Environmental Studies PDF

Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 Study Material (Environmental Studies and VAC00006) ______________________________________________________________________________________ Table of Contents Module-III: Environmental Pollution and Global Environmental Issues, Policies [9H] Environmental Pollution Environmental pollution (Air, water, soil, and noise): causes, effects, and controls; Primary and secondary air pollutants; Air and water quality standards. Solid waste management: Control measures for various types of urban, industrial waste, Hazardous waste, E-waste, etc.; Waste segregation and disposal. Global Environmental Issues, Policies International agreements and programs: Earth Summit, UNFCCC, Montreal and Kyoto protocols, Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Ramsar convention, CITES, etc. Environment legislation in India: Wildlife Protection Act, 1972; Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974; Forest (Conservation) Act 1980; Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981; Environment Protection Act, 1986; Scheduled Tribes and other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 Environmental Pollution ❖ For normal and healthy living a conducive environment is required by all the living beings, including humans, livestock, plants, microorganisms and the wildlife. The favorable unpolluted environment has a specific composition. When this composition gets changed by addition of harmful substances, the environment is called polluted environment and the substances polluting it are called pollutants. Environmental pollution can, therefore, be defined as any undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of any component of the environment (air, water, soil), which can cause harmful effects on various forms of life or property. Example of pollutants are mercury, arsenic, sulfur dioxide, hydrocarbon etc. Classification of Pollution: Air Pollution Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 Water Pollution Soil Pollution Noise Pollution Radioactive Pollution Thermal Pollution E-waste Pollution Light Pollution Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 Classification of Pollutants: Quantitative Pollutants Qualitative Pollutants Primary Pollutants Secondary Pollutants Biodegradable Pollutants Non-degradable Pollutants Contaminants Quantitative Pollutants: When the concentration of those substances which normally occur in the environment increases due to the activities of humans, they are termed quantitative pollutants. Example: Presence of CO2 in the atmosphere greater than normal due to exhaust from automobiles and industries. Qualitative Pollutants: Those substances which do not normally occur in nature but are added by human beings are called quantitative pollutants. Example: Insecticides Primary Pollutants: Those substances which are emitted directly from the sources into the environment are called primary pollutants. Example: Smoke, Fumes, Dust, Hydrocarbons, CO, NO, SO2 etc. Secondary Pollutants: Those substances which are formed from the primary pollutants by chemical reaction with other constituents present in the atmosphere are called secondary pollutants. Example: SO3, NO2, O3, PAN, Aldehydes, Ketones etc. Biodegradable Pollutants: Those pollutants that are quickly degraded by nature means are called biodegradable pollutants. Example: Domestic sewage, Thermal pollutants Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 Non-biodegradable pollutants: Those substances that either do not degrade or degrade very slowly in natural environment are called non-biodegradable pollutants. Example: Plastics, Mercury Salt, DDT etc. Contaminants: Any undesirable foreign matter which is added by human activity to the environment and alters the composition of the environment thus causing pollution is known as a contaminant. AIR POLLUTION Air pollution is defined as the composition of air is disturbed due to presence of gas, smoke, dust, chemical particulate etc., which are injurious to human being, plant and animal. Cause of Air Pollution: Tremendous increase in population Rapid industrialization Rapid Urbanization Deforestation Tremendous increase in transport Proliferation of industries Air pollutants are of two types (1) suspended particulate matter, and (2) gaseous pollutants like carbon dioxide (CO2), NOx etc. Some of the major air pollutants, their sources and effects are given in table 1. Suspended particulate matter: Particulate matter suspended in air are dust and soot released from the industrial chimneys. Their size ranges from 0.001 to 500 µm in diameter. Particles less than 10µm float and move freely with the air current. Particles which are more than 10µm in diameter settle down. Particles less than 0.02 µm form persistent aerosols. Major source of SPM (suspended particulate matter) are vehicles, power plants, construction activities, oil refinery, railway yard, market place, industries, etc. Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 Table 1: Particulate air pollutants, their sources and effects Gaseous pollutants and their effects: a) Carbon dioxide: the concentration of CO2 gas increases in the atmosphere due to emissions from vehicles, burning of fossil fuel, emissions from volcanoes, industries, agricultural activity, etc. It increases the greenhouse effect which causes global warming and climate change. b) Carbon monoxide: carbon monoxide gas released after incomplete combustion of fossil fuel or other products. The source of CO is vehicle emission, burning of coal, biomass combustion, etc. CO causes a headache, dizziness, heart failure (in blood CO combines with oxygen which reduces the affinity of hemoglobin towards oxygen), etc. c) Sulphur dioxide: SO2 is released from oil refineries, volcanic eruptions, and chemical industries etc. Sulfur dioxide reacts with moisture to form secondary pollutant which causes eye irritation. It can also cause allergic reaction and asthma. d) Nitrogen oxide: it released from vehicle exhausts, volcanic eruption, lighting etc. like SO2, it also reacts with moisture content present in the atmosphere and causes eye irritation. e) Lead: tetra ethyl lead (TEL) used as anti-knocking agents in petrol for smooth function vehicles. Lead particles coming out from the exhaust of vehicle and mixed with air. It causes injurious effect on kidney and liver. It also lowers down the intelligence power in children. Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 Table 2: Gaseous air pollutants: their sources and effects Acid Rain Various industries, automobiles and combustion of fossil fuels release acidic oxides such as sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and hydrogen chloride (HCl gas) into the atmosphere. These oxides dissolve in the water vapor present in the atmosphere to form the corresponding acids, which then fall slowly on earth as acid rain. Acid rain can cause harm to vegetation and buildings. When acid rain falls over an area, it can kill trees and harm animals, fish, and other wildlife. Acid rain destroys the leaves of plants. When acid rain infiltrates into soils, it changes the chemistry of the soil making it unfit for many living things that depend on the soil as a habitat or for nutrition. Acid rain also changes the chemistry of the lakes and streams that the rainwater flows into, harming fish and other aquatic life. Chemical Reaction of Acid Rain: SO2+ H2O H2SO3 (Sulfurous acid) SO3 + H2O H2SO4 (Sulfuric acid) Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 4NO2 + 2H2O + O2 4 HNO3 (Nitric Acid) CO2 + H2O H2CO3 (Carbonic acid) HCl (gas) + H2O HCl (liq.) (Hydro chloric acid) Case Study Deterioration of the Taj Mahal at Agra: The Taj Mahal in Agra is a stunning historical structure composed of pure white marble. Experts have warned that air pollution in the vicinity of the Taj Mahal is discolouring and progressively corroding its white marble. This endangers the Taj Mahal’s beauty. The Mathura Oil Refinery at Agra, as well as numerous industries in and around Agra, release gaseous pollutants into the air, such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, which cause acid rain. Acid rain’s acids react with the marble (calcium carbonate) of the Taj Mahal monument, progressively corroding it. As a result, Taj Mahal’s white marble slowly turns to yellowish colour. It is also called as Marble cancer. Acid rain reacts with marble (calcium carbonate) as follows: H2SO4 + CaCO3 → CaSO4 + H2O + CO2 Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 Greenhouse Effect The greenhouse effect is the process through which heat is trapped near Earth's surface by substances known as 'greenhouse gases.' Imagine these gases as a cozy blanket enveloping our planet, helping to maintain a warmer temperature than it would have otherwise. The sun’s rays consist of UV, visible and infrared radiations. The ozone layer present in the upper atmosphere absorbs most of the UV radiation and allows the visible and infrared radiations to pass through towards the earth. Incident solar energy is absorbed by the earth as short-wave radiation, gets converted to heat energy and is then emitted into space as long wave infrared radiations. There are several gases including carbon dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere that absorb the long wave infrared radiations. Thus, incident solar radiation is trapped in the form of heat and can not escape into the upper atmosphere. These infrared rays cause heating up of the earth’s surface and atmosphere. If a large amount of CO2 is present in the atmosphere, the temperature of the earth rises beyond this. Thus, much of the earth’s heat is retained and causes warming effect. This is known as the Greenhouse effect. Hence, the temperature of