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 114  6 TYPES (Polit and Beck, 2004) 1. phenomenological, 2. ethnographic, 3. grounded theory, 4. historical, 5. case study, and 6. narrative analysis 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 115  HISTORICAL RESEARCH: Focusing on the past -It refers to narrative description or analysis of past events that happened in the remote or recent past. It reveals the identification, location, evaluation, and synthesis of data from the past. -“Without a past, there is no meaning to the present, nor we can develop a sense of ourselves as individuals and as a members of groups” (LEININGER ,1985) 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 116 EXAMPLE “Florence Nightingale’s political power in the 19th century which effected change in Nursing Practice” “Significant Histori ators of Change and their Impact on Present Nursing Care Modalities” 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 117  Sources of Data Documents Relics and artifacts/artefacts Oral reports/oral history 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 118  CLASSIFICATION OF SOURCES: Primary- first-hand information or direct evidence Secondary- second-hand information or may be third-hand or forth-hand 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 119  Forms of HISTORICAL research Social histories- particular period to understand prevailing beliefs and values of people. Biographical histories- study of contributions of individuals to development Intellectual histories- historical ideas or 9/22/2024 ways of thinking. ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 120  2 levels of analyzing documents 1. External Criticism- Establishes the authenticity of text and discovers what the author really intended to say. i.e., the witness’s testimony. 2. Internal Criticism- Determines the credibility of the text. i.e., an account is as close to what actually happened as we can learn from a critical examination of the best available sources. (verisimilitude). 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 121  2. ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH: Focusing on Culture 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 122  Example: “ The Lifestyle, Beliefs and Health Habits of the Aetas of Mt. Pinatubo” “The Parental Style, Attitude, and Child Rearing Practices of the Mangyans in Oriental Mindoro” 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 123  Three broad aspects of information that are of interest to them: Cultural behaviour Cultural artefacts Cultural speech 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 124  Varieties of Ethnography Traditional vs. contemporary ethnography Cognitive and language-based ethnographic approaches Critical ethnography Other types (e.g., autoethnography, institutional ethnography, interpretive ethnography) 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 125  Conduct: PROCESS- field work, immersion in the culture understudy DATA COLLECTION- participatory observation and Interview ANALYSIS- data collection and analysis happen at the same time DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURAL THEORIES-end goal or purpose 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 126  Ethnolinguistic Method A number of techniques needed for fieldwork having to do with the description of an ethnic group (ethno), using a linguistic tool (linguistic). Linguistic techniques may take the following: Phonemics, morphology, syntax, semantics and discourse 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 127 3. Phenomenological research: focusing on lived experiences 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 128  Conduct: STEPS 1. Bracketing-Identifying & holding in abeyance preconceived beliefs &opinions 2. Intuiting- open to meanings attributed to the phenomenon 3. Analyzing- extracting significant statements; categorizing and making sense of meaning 4. Describing- understanding & defining the phenomenon 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 129  Four experiences that are of interest to phenomenologist are: Spatiality (OCCUPYING) Corporeality (MATERIAL BOFY) Temporality (MEASURED TIME) Relationality (RELATIONSHIPS) 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 130 Examples: “Lived Experiences of Sexually Abused, and Abandoned Children” “Psycho-social and Emotional Trauma Experienced by Children of Separated Parents and Overseas Workers” May be QUANTITATIVE OR QUALITATIVE: “ A Patient experiencing chronic Pain” 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 131  The lived body in dementia (Phinney & Chesla, 2003) 1. Being slow – taken-for granted activities become halting and tentative 2. Being lost – being unable to find one’s way in an unfamiliar world – Lost in the world of space – Lost in the world of equipment – Lost in the world of activity 3. Being blank – being in an empty world within meaningful habits and practices fall by the wayside 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 132 4. GROUNDED THEORY RESEARCH: focusing on development evolution of a social experience 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 133 Example: The Experience of caring for a woman with high-risk pregnancy, during which the theory of Newman (1986) is developed, with the nurse and the client as partners in a relationship of care, characterized by negotiation, reciprocity and empowerment (Parker: 1990). 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 134  Methodology: 1.Formulation-observation 2.Testing-purposeful sampling 3.Redevelopment of proposition until a theory evolves 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 135  Grounded Theory Data Generation Data Analysis (Open , Axial and Selective Coding) Core Variable 9/22/2024 Grounded Theory ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 136  5. Case Studies 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 137 6. Field Studies 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 138 6. Bibliographies 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 139  THE RESEARCH PROCESS Formulating and Delimiting the Conceptual Problem Reviewing the Related Literature Phase Developing a Theoretical Framework Formulating Hypotheses Design and ✓ Selecting a Research Design Planning Phase 9/22/2024 ELTON D. DELOS SANTOS, RN, MA Ed 140