Research Design and Methods Quiz

Nursing Research

• This presentation covers nursing research, specifically the research process.
• A presenter, Elton John D. Delos Santos, is an Associate Professor at the University of Baguio School of Nursing.
• The research process is divided into phases: conceptual, design & planning, empirical, and analytic.
• The last phase is the dissemination phase.

The Research Process: Conceptual Phase

• This phase involves formulating and delimiting the problem, reviewing related literature, developing a theoretical framework, and formulating hypotheses.

Design and Planning Phase

• This phase includes selecting a research design, sampling, and specifying methods for data collection.

Empirical Phase

• This phase involves collecting the data.
• Preparation of the data is also a part of the empirical phase.

Analytic Phase

• This phase contains the analysis of the data and the interpreting of the results.

Dissemination Phase

• Communication and utilization of the findings.

Elements of a Project Design

• Cooks have a reason for cooking (goal).
• Ingredients are cooked according to recipe (objective).
• Meal and feelings of fulfillment and well-being will result.
• There is a goal and objective, ingredients, according to recipe.
• The goal is to achieve a desired outcome (satisfying result), which is a fulfilling meal and well-being.
• The objective is how to achieve this goal.

Key Design Concepts

• Goal: The reason for the project to create something better.
• Objective: What you want to specifically achieve.
• Output: The result when the project finishes.
• Activity: The actions taken to achieve the objective.
• Input: Resources needed to achieve the objective.
• Impact: The predicted benefit from the project.

Characteristics of Research Designs

• Detailed explanation of techniques and procedures for data collection and analysis.
• Description of the target population and location/setting of the study as well as sampling design.
• Clear description of tools and instruments to be utilized.

Problem Tree Analysis

• A visual representation of a problem and its causes.
• The core problem is in the center.
• The effects are shown branching outward from the core problem.
• The causes of the problem, and sub-causes of the causes (root causes).

Objective Tree Analysis

• A visual representation of how to achieve a goal that helps establish an objective through outputs that result from doing activities.
• Displays the goal, objective, output and activities needed.

Phase 2: Design & Planning Phase

• This phase is about choosing research designs.

Exploratory, Descriptive, and Explanatory Studies

• Exploratory: Conducted when little is known about a topic.
• Descriptive: Describes phenomena or relationships between variables.
• Explanatory: Seeks to establish causal relationships.

Research Design

• A thorough plan, a blueprint, guiding the conduct of the study.
• Created by the researcher.
• Includes specified elements and procedures used in the study.

Characteristics of Research Designs

• Detailed explanation of data collection methods.
• Description of the target population/sample selection method.
• Clear description of instruments and data analysis.

Criteria for Choice of Research Design

• Logically sound.
• Comprehension to solve the problem,
• Clear and precise.
• Clearly spelled out.
• Free from flaws.

Major Components

• Sample and selection methods.
• Types of data to be collected and instruments for data collection.
• Strategies for controlling extraneous factors (variables that influence results).
• Description of tools and statistical treatment of data.
• Research setting.

Purpose of Research Design

• To ensure there is maximum control over extraneous variables to maintain validity in results.

Sources of Research Design-SIPAS

• Spark of inspiration
• Intellectual curiosity
• Analysis of needs
• Systemic search for a problem
• Prescription

Symbolic Presentation of Research Design

• Research designs are more understandable in a symbolic form.
• The symbols used depict (represent) designs, based on Campbell and Stanley notation.

General

• R: Random assignment of subjects to groups.
• O: Observation or measurement of dependent variable (DV).
• X: Experimental treatment or intervention.
• Xs and Os on one line mean occurrence of variable to a specific group from left to right.
• Subscripts numbers indicate the order/sequence of intervention or observation.
• Random assignment is a method for equally distributing subjects across groups.

Major Categories of Research Designs

• Experimental
• Non-experimental

Non-Experimental/Observational Research Designs

• Basic
• Applied or action research
• Examples: Historical design, descriptive designs

A. Retrospective Design

• Data collection focuses on the past.
• This method is also used for "ex pacto" studies.
• Researchers use flashback techniques, collecting data after the event of interest occurred.

B. Prospective Design

• Data is collected after the study design is defined, followed over an extended period into the future.