the earth rises. This is known as Global warming. The list of Greenhouse gases: Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), Nitrous oxide (N2O), Ozone (O3), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), Water vapor (H2O), Sulfur dioxide (SO2). What is ozone, and why is it important? Ozone is simply a molecule consisting of three oxygen atoms, which reacts strongly with other molecules. Ozone is created in the stratosphere when high energy uv radiation causes on O2 molecule to split. The free oxygen atoms collide and react with other O2 molecules to form Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 O3. Production is highest where the solar uv is the greatest eg, near the tropics, but once created, the ozone is then circulated towards the poles by the atmosphere. The amount of ozone in the stratosphere can vary with location, season and even day to day climatic conditions. The process Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 of ozone creation is what makes the O3 in the atmosphere very effective at shielding the Earth from harmful uv radiation, which can cause many biological problems, such as skin cancer. However, due to its high reactivity, the uv found in the troposphere at ground level can also be dangerous as a toxic pollutant which is harmful to plants and lung tissue, and is a major cause of smog. 3O2 (oxygen) UV 2O3 (ozone) Ozone Holes/ Depletion of Ozone layer: “Ozone layer depletion is the gradual thinning of the earth’s ozone layer in the upper atmosphere caused due to the release of chemical compounds containing gaseous bromine or chlorine from industries or other human activities.” Ozone depletion occurs when chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)—formerly found in aerosol spray cans and refrigerants—are released into the atmosphere. These gases, through several chemical reactions, cause the ozone molecules to break down, reducing ozone's ultraviolet (UV) radiation absorbing capacity. Case Studies: ❖ The discovery of the annual depletion of ozone above the Antarctic was first announced in a paper by Joe Farman, Brian Gardiner and Jonathan Shanklin which appeared in Nature in May 1985. Later, NASA scientists re-analyzed their satellite data and found that the whole of the Antarctic was affected. ❖ All living cells, whether microbes, plants or animals, contain a complex molecule called DNA which carries the genetic code. This is the set of instructions which describes the structure and biochemistry of an organism. Unfortunately, DNA readily absorbs high- energy UV-B radiation and becomes damaged so that the instructions cannot be read properly. If the amount of UV-B entering the cell increases (as during the ozone hole), the risk of damage also increases and may result in malfunction or death of the organism. Hydrocarbons (CxHy): Hydrocarbons are emitted into atmosphere from internal combustion engines of automobiles, petroleum refineries, rubber factories and by the decay of organic substances. To run the engines of vehicles, liquid fuel such as kerosene, diesel, petrol or gasoline has to be used. When such fuels are burnt, a lot of smoke is released into the atmosphere. In cities, this is the major air pollutant. The fuels are a mixture of many hydrocarbons which undergo combustion in the presence of air to release a huge amount of CO2. Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 2 C8H8 (octane) + 25 O2 (oxygen) 16 CO2 + 18 H2O + Heat The effects of air pollution can be grouped under the following heads: (i) Effects on human health, (ii) Effects on animals and plants, (iii) Effects on atmosphere, and (iv) Other effects. Effects on Human Health: Some environmental poisons can cause acute illness and even death. Others may be harmful, but the disease may take years or even decades to appear. Air pollution mainly affects the respiratory system. Bronchitis, emphysema, asthma and lung cancer are some of the chronic diseases caused due to exposure to polluted air. It is feared that lung cancer is caused mainly due to polluted air because carcinogens are found in it. Its mortality rate is higher in urban areas. Figure shows the various effects of air pollution on the human body. Sulfur dioxide is the most serious and widespread air pollutant. Its lower concentration is a cause of spasms in the smooth muscle of bronchioles and its higher concentration induces increased mucus production. Sulfur dioxide is also considered to cause cough, shortness of breath, spasm of the larynx and acute irritation to the membranes of the eyes. It also acts as an allergenic agent. When it reacts with some compounds, sulfuric acid is formed which may damage lungs. Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 Carbon monoxide often affects the oxygen carrying capacity of blood. Nitric oxide is reported to be a pulmonary irritant and its excess concentration may cause pulmonary hemorrhage. Hydrogen sulfide is also toxic. Lead emitted from automobile exhausts is a cumulative poison and is dangerous particularly to children and may cause brain damage. The particulate pollutants such as asbestos, silica, carbon, beryllium, lead, etc., are capable of exerting a noxious (fibrotic) local action in the interstitial areas of the lungs. Radioactive elements are also harmful to man and other living organisms. As described earlier, smog has a killer effect, which is also the result of air pollution. The death toll by smog varies from few persons to thousands. Effects on Animals and Plants: The impact of air pollution on animals is more or less similar to that on man. Chronic poisoning results from the ingestion of forage contaminated with atmospheric pollutants. Among the metallic contaminants, arsenic, lead and molybdenum are important. Fluoride is another pollutant, which causes fluorosis among animals. A number of livestock have been poisoned by fluorides and arsenic in North America. Bone lesions in animals due to excessive fluorides have also been reported. Effects on Atmosphere: Some of the effects of air pollution on atmospheric conditions, such as effect on ozone layer, greenhouse effect, etc., have already been discussed. There is an increase in the carbon dioxide concentration in the air due to increased combustion of fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide absorbs heat strongly and the radiative cooling effect of the earth is thus decreased. The rising of temperatures and ozone holes are some of the problems which have attracted the attention of the scientists all over the world. These problems are not related to any region or a country but are the global problems and their impact on world climate may be hazardous to the whole world. The local weather conditions are highly susceptible to air pollution. Its impact on temperature, humidity, rainfall and clouds is apparent. The ‘smog dom’ on large urban centers is the result of air pollution. Due to air pollution, visibility also reduces. Photochemical smog is a mixture of pollutants that are formed when nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react to sunlight, creating a brown haze above cities. It tends to occur more often in summer, because that is when we have the most sunlight. The two major primary pollutants, nitrogen oxides and VOCs, combine to change in sunlight in a series of chemical reactions, outlined below, to create what are known as secondary pollutants. The secondary pollutant that causes the most concern is the ozone that forms at ground level. While ozone is produced naturally in the upper atmosphere, it is a dangerous substance when found at ground level. Many other hazardous substances are also formed, such as peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN). Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 Other Effects: Air pollution can also cause damage to property and materials. The smoke, grit, dust and oxides of sulfur have harmful effects on structures. In 1972, when an oil refinery at Mathura was opened, its impact on Taj Mahal became a major issue. Sulfur dioxide is the most damaging of gaseous pollutants. Aluminum alloys, copper and copper alloys, iron and steel are corroded when exposed to contaminated air. Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 Hydrogen sulfide reacts with lead paints to form lead sulfide thereby producing a brown to black discoloration. The damage caused by air pollution to structures is not serious but from an aesthetic point of view, it is not desirable. Prevention and control of air pollution: (i) Indoor air pollution Poor ventilation due to faulty design of buildings leads to pollution of the confined space. Paints, carpets, furniture, etc. in rooms may give out volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Use of disinfectants, fumigants, etc. may release hazardous gases. In hospitals, pathogens present in waste remain in the air in the form of spores. This can result in hospital acquired infections and is an occupational health hazard. In congested areas, slums and rural areas burning of firewood and biomass results in lot of smoke. Children and ladies exposed to smoke may suffer from acute respiratory problems which include running nose, cough, sore throat, lung infection, asthma, difficulty in breathing, noisy respiration and wheezing. (ii) Prevention and control of indoor air pollution Use of wood and dung cakes should be replaced by cleaner fuels such as biogas, kerosene or electricity. But supply of electricity is limited. Similarly, kerosene is also limited. Improved stoves for looking like smokeless challahs have high thermal efficiency and reduced emission of pollutants including smoke. The house designs should incorporate a well-ventilated kitchen. Use of biogas and CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) need to be encouraged. Those species of trees such as baval (Acacia nilotica) which are least smoky should be planted and used. Charcoal is a comparatively cleaner fuel. Indoor pollution due to decay of exposed kitchen waste can be reduced by covering the waste properly. Segregation of waste, pretreatment at source, sterilization of rooms will help in checking indoor air pollution. (iii) Prevention and control of industrial pollution Industrial pollution can be greatly reduced by: (a) use of cleaner fuels such as liquefied natural gas (LNG) in power plants, fertilizer plants etc. which is cheaper in addition to being environmentally friendly. (b) employing environment friendly industrial processes so that emission of pollutants and hazardous waste is minimized. (c) installing devices which reduce release of pollutants. Devices like filters, electrostatic precipitators, inertial collectors, scrubbers, gravel bed filters or dry scrubbers are described below: (1) Filters – Filters remove particulate matter from the gas stream. The medium of a filter may be made of fibrous materials like cloth, granular material like sand, a rigid material like screen, or any mat like felt pad. Baghouse filtration system is the most common one and is made of cotton or synthetic fibres (for low temperatures) or glass cloth fabrics (for higher temperature Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 up to 290oC). (2) Electrostatic precipitators (ESP)- The emanating dust is charged with ions and the ionized particulate matter is collected on an oppositely charged surface. The particles are removed from the collection surface by occasional shaking or by rapping the surface. ESPs are used in boilers, furnaces, and many other units of thermal power plants, cement factories, steel plants, etc. (3) Inertial collectors – It works on the principle that inertia of SPM in a gas is higher than its solvent and as inertia is a function of the mass of the particulate matter this device collects heavier particles more efficiently. ‘Cyclone’ is a common inertial collector used in gas cleaning plants. (4) Scrubbers – Scrubbers are wet collectors. They remove aerosols from a stream of gas either by collecting wet particles on a surface followed by their removal, or else the particles are wetted by a scrubbing liquid. The particles get trapped as they travel from supporting gaseous medium across the interface to the liquid scrubbing medium. Gaseous pollutants can be removed by absorption in a liquid using a wet scrubber and depends on the type of the gas to be removed e.g. for removal of sulfur dioxide alkaline solution is needed as it dissolves sulfur dioxide. Gaseous pollutants may be absorbed on an activated solid surface like silica gel, alumina, carbon, etc. Silica gel can remove water vapour. Condensation allows the recovery of many by products in coal and petroleum processing industries from their liquid effluents. Apart from the use of above mentioned devices, other control measures are- increasing the height of chimneys. closing industries which pollute the environment. shifting of polluting industries away from cities and heavily populated areas. development and maintenance of green belt of adequate width. (iv) Control of vehicular pollution The emission standards for automobiles have been set which if followed will reduce the pollution. Standards have been set for the durability of catalytic converters which reduce vehicular emission. In cities like Delhi, motor vehicles need to obtain Pollution Under Control (PUC) certificate at regular intervals. This ensures that levels of pollutants emitted from vehicle exhaust are not beyond the prescribed legal limits. The price of diesel is much cheaper than petrol which promotes use of diesel. To reduce emission of sulfur dioxide, sulfur content in diesel has been reduced to 0.05%. Earlier lead in the form of tetraethyl lead was added in the petrol to raise octane level for smooth running of engines. Addition of lead in petrol has been banned to prevent emission of lead particles with the vehicular emission. Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 Alternate fuels like CNG is being encouraged for use in public transport vehicles. WATER POLLUTION The undesirable biological or chemical substance present in water which adversely affect living organism is referred as water pollution. Source of Water pollution: i) Point source pollution: if pollutants discharge from single identifiable source, then it is known as point source. For example, municipal sources, industrial sources etc. ii) Non-point source pollution: if pollutants discharge from random or scattered source then it is known as non-point source. For example, construction site, agricultural site, Acid rain, animal waste etc. (i) Pollution due to pesticides and inorganic chemicals: Pesticides like DDT and others used in agriculture may contaminate water bodies. Aquatic organisms take up pesticides from water get into the food chain (aquatic in this case) and move up the food chain. At higher trophic level they get concentrated and may reach the upper end of the food chain. Metals like lead, zinc, arsenic, copper, mercury and cadmium in industrial waste waters adversely affect humans and other animals. Arsenic pollution of ground water has been reported from West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, Western U.P. Consumption of such arsenic polluted water leads to accumulation of arsenic in the body parts like blood, nails and hairs causing skin lesions, rough skin, dry and thickening of skin and ultimately skin cancer. Pollution of water bodies by mercury causes Minamata disease (Methyl Mercury, CH3-Hg; it is most toxic among all mercury salt) in humans and dropsy in fishes. Lead causes Dyslexia, cadmium poisoning causes Itai – Itai disease, arsenic poisoning causes Black foot disease etc. Oil pollution of sea occurs from leakage from ships, oil tankers, rigs and pipelines. Accidents of oil tankers spill large quantity of oil in seas which kills marine birds and adversely affects other marine life and beaches. (ii) Thermal pollution: Power plants- thermal and nuclear, chemical and other industries use lot of water (about 30 % of all abstracted water) for cooling purposes and the used hot water is discharged into rivers, streams or oceans. The waste heat from the boilers and heating processes increases the temperature of the cooling water. Discharge of hot water may increase the temperature of the receiving water by 10 to 15 °C above the ambient water temperature. This is thermal pollution. Increase in water temperature decreases dissolved oxygen in water which adversely affects aquatic life. Unlike terrestrial ecosystems, the temperature of water bodies remain steady and does not change very much. Accordingly, aquatic organisms are adopted to a uniform steady temperature of environment and any fluctuation in water temperature severely affects aquatic Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 plants and animals. Hence discharge of hot water from power plants adversely affects aquatic organisms. Aquatic plants and animals in the warm tropical water live dangerously close to their upper limit of temperature, particularly during the warm summer months. It requires only a slight deviation from this limit to cause a thermal stress to these organisms. Discharge of hot water in water body affects feeding in fishes, increases their metabolism and affects their growth. Their swimming efficiency declines. Running away from predators or chasing prey becomes difficult. Their resistance to diseases and parasites decreases. Due to thermal pollution biological diversity is reduced. One of the best methods of reducing thermal pollution is to store the hot water in cooling ponds, allow the water to cool before releasing into any receiving water body. Ground water pollution: Lot of people around the world depend on ground water for drinking, domestic, industrial and agricultural uses. Generally, groundwater is a clean source of water. However, human activities such as improper sewage disposal, dumping of farm yard manures and agricultural chemicals, industrial effluents are causing pollution of ground water. Eutrophication: ‘Eu’ means well or healthy and ‘trophy’ means nutrition. The enrichment of water bodies with nutrients causes eutrophication of the water body. Discharge of domestic waste, agricultural surface runoff, land drainage and industrial effluents in a water body leads to rapid nutrients enrichment in a water body. The excessive nutrient enrichment in a water body encourages the growth of algae duckweed, water hyacinth, phytoplankton and other aquatic plants. The biological demand for oxygen (BOD) increases with the increase in aquatic organisms. As more plants grow and die, the dead and decaying plants and organic matter acted upon by Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 heterotrophic protozoans and bacteria, deplete the water of dissolved oxygen (DO). Decrease in DO result in sudden death of large population of fish and other aquatic organisms including plants, releasing offensive smell and makes the water unfit for human use. The sudden and explosive growth of phytoplankton and algae impart green colour to the water is known as water bloom, or “algal blooms”. These phytoplankton release toxic substances in water that causes sudden death of large population of fishes. This phenomenon of nutrient enrichment of a water body is called eutrophication. Human activities are mainly responsible for the eutrophication of a growing number of lakes and water bodies in the country. Dissolved oxygen (DO): The oxygen present in water which accelerates the decomposition of organic substances by bacteria is known as dissolved oxygen. DO changes with temperature, pressure and chloride concentration. The DO test is very reliable for the assessment of pollution. It is important to determine the biological oxygen demand (BOD) of wastewater. Measurement of BOD: It is used to measure the amount of certain type of organic water pollution BOD is calculated by keeping a sample of water containing a known amount of oxygen for five days at 20 °C. The oxygen content is measured again and BOD is calculated. BOD = (D1-D2) x f Where, D1= Dissolved oxygen before incubation D2 = Dissolved oxygen after incubation f (dilution factor) = Volume of diluted sample/ Volume of undiluted sample unit of BOD is mg/lit or ppm Chemical oxygen demand (COD): Chemical oxygen demand is measure of oxygen required for chemical oxidation of organic matter both biologically oxidizable and biologically inert present in the sewage. Cellulose is an example of biologically inert organic substance. The advantage of COD determination is that it takes about three hours, which is much less than the five days taken for BOD determination. Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 Heavy Metal Effect The heavy metals are found naturally on the Earth's crust since the Earth's formation. Due to the astounding increase of the use of heavy metals, it has resulted in an imminent surge of metallic substances in both the terrestrial environment and the aquatic environment. Heavy metal pollution has emerged due to anthropogenic activity which is the prime cause of pollution, primarily due to mining the metal, smelting, foundries, and other industries that are metal-based, leaching of metals from different sources such as landfills, waste dumps, excretion, livestock and chicken manure, runoffs, automobiles and roadworks. Heavy metal use in the agricultural field has been the secondary source of heavy metal pollution, such as the use of pesticides, insecticides, fertilizers, and more. Natural causes can also increase heavy metal pollution such as volcanic activity, metal corrosion, metal evaporation from soil and water and sediment re- suspension, soil erosion, geological weathering. Properties of heavy metals: Metalloids tend to form covalent bonds, making them show toxicological properties. The two most important consequences of this property are that they can bind covalently with organic groups. Hence, they form lipophilic ions and compounds, and they can generate toxic effects when they bind to nonmetallic elements of cellular macromolecules. Due to becoming lipophilic, the metalloids distribution within the biosphere and their toxic response varies from the action of simple ionic forms of the same element. Examples of lyophilic compounds are tributyltin oxide and methylated forms of arsenic which are highly toxic. Examples of binding to nonmetallic elements are the binding of lead and mercury to sulfhydryl groups of the protein. Heavy metals may enter a human in four ways from; ingestion of contaminated food; inhalation from the atmosphere, drinking contaminated water; and due to skin contact from agriculture, pharmaceutical, manufacturing, residential and industrial areas. Metals cannot be broken down and are nonbiodegradable. Organisms may detoxify metal ions by hiding the active element within a protein or depositing them in intracellular granules in an insoluble form to be excreted in the organism's faces or for long-term storage. When the heavy metals are swallowed or inhaled into our bodies, they bioaccumulate in our system. Thus, they are classified as dangerous. This bioaccumulation causes biological and physiological complications. Toxic elements in air/water enter living organisms through inhalation and food. For example, Arsenic (As), Mercury (Hg), Lead (Pb) and Cadmium (Cd) directly interact with enzymes. Metalloenzymes contain metal ions which get replaced by toxic metal ions and lead to inhibition of biochemical process. For example, Zn2+ in some metallo-enzymes gets replaced by Cd2+. Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 Scheme: Schematic presentation of heavy metal ions bind with proteins or enzymes. Figure: Heavy metal source pathway and human exposure Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 Removal of Toxic metal: The two most effective common compounds for removing lead ions from blood and tissues are Ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA) ion and 2,3- dimarcapto propanol. These two compounds form very stable complexes with lead that are excreted through the kidney and the liver. Control measure for preventing water pollution i) Industrial effluent and domestic waste must be treated before disposal. ii) Recycling of waste water through waste water treatment. iii) Public awareness program. SOIL POLLUTION Soil pollution can be defined as introduction of undesirable substance in soil which adversely affects its physical, chemical and biological properties. Source of Soil Pollution: Plastic bags – Plastic bags made from low density polyethylene (LDPE), is virtually indestructible, create colossal environmental hazard. The discarded bags block drains and sewage systems. Leftover food, vegetable waste etc. on which cows and dogs feed may die due to the choking by plastic bags. Plastic is non-biodegradable and burning of plastic in garbage dumps release highly toxic and poisonous gases like carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, phosgene, dioxine and other poisonous chlorinated compounds. Industrial sources – It includes fly ash, chemical residues, metallic and nuclear wastes. Large number of industrial chemicals, dyes, acids, etc. find their way into the soil and are known to create many health hazards including cancer. Agricultural sources –Agricultural chemicals especially fertilizers and pesticides pollute the soil. Fertilizers in the runoff water from these fields can cause eutrophication in water bodies. Pesticides are highly toxic chemicals which affect humans and other animals adversely causing respiratory problems, cancer and death. Cause of Soil pollution or degradation: a) Soil erosion: removal or movement of top soil from one place to another place is known as soil erosion, it is a natural process. But the erosion enhances by human activities like mining, construction, new land for agricultural practices, deforestation, overgrazing etc. Due to erosion, soil become less fertile and erosion also reduce the soil water holding capacity. b) Excess use of fertilizers: Essential micronutrients like N, P, K are supplied by chemical fertilizer to increase the crop yield or productivity. The microorganism present in the soil converts nitrogen into nitrate ions; enter into food chain from soil disturbing the biochemical Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 process. c) Acid Rain: acid rain increases the acidity of soil which reduces the crop yield. d) Salinity of water: Due to excessive irrigation, concentration of soluble salt increase in soil, then productivity and quality of soil decrease. These salts deposit on the surface then diffusion of oxygen and drainage of water in soil does not occur therefore growth of plant is slow down. e) Industrial waste: various pollutants present in the environment from industrial waste. Discharge from chemical industries, fertilizer and pharmaceutical companies are highly polluting. Effect of Soil pollution i) Salinity and water logging reduce the fertility of soil and crop yield. ii) Toxic chemical present in the soil also affect the plant growth and human life. iii) Soil pollution contaminated the underground water. Control measures for preventing soil pollution i) Soil erosion must be prevented by proper tree plantation. ii) Waste from industry and domestic must be treated before dumping. iii) Replace synthetic fertilizers with organic fertilizers. iv) Toxic and non-degradable materials must be banned. v) Recycling and reuse of waste materials. vi) Public awareness. RADIATION POLLUTION Sources and Hazards: Radiation pollution is the increase in over the natural background radiation. There are many sources of radiation pollution such as nuclear wastes from nuclear power plants, mining and processing of nuclear material etc. The worst case of nuclear pollution was the cherndoyl disaster in Russia occured in 1986 but the effects still longer today. Radiation: Radiation is a form of energy travelling through space. The radiation emanating from the decay of radioactive nuclides are a major sources of radiation pollution. Radiations can be categorized into two groups namely the non-ionizing radiations and the ionizing radiations. Non-ionizing radiations are constituted by the electromagnetic waves at the longer wavelength of the spectrum ranging from near infra-red rays to radio waves. These waves have energies enough to excite the atoms and molecules of the medium through which they pass, causing them to vibrate faster but not strong enough to ionize them. In a microwave oven the radiation causes water molecules in the cooking medium to vibrate faster and thus raising its temperature. Ionizing radiations cause ionization of atoms and molecules of the medium through which they pass. Electromagnetic radiations such as short wavelength ultra violet radiations (UV), X-rays Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 and gamma rays and energetic particles produced in nuclear processes, electrically charged particles like alpha and beta particles produced in radioactive decay and neutrons produced in nuclear fission, are highly damaging to living organisms. Electrically charged particles produced in the nuclear processes can have sufficient energy to knock electrons out of the atoms or molecules of the medium, thereby producing ions. The ions produced in water molecules, for example, can induce reactions that can break bonds in