Correlational Studies/Cross-Sectional Descriptive Design

• Examines subjects at a specific point in time after study completion to collect information about relevant current events.
• Well-suited for short-duration studies
• Unlike longitudinal designs.

Retrospec-Cross-Sectional-Prospective Designs

• Diagrams show a description of related research designs. Retrospec, Cross-sectional, and Prospective studies are presented in relation.

Example:

• Examples are given illustrating various research topics.

Types of Descriptive Research Design (Survey Studies)

• Summarizes the status of phenomena within the natural environment.
• No manipulation or control of variables.

Types of Descriptive Research Design

• 1. Descriptive normative surveys: Collect self- reported data about the incidence of specific variables using questionnaires to understand a population's relation to those specific variables.
• Example is a survey to determine nurses' and administrators' perceptions about nurse responsibility for patient education.
• 2. Correlational studies: Describes the nature of interrelationships between phenomena or variables. It doesn’t imply causality. This is also referred to as explanatory research.
• Example of a research question is the level of correlation between a quantity and another quantity.

Correlation Coefficient in Research

• A positive correlation occurs when one variable rises as the other rises.
• A negative (inverse) correlation occurs when one variable rises while the other falls.
• Correlation does not necessarily imply causation.
• Examples in the field illustrate correlational research methods.

Comparative studies

• Studies that explore differences in groups based on predetermined (pre-existing )characteristics of the subjects who are in the different groups.

• This type of study evaluates various levels of pre-existing conditions of subjects in different groups, and aims to measure differences between groups. This type of study can include aspects of both descriptive and experimental variables.

• Example is the difference in preoperative teaching preparation levels between two specific pre-op groups in which one group has anxiety levels and the other group with lower anxiety levels.

Methodological Studies or Descriptive Evaluative Surveys

• Development, testing, and evaluation of methods, procedures, guidelines, and instruments are done.
• Used to improve programs/procedures in service delivery of health care.
• Also called Developmental or Evaluative Research.

Examples of Methodological Studies

• Examples given in the slides relate to training programs for new nurses to determine the clinical proficiency level of new nurses. It includes analysis of feedback mechanisms for teaching performance, development of community health programs in a specific region.

Problem Solving

• Investigative methodology to find solutions to problems.
• Examples include determining the amount of nursing care/support needed for a specific patient; the need for vital sign measurements during delivery; how patient satisfaction or dissatisfaction is achieved/avoided when interacting with nurses.

Decision-Making

• Choosing best course of action from multiple alternatives.
• Useful for policymaking and improving the image of nursing.
• Examples would be: should nurse salaries be increased? Is a 12-hour shift more effective than an 8-hour one for handling staffing issues?

Case Study

• In-depth examination of a single case (or select number) of interconnected cases.
• This is a method for interpreting behaviour of individual cases in relation to events or phenomena within a specific discipline/environment.
• Example of a case study is the study of a patient with an oxygenation problem.

Content Analysis

• Process of synthesizing and dissecting information and messages from documents.
• Example in slides is the examination of specific provisions in the Philippine Nursing Law (RA 9173 of 2002) regarding nursing education.

Feasibility Study

• Determining the viability of an undertaking, venture, or infrastructure project.
• Example given is a study on nursing entrepreneurship in the Philippines.

A. Experimental

• Research design focused on cause-and-effect relationships in a controlled setting.

Experimental Research Designs

• True experimental, Quasi-experimental & Pre-experimental are included

1. True Experimental Research Designs

• Researchers have maximum control over the research setting.
• Minimizes threats to internal validity.

3 Criteria for a True Experimental Design

• Manipulation: Introduction of treatment/intervention.
• Control: Control group does not receive intervention.
• Randomization: Subjects are randomly placed in groups.
• Validity: Data gathering is valid.

Control Group

• Not subjected to experimental treatment.
• Performance is used to gauge performance from a treatment/intervention group.

Example:

• Example in slides relates to the use and non-use of external flushing in postpartum mothers to understand the extent of postpartum infections.

Internal Validity

• Measures the accuracy of attributing observed changes in a dependent variable to an independent variable.
• Errors in identifying the right independent variables (IVs) result in selection bias, an error in judging the causality between the IV and the DV.
• Various threats to internal validity are explained in examples.

History

• Events outside the study (but during the study) that influence the dependent variable.

Maturation

• Natural changes in subjects during the study that influence the dependent variable.

Testing

• The pre-test influences responses to the post-test (repeated testing).

Instrumentation Change

• Changes in the measuring instrument (or rating system) that influence the results rather than the experimental treatment.

Mortality

• Subjects' dropout rates differ across treatment groups, affecting study results.

B. External Validity

• Degree to which study results can be generalized to other settings and populations.
• Examples of threats to external validity were given in the presentation.

The Hawthorne Effect

• Subjects' behavior is influenced by the awareness of being observed.

The Experimenter Effect

• The experimenter's behavior unintentionally influences the results (e.g., facial expressions, gender, etc.).

The Reactive Effect of the Pretest

• Subjects altered their behaviour as a result of taking the pretest.

The Halo Effect

• Researchers rating is influenced by previous impressions of the subject

How to Minimize External Validity

• Using double-blind methods to remove researcher bias and double-blind method to determine if researcher bias impacts subjects' reaction to intervention.

3 Types of True Experimental

• Basic Experiment: Data collected before and after experimental manipulation (pre-test-post-test control group design), which allows for evaluation of changes.
• Posttest-Only Control Group Design: Collecting data only once after the introduction of treatment, used to check impact of interventions/treatments.
• Solomon Four-Group Design: Provides a comparison between groups based on having or not having pre-tests along with/without treatment.

Examples:

• Examples provided in slides show application of the various experimental designs in studies related to the effectiveness of certain treatments/interventions.

C. Factorial Design

• Simultaneously manipulates two or more independent variables; testing multiple hypotheses in a single experiment.
• Allows researchers to assess effects of variables independently and their interactions.

Examples:

• Examples in slides are an experimental design to understand male and female performance and pain relief using various drug dosages.

D. Randomized Block Design

• Two independent variables, where one is NOT an experimental variable; a blocking variable that permits controlling for heterogeneous subjects. This increases the accuracy of the study results.
• It may involve a confounding variable that affects study results. Thus, random allocation to test groups would control for confounding variables.

E. Cross-Over Design

• Subjects are randomly assigned to different treatments, making it a within-subject design type.
• Subjects are given a sequence of treatments/conditions, with results analyzed to observe the effects of each condition on subjects.

Examples:

• Examples include treatment of premature and full-term newborns with touch and/or music therapy. Results are analyzed to see how each group responds to these treatments - whether there are changes after the various treatments are given, and if there are interactions between these treatments/conditions.

Qualitative Research Designs

• Qualitative research is described.
• Types, features and methodologies are described.

Qualitative Research, Broadly Defined

• Any kind of research that produces findings not arrived at through statistical procedures or quantification.
• Field research/disciplinary enquiry to understand the personal meanings and experiences of subjects within their social context.
• The researcher gains in-depth understanding of how participants perceive and experience things and the attempt is to understand several, not just a single reality.

Steps in Quantitative Research

• The process of quantitative research involves various steps, some that are viewed in a traditional scientific problem-solving method (6 steps), but the true process is comprised of as many as 18 steps, that are then divided into 5 phases.

Scientific Problem-Solving Method/Nursing Process

• Shows similarities and differences between scientific problem-solving method and nursing process.
• Illustrates these methods in terms of processes and descriptions.

Steps in Qualitative Research

• These steps involve 1. Identifying the problem; 2. Determining the purpose of study; 3. Literature review; 4. Theoretical/conceptual framework development; 5. Defining study assumptions; 6 and so on, including defining variables, methods, sample selection, data collection, organizing, analyzing, and communicating findings.

Qualitative validity criteria

• Examples in the slides illustrate several criteria.
• Primary criteria include credibility, authenticity, criticality and integrity. Examples in the presentation also cover secondary criteria including; explicitness, vividness, thoroughness, congruence and sensitivity.

Analysis of Qualitative Data

• Analysis of data from qualitative research.
• Qualitative data, being complex narratives, is analyzed to identify critical concepts, and for identifying patterns in behaviour that help develop insight and perspectives.

Using Qualitative Research in Clinical Practice

• Examples of using qualitative research in clinical practice: explaining findings from quantitative research, learning more about patient/family experiences with health challenges, monitoring treatment impact (e.g. quality-of-life), understanding access and service delivery issues and organizational behaviour.
• Other aspects (question marks) can be used to learn more about qualitative research in clinical practice.

Important Characteristics of Qualitative Research

• Qualitative research characteristics, such as identifying the disruption in the natural context of the phenomena; the participation of the researcher; inductive approach; reporting style; emphasis on multiple realities; commitment to participant perspectives; how the design emerges; ongoing analysis (during field work); how data decisions evolve; and the integration of different data sources.

6 Types of Qualitative Research(Polit and Beck, 2004)

• 6 types/variations illustrated in slides, each with specific focus and methodology: phenomenological, ethnographic, grounded theory, historical, case study, and narrative analysis.

Historical Research: Past Focus

• Historical research describes and analyzes past events.
• It reveals how past events and data help provide a perspective on the present and future.
• Historical research method steps are identified, including external and internal criticism.

Examples of Historical Research

• Examples given are: Florence Nightingale's role and impact in the 19th century; changes in nursing during that century; and significant historical figures and their impact in current practice.

Sources of Data

• Historical sources of data include documents, relics/artefacts, and oral reports.

Classification of Sources

• Primary sources provide firsthand information; secondary sources are secondhand or other accounts that can be viewed as thirdhand/forthhand accounts.

Forms of Historical Research

• Provides context/meaning in relation to social customs/habits/cultural behaviours of people; study of contributions by individuals and groups; and accounts of historical ideas or methods of thinking.

Levels of Analyzing Documents

• External criticism: Establishes the authenticity of a document or source; assesses the legitimacy of the author/source of account.
• Internal criticism: Determines the reliability and credibility of the account or testimony, or sources. It looks at the account as close to what actually happened, analyzing sources for their accuracy.

2. Ethnographic Research: Focusing on Culture

• This is a descriptive study of culture - characteristics, behaviour. and ideas - through in-depth study using methods like participant observation.
• Examples of ethnographic studies given are studies about cultural practices surrounding lifestyle, health habits. beliefs and traditions of people, including example(s) of particular cultural/ethnic groups.

Varieties of Ethnography

• This includes detailed analysis of the ethnographic approach comparing traditional versus contemporary; cognitive and language-based approaches; critical ethnography; other variations (e.g. autoethnography, institutional ethnography, interpretive ethnography).

Conduct: STEPS

• Fieldwork, immersion in the culture of study, data collection (observation/interview), simultaneous data collection and analysis, and theory development.

Ethnolinguistic Method

• A mix of ethnographic and linguistic techniques, examining an ethnic group's culture.
• Analysis of communication strategies through the lens of linguistics.

3. Phenomenological Research: Lived Experiences

• Focuses specifically on in-depth study of subjective experiences of people.
• Examples/topics include experiences of sexually or physically abused children, children from broken families or who are being raised by overseas workers/parents, and a patient's experience with chronic pain.

Phenomenological - Conduct: STEPS

• Bracketing preconceived ideas and holding them in abeyance.
• Opening to meanings attributed to the phenomenon.
• Analysis and categorization of statements.
• Descriptive analysis of the phenomenon.
• Examples include the lived body in dementia (by Phinney and Chesla 2003).

4. Grounded Theory Research

• Focuses on the development and evolution of a social experience.
• Example in slides is about caring for women with high-risk pregnancies. It highlights the relationship of care in which nurses and the clients act as partners in negotiation, reciprocal care and empowerment.

Methodology: Grounded Theory

• Formulation- observation. Testing- purposeful sampling, and re-development of proposition until a theory evolves.
• Data generation (using open, axial and selective coding ) and data analysis are presented in relation to core concepts presented in this grounded theory.

5. Case Studies

• Detailed study of a case (or a set of interconnected cases).

6. Field Studies

• Involves immersion in the setting/environment being studied.

7. Bibliographies

• Resources used for researching and reporting.

Quantitative Research Designs

• Describes quantitative research, traditional scientific problem-solving approach and the 6 steps that comprise it. The presentation also highlights the broader 18-step process divided into 5 phases, along with the associated methodologies, steps and examples of quantitative research designs.