proteins and other important molecules. An example of this would be when a gamma ray passes through a cell, the water molecules near the DNA might be ionized and the ions might react with the DNA causing it to break. They can also cause chemical changes by breaking the chemical bonds, which can damage living tissues. The ionizing radiations cause damage to biological systems and are, therefore, pollutants. Radiation damage The biological damage resulting from ionizing radiations is generally termed as radiation damage. Large amounts of radiation can kill cells that can dramatically affect the exposed organism as well as possibly its offspring. Affected cells can mutate and result in cancer. A large enough dose of radiation can kill the organism. Radiation damage can be divided into two types: (a) somatic damage (also called radiation sickness) and (b) genetic damage. Somatic damage refers to damage to cells that are not associated with reproduction. Effects of somatic radiation damage include reddening of the skin, loss of hair, ulceration, fibrosis of the lungs, the formation of holes in tissue, a reduction of white blood cells, and the induction of cataract in the eyes. This damage can also result in cancer and death. Genetic damage refers to damage to cells associated with reproduction. This damage can subsequently cause genetic damage from gene mutation resulting in abnormalities. Genetic damages are passed on to next generation. Radiation dose The biological damage caused by the radiation is determined by the intensity of radiation and duration of the exposure. It depends on the amount of energy deposited by the radiation in the biological system. In studying the effects of radiation exposure in humans, it is important to realize that the biological damage caused by a particle depends not only on the total energy deposited but also on the rate of energy loss per unit distance traversed by the particle (or “linear energy transfer”). For example, alpha particles do much more damage per unit energy deposited than do electrons. Radiation effects and radiation doses A traditional unit of human-equivalent dose is the rem, which stands for radiation equivalent in man. At low doses, such as what we receive every day from background radiation (< 1 m rem), the cells repair the damage rapidly. At higher doses (up to 100 rem), the cells might not be able to repair the damage, and the cells may either be changed permanently or die. Cells changed Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 permanently may go on to produce abnormal cells when they divide and may become cancerous. At even higher doses, the cells cannot be replaced fast enough and tissues fail to function. An example of this would be “radiation sickness.” This is a condition that results after high doses are given to the whole body (>100 rem). Nuclear explosions and accidents in nuclear reactors are a serious source of radiation hazard. The effects of atomic explosions in Nagasaki and Hiroshima are still not forgotten. The nuclear reactor accident at Chernobyl in 1986 led to deaths of many reactor personnel and a very large release of radionuclide to the environment causing a long-term radiation damage to the people living in the neighboring regions. NOISE POLLUTION Noise pollution is generally defined as regular exposure to elevated sound levels that may lead to adverse effects in humans or other living organisms. According to the World Health Organization, sound levels less than 70 dB are not damaging to living organisms, regardless of how long or consistent the exposure is. Exposure for more than 8 hours to constant noise beyond 85 dB may be hazardous. If you work for 8 hours daily in close proximity to a busy road or highway, you are very likely exposed to traffic noise pollution around 85dB. This type of pollution is so omnipresent in today’s society that we often fail to even notice it anymore: street traffic sounds from cars, buses, pedestrians, ambulances etc. construction sounds like drilling or other heavy machinery in operation airports, with constant elevated sounds from air traffic, i.e. planes taking off or landing workplace sounds, often common in open-space offices constant loud music in or near commercial venues industrial sounds like fans, generators, compressor, mills train stations traffic household sounds, from the television set to music playing on the stereo or computer, vacuum cleaners, fans and coolers, washing machines, dishwashers, lawnmowers etc. events involving fireworks, firecrackers, loudspeakers etc. conflicts generate noise pollution through explosions, gunfire etc. The dysfunctions, in this case, are likely caused by the conflict and insecurity and less by the noise pollution in itself, although that compounds stress levels too. Human Diseases Caused by Noise Pollution: Whether we realize we are subjected to it or not, noise pollution can be hazardous to our health in various ways. Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 Hypertension is, in this case, a direct result of noise pollution caused elevated blood levels for a longer period of time. Hearing loss can be directly caused by noise pollution, whether listening to loud music in your headphones or being exposed to loud drilling noises at work, heavy air or land traffic, or separate incidents in which noise levels reach dangerous intervals, such as around140 dB for adult or 120 dB for children. Sleep disturbances are usually caused by constant air or land traffic at night, and they are a serious condition in that they can affect everyday performance and lead to serious diseases. Child development, Children appear to be more sensitive to noise pollution, and a number of noise-pollution-related diseases and dysfunctions are known to affect children, from hearing impairment to psychological and physical effects. Also, children who regularly use music players at high volumes are at risk of developing hearing dysfunctions. In 2001, it was estimated that 12.5% of American children between the ages of 6 to 19 years had impaired hearing in one or both ears Various cardiovascular dysfunctions, Elevated blood pressure caused by noise pollution, especially during the night, can lead to various cardiovascular diseases. Dementia isn’t necessarily caused by noise pollution, but its onset can be favoured or compounded by noise pollution. Psychological dysfunctions and noise annoyance. Noise annoyance is, in fact, a recognized name for an emotional reaction that can have an immediate impact. Effects of Noise Pollution on Wildlife and Marine Life Our oceans are no longer quiet. Thousands of oil drills, sonars, seismic survey devices, coastal recreational watercraft and shipping vessels are now populating our waters, and that is a serious cause of noise pollution for marine life. Whales are among the most affected, as their hearing helps them orient themselves, feed and communicate. Noise pollution thus interferes with cetaceans’ (whales and dolphins) feeding habits, reproductive patterns and migration routes, and can even cause hemorrhage and death. Other than marine life, land animals are also affected by noise pollution in the form of traffic, firecrackers etc., and birds are especially affected by the increased air traffic. Social and Economic Costs of Noise Pollution The World Health Organization estimates that one out of three people in Europe is harmed by traffic noise. More than the purely medical effects of noise pollution on the individual, there is a significant social and economic impact. Since noise pollution leads to sleep disturbance, it affects the individual’s work performance during the day, it leads to hypertension and cardiovascular disease and costs the health system additional time and money, and it negatively affects school performance in children. Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 Tips for Avoiding Noise Pollution Wear earplugs whenever exposed to elevated noise levels Maintain a level of around 35 dB in your bedroom at night, and around 40 dB in your house during the day If possible, choose your residential area as far removed from heavy traffic as you can Avoid prolonged use of earphones, especially at elevated sound levels If possible, avoid jobs with regular exposure to elevated sound levels SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT Solid waste (waste other than liquid or gaseous) can be classified as municipal, industrial, agricultural, medical, mining waste and sewage sludge. Sources of Urban and Industrial Wastes Urban waste consists of medical waste from hospitals; municipal solid wastes from homes, offices, markets (commercial waste) small cottage units, and horticulture waste from parks, gardens, orchards etc. Waste from homes (Domestic waste) contains a variety of discarded materials like polyethylene bags, empty metal and aluminium cans, scrap metals, glass bottles, waste paper, diapers, cloth/rags, food waste etc. Waste from shops mainly consists of waste paper, packaging material, cans, bottles, polyethylene bags, peanut shells, eggshells, tea leaves etc. Biomedical waste includes anatomical wastes, pathological wastes, infectious wastes etc. Construction/demolition waste includes debris and rubbles, wood, concrete etc. Horticulture waste and waste from slaughter houses include vegetable parts, residues and remains of slaughtered animals, respectively. Industrial waste: Industrial waste consists of a large number of materials including factory rubbish, packaging material, organic wastes, acids, alkalis and metals etc. During some industrial processing large quantities of hazardous and toxic materials are also produced. The main sources of industrial wastes are chemical industries, metal and mineral processing industries. Radioactive wastes are generated by nuclear power plants. Thermal power plants produce fly ash in large quantities. Solid wastes from other types of industries include scrap metal, rubber, plastic, paper, glass, wood, oils, paints, asphalt, tars, dyes, scrap leather, ceramics, abrasives, slag, heavy metals, asbestos, batteries. The urban solid waste materials that can be degraded by micro-organisms are called biodegradable wastes. Examples of this type of waste are vegetable wastes, stale food, tea leaves, egg shells, peanut shells, dry leaves etc. Wastes that cannot be degraded by microorganisms are called non-biodegradable wastes. For example, polyethylene bags, scrap metal, glass bottles etc. Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 Effects of Solid Wastes Municipal solid wastes heap up on the roads due to improper disposal system. People clean their own houses and litter their immediate surroundings which affects the community including themselves. This type of dumping allows biodegradable materials to decompose under uncontrolled and unhygienic conditions. This produces foul smell and breeds various types of insects and infectious organisms besides spoiling the aesthetics of the site. Industrial solid wastes are sources of toxic metals and hazardous wastes, which may spread on land and can cause changes in physico-chemical and biological characteristics thereby affecting productivity of soils. Toxic substances may leach or percolate to contaminate the ground water. In refuse mixing the hazardous wastes are mixed with garbage and other combustible waste. This makes segregation and disposal all the more difficult and riskier. Various types of wastes like cans, pesticides, cleaning solvents, batteries (zinc, lead or mercury) radioactive materials, plastics are mixed up with paper, scraps and other non-toxic materials which could be recycled. Burning of some of these materials produce dioxins, furans and polychlorinated biphenyls, which have the potential to cause various types of ailments including cancer. Management of Solid Waste: For waste management we stress on ‘three R’s’-Reduce, reuse and recycle before destruction and safe storage of wastes. (i) Reduction in use of raw materials: Reduction in the use of raw materials will correspondingly decrease the production of waste. Reduced demand for any metallic product will decrease the mining of their metal and cause less production of waste. (ii) Reuse of waste materials: The refillable containers which are discarded after use can be reused. Villagers make casseroles and silos from waste paper and other waste materials. Making rubber rings from the discarded cycle tubes which are used by the newspaper vendors, instead of rubber bands, reduces the waste generation during manufacturing of rubber bands. Because of financial constraints poor people reuse their materials to the maximum. (iii) Recycling of materials: Recycling is the reprocessing of discarded materials into new useful products. (a) Formation of some old type products e.g. old aluminium cans and glass bottles are melted and recast into new cans and bottles. (b) Formation of new products: Preparation of cellulose insulation from paper, preparation of fuel pellets from kitchen waste. Preparation of automobiles and construction materials from steel cans. The process of reducing, reusing and recycling saves money, energy, raw materials, land space and also reduces pollution. Recycling of paper will reduce cutting of trees for making fresh paper. Reuse of metals will reduce mining and melting of ores for recovery of metals from ores and prevent pollution Discarding of Solid Wastes For discarding wastes the following methods can be adopted: (i) Sanitary landfill: In a sanitary landfill, garbage is spread out in thin layers, compacted and covered with clay or plastic foam. In the modern landfills the bottom is covered with an impermeable liner, usually several layers of clay, thick plastic and sand. The liner protects the Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 ground water from being contaminated due to percolation of leachate. Leachate from bottom is pumped and sent for treatment. When landfill is full it is covered with clay, sand, gravel and top soil to prevent seepage of water. Several wells are drilled near the landfill site to monitor if any leakage is contaminating ground water. Methane produced by anaerobic decomposition is collected and burnt to produce electricity or heat. (ii) Composting: Due to shortage of space for landfill in bigger cities, the biodegradable yard waste (kept separate from the municipal waste) is allowed to degrade or decompose in an oxygen rich medium. A good quality nutrient rich and environmental friendly manure is formed which improves the soil conditions and fertility. (iii) Incineration: Incinerators are burning plants capable of burning a large amount of materials at high temperature. The initial cost is very high. During incineration high levels of dioxins, furans, lead and cadmium may be emitted with the fly ash of incinerator. Dioxin level may reach many times more than in the ambient environment. For incineration of materials, it is better to remove batteries containing heavy metals and plastic containing chlorine before burning the material. Prior removal of plastics will reduce emissions of dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). e-WASTE MANAGEMENT "Electronic waste" or "E-Waste" may be defined as discarded computers, office electronic equipment, entertainment device electronics, mobile phones, television sets, and refrigerators. This includes used electronics which are destined for reuse, resale, salvage, recycling, or disposal. MONTREAL PROTOCOL Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, international treaty, adopted in Montreal on September 16, 1987, that aimed to regulate the production and use of chemicals that contribute to the depletion of Earth’s ozone layer. Initially signed by 46 countries, the treaty now has nearly 200 signatories. The initial agreement was designed to reduce the production and consumption of several types of CFCs and halons to 80 percent of 1986 levels by 1994 and 50 percent of 1986 levels by 1999. The protocol went into effect on January 1, 1989. Since then the agreement has been amended to further reduce and completely phase out CFCs and halons, as well as the manufacture and use of carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethane, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrobromofluorocarbons (HBFCs), methyl bromide, and other ODCs. Several subsequent meetings of the signing countries were convened to track overall progress toward this goal and to authorize new changes to the Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 process of phasing out ODCs. 1. The Parties are aided by the Ozone Secretariat, which is based at the headquarters of the UNEnvironment Programme (UNEP) at Nairobi. 2. It has been ratified by 197 Parties (196 member states of the UN plus the EU) making it thefirst United Nations treaty to be ratified by every country in the world. 3. The Montreal Protocol’s provisions relate to the following: Article 2: Control measures Article 3: Calculation of control levels Article 4: Control of trade with non-Parties Article 5: Special situation of developing countries Article 7: Reporting of data Article 8: Non-compliance Article 10: Technical assistance And, other topics 4. The ODSs regulated by the Protocol are listed in: Annex A: CFCs, halons Annex B: other fully halogenated CFCs, carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform Annex C: HCFCs Annex E: Methyl bromide Annex F: HFCs KYOTO PROTOCOL The Kyoto Protocol was an international treaty which extended the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits state parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, based on the scientific consensus that (part one) global warming is occurring and (part two) that human-made CO2 emissions are driving it. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. There were 192 parties (Canada withdrew from the protocol, effective December 2012) to the Protocol in 2020. The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to reduce the onset of Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to "a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system" (Article 2). The Kyoto Protocol applied to the seven greenhouse gases listed in Annex A: carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), nitrogen trifluoride (NF3). Nitrogen trifluoride was added for the second compliance period during the Doha Round. CONVENTION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, informally known as the Biodiversity Convention, is a multilateral treaty. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was negotiated and signed by nations at the Earth Summit at Rio de Janeiro in Brazil on June 5, 1992. The convention came into force on December 29, 1993. It is a key document regarding sustainable development. It comes under the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). At the present, there are 196 Parties to this Convention. India is also a party to the Convention. India ratified it in 1994. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 was enacted for giving effect to the provisions of theConvention. To implement the provisions of the Act, the government established the NationalBiodiversity Authority (NBA) in 2003. The NBA is a statutory body. The convention is legally binding on its signatories. The Conference of Parties (COP) is the governing body of the convention. It consists of the governments that have ratified the treaty. Its Secretariat is in Montreal, Canada. Only two member states of the United Nations are not Parties to the CBD, namely: the USA andthe Vatican. There are three main objectives of the convention: 1. Conservation of biological diversity, 2. Sustainable use of resources and 3. Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources. Under the convention there are two protocols: Cartagena Protocol and the Nagoya Protocol.  The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity is an international agreement on biosafety as a supplement to the Convention on Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 Biological Diversity (CBD) effective since 2003. The Biosafety Protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed by genetically modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology.  The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity, also known as the Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) is a 2010 supplementary agreement to the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Its aim is the implementation of one of the three objectives of the CBD: the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources, thereby contributing to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. EARTH SUMMIT The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as the 'Earth Summit', was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from 3-14 June 1992. This global conference, held on the occasion of the 20th anniversary of the first Human Environment Conference in Stockholm, Sweden, in 1972, brought together political leaders, diplomats, scientists, representatives of the media and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) from 179 countries for a massive effort to focus on the impact of human socio-economic activities on the environment. The Rio de Janeiro conference highlighted how different social, economic and environmental factors are interdependent and evolve together, and how success in one sector requires action in other sectors to be sustained over time. The primary objective of the Rio 'Earth Summit' was to produce a broad agenda and a new blueprint for international action on environmental and development issues that would help guide international cooperation and development policy in the twenty-first century. The 'Earth Summit' concluded that the concept of sustainable development was an attainable goal for all the people of the world, regardless of whether they were at the local, national, regional or international level. It also recognized that integrating and balancing economic, social and environmental concerns in meeting our needs is vital for sustaining human life on the planet and that such an integrated approach is possible. The conference also recognized that integrating and balancing economic, social and environmental dimensions required new perceptions of the way we produce and consume, the way we live and work, and the way we make decisions. This concept was revolutionary for its time, and it sparked a lively debate within governments and between governments and their citizens on how to ensure sustainability for development. One of the major results of the UNCED Conference was Agenda 21, a daring program of action calling for new strategies to invest in the future to achieve overall sustainable development in the 21st century. Its recommendations ranged from new methods of education, to new ways of preserving natural resources and new ways of participating in a sustainable economy. The 'Earth Summit' had many great achievements: the Rio Declaration and its 27 universal principles, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Convention on Biological Diversity; and the Declaration on the principles of forest management. Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 The 'Earth Summit' also led to the creation of the Commission on Sustainable Development, the holding of first world conference on the sustainable development of small island developing States in 1994, and negotiations for the establishment of the agreement on straddling stocks and highly migratory fish stocks. RAMSAR CONVENTION Ramsar Convention is a convention on wetlands that was signed in 1971 in the Iranian city of Ramsar. The negotiations for the convention started in the 1960s by the different countries and NGOs for the protection of wetlands and their resources. Finally, it came into force in 1975. There are 42 Ramsar Sites in India listed under Ramsar Convention. India has added 10 more wetlands to the sites protected by the Ramsar Convention. The Ramsar Convention came into force in 1975 with a mission to conserve and use wisely all wetlands through local and national actions and international cooperation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainable development throughout the world. The convention works on three pillars that define the purpose of the Ramsar Convention: Wise Use – To work towards the wise use of all wetlands List of Wetlands of International Importance – Designate suitable wetlands under the Ramsar List to effectively manage those International Cooperation – To bring cooperation internationally over the transboundary wetlands, shared wetland systems and shared species. CITES CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is an international agreement between governments. Its aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten the survival of the species. CITES was drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of IUCN (The World Conservation Union). The text of the Convention was finally agreed at a meeting of representatives of 80 countries in Washington, D.C., United States of America, on 3 March 1973, and on 1 July 1975 CITES entered in force. The original of the Convention was deposited with the Depositary Government in the English, French and Spanish languages, each version being equally authentic. The Convention is also available in Chinese and Russian. Widespread information about the endangered status of many prominent species, such as the tiger and elephants, might make the need for such a convention seem obvious. But at the time when the ideas for CITES were first formed, in the 1960s, international discussion of the regulation of wildlife trade for conservation purposes was something relatively new. With hindsight, the need for CITES is clear. Annually, international wildlife trade is estimated to be worth billions of dollars and to include hundreds of millions of plant and animal specimens. The trade is diverse, ranging from live animals and plants to a vast array of wildlife products derived from them, including food products, exotic leather goods, wooden musical instruments, timber, tourist curios and medicines. Levels of exploitation of some animal and plant species are high and the trade in them, together with other factors, such as habitat loss, is capable of heavily depleting their populations and even bringing some species close to extinction. Many wildlife species in Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 trade are not endangered, but the existence of an agreement to ensure the sustainability of the trade is important in order to safeguard these resources for the future. Because the trade in wild animals and plants crosses borders between countries, the effort to regulate it requires international cooperation to safeguard certain species from over-exploitation. CITES was conceived in the spirit of such cooperation. Today, it accords varying degrees of protection to more than 40,000 species of animals and plants, whether they are traded as live specimens, fur coats or dried herbs. ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS 1. Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 Introduction Overview: The Environment (Protection) Act (EPA) was enacted in 1986 with the objective of providing the protection and improvement of the environment. It empowers the Central Government to establish authorities charged with the mandate of preventing environmental pollution in all its forms and to tackle specific environmental problems that are peculiar to different parts of the country. The Act is one of the most comprehensive legislations with a pretext to protection and improvement of the environment. Background: The roots of the enactment of the EPA lies in the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held at Stockholm in June, 1972 (Stockholm Conference), in which India participated, to take appropriate steps for the improvement of the human environment. The Act implements the decisions made at the Stockholm Conference. Constitutional Provisions: The EPA Act was enacted under Article 253 of the Indian Constitution which provides for the enactment of legislation for giving effect to international agreements. Article 48A of the Constitution specifies that the State shall endeavour to protect and improve theenvironment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country. Article 51A further provides that every citizen shall protect the environment. Coverage: The Act is applicable to the whole of India including the state of Jammu & Kashmir. Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 Salient Features It can coordinate and execute nationwide programmes and plans to further environmental protection. It can mandate environmental quality standards, particularly those concerning the emission ordischarge of environmental pollutants. This law can impose restrictions on the location of industries. The law gives the government the power of entry for examination, testing of equipment and other purposes and power to analyse the sample of air, water, soil or any other substance from any place. The EPA explicitly bars the discharge of environmental pollutants in excess of prescribed regulatory standards. There is also in place a specific provision for handling hazardous substances, which is prohibited unless in compliance with regulatory requirements. The Act empowers any person, apart from authorised government officers, to file a complaint ina court regarding any contravention of the provisions of the Act. 2. Wild life Protection Act, 1972 Constitutional Provisions for Wildlife: The 42nd Amendment Act, 1976, Forests and Protection of Wild Animals and Birds was transferred from State to Concurrent List. Article 51 A (g) of the Constitution states that it shall be the fundamental duty of every citizen toprotect and improve the natural environment including forests and Wildlife. Article 48 A in the Directive Principles of State policy, mandates that the State shall endeavor toprotect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country. The Act was enacted for the protection of plants and animal species. It extends to the whole of India except the State of Jammu and Kashmir. Prior to this legislation, India had only five designated national parks. At present, there are 101 National Parks in India. Authorities Appointed under the Act: The Central Government appoints the Director of Wildlife Preservation and assistant directors and other officers subordinate to the Director. The State Governments appoint a Chief Wildlife Warden (CWLW) who heads the Wildlife Wing of the department and exercises complete administrative control over Protected Areas (PAs) within a state. The state governments are also entitled to appoint Wildlife Wardens in each district. Salient Features of the Act Prohibition of hunting: It prohibits the hunting of any wild animal specified in Schedules I, II, III and IV of the act. Prohibition of Cutting/Uprooting Specified Plants: It prohibits the uprooting, damage, collection, possession or selling of any specified plant from any forest land or any protected Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 area. Declaration and Protection of Wildlife Sanctuaries and National Parks: The Central Government can constitute any area as a Sanctuary, provided the area is of adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or zoological significance. Constitution of Various Bodies: The WPA provides for the constitution of bodies to be established under this act such as the National and State Board for Wildlife, Central Zoo Authority, Wildlife Crime Control Bureau and National Tiger Conservation Authority. Government Property: Hunted wild animals (other than vermin), animal articles or meat of a wild animal and ivory imported into India and an article made from such ivory shall be considered as the property of the Government. Provide penalties for contravention of the Act: The Act prescribes imprisonment terms and fines for violating the provisions of the Act (Up to Rs. 25000 for General violation and At least Rs. 10000 for specially protected animals). 3. Forest Conservation Act, 1980 The Forest (Conservation) Act of 1980 (FCA, 1980) is an act by the Parliament of India which ensures conservation of forest and its resources. It was enacted by the Parliament of India in order to control the ongoing deforestation of the forests of India. It came into force on October 25, 1980 containing five sections. Objectives of the Forest Conservation Act 1980 The aim of the Forest is to preserve the forest ecosystem of India by fulfilling the following objectives: 1. Protect the forest along with its flora, fauna and other diverse ecological components whilepreserving the integrity and territory of the forests. 2. Arrest the loss of forest biodiversity 3. Prevent forest lands being converted into agricultural, grazing or for any other commercialpurposes and intentions. Features of the Forest Conservation Act 1980 The Forest Conservation Act of 1980 come with the following features: 1. The Act restricts the state government and other authorities to take decisions first without permission from the central government. 2. The Forest Conservation Act gives complete authority to the Central government to carry out theobjectives of the act. 3. The Act levies penalties in case of violations of the provisions of FCA. 4. The Forest Conservation Act will have an advisory committee which will help the Central government with regard to forest conservation. 4. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 the first of a series of legislation passed by the Government of India pertaining to regulation of environmental aspects in the country. Rising water pollution due to industrial and domestic activities Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 became a cause of concern, leading to the enaction ofthis legislation. This Act was passed after a majority of states of India (Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tripura and West Bengal and the Union territories) accepted this legislation. To simplify this statement, this Act covers the following aspects of regulating water resources in the country: To prevent and control water pollution. To maintain “wholesomeness” of water, i.e. to maintain the qualities of water so that its consumption and use by living organisms is not hampered. To establish State Boards for prevention and control of pollution, which gets subsumed by theAir Act, passed in 1981. To empower the Boards for prevention and control of pollution. To establish state water testing laboratories and develop its protocols. Under Water Act 1974, Sewage or pollutants cannot be discharged into water bodies includinglakes and it is the duty of the state pollution control board to intervene and stop such activity. Anyone failing to abide by the laws of under is liable for imprisonment under Section 24 & Section 43 ranging from not less than one year and six months to six years along with monetary fines. 5. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981, or the Air Act, in short, was a law passed by the Parliament of India to prevent and control the harmful effects of air pollution in India. This act is seen as the first concrete step taken by the government of India to combat air pollution. The effects of climate change caused by all forms of pollution became all too apparent in the early 1970s. To mitigate their harmful effects it was believed that nations would need to pass their own laws. Thus during the United Nations General Assembly on Human Environment held in Stockholm in June 1972, a resolution was passed which implored the nations of the world to preserve natural resources such as air. India itself had issues regarding air pollution due to a wide variety of factors such as stubble burning, improper industrial practices, environmental factors etc. To combat these factors a special law was enacted under the Constitution of India, which was the Air (Prevention and Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 Control of Pollution) Act of 1981. SCHEDULED TRIBES AND OTHER TRADITIONAL FOREST DWELLERS ACT Scheduled Tribes And Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition Of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 The Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006 recognizes the rights of the forest dwelling tribal communities and other traditional forest dwellers to forest resources, on which these communities were dependent for a variety of needs, including livelihood, habitation and other socio-cultural needs. The forest management policies, including the Acts, Rules and Forest Policies of Participatory Forest Management policies in both colonial and post-colonial India, did not, till the enactment of this Act, recognize the symbiotic relationship of the STs with the forests, reflected in their dependence on the forest as well as in their traditional wisdom regarding conservation of the forests. The Act encompasses Rights of Self-cultivation and Habitation which are usually regarded as Individual rights; and Community Rights as Grazing, Fishing and access to Water bodies in forests, Habitat Rights for PVTGs, Traditional Seasonal Resource access of Nomadic and Pastoral community, access to biodiversity, community right to intellectual property and traditional knowledge, recognition of traditional customary rights and right to protect, regenerate or conserve or manage any community forest resource for sustainable use. It also provides rights to allocation of forest land for developmental purposes to fulfil basic infrastructural needs of the community. In conjunction with the Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Settlement Act, 2013 FRA protects the tribal population from eviction without rehabilitation and settlement. The Act further enjoins upon the Gram Sabha and rights holders the responsibility of conservation and protection of bio-diversity, wildlife, forests, adjoining catchment areas, water sources and other ecologically sensitive areas as well as to stop any destructive practices affecting these resources or cultural and natural heritage of the tribals. The Gram Sabha is also a highly empowered body under the Act, enabling the tribal population to have a decisive say in the determination of local policies and schemes impacting them. Thus, the Act empowers the forest dwellers to access and use the forest resources in the manner that they were traditionally accustomed, to protect, conserve and manage forests, protect forest dwellers from unlawful evictions and also provides for basic development facilities for the community of forest dwellers to access facilities of education, health, nutrition, infrastructure etc. Objective: To undo the historical injustice occurred to the forest dwelling communities To ensure land tenure, livelihood and food security of the forest dwelling Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers To strengthen the conservation regime of the forests by including the responsibilities and authority on Forest Rights holders for sustainable use, conservation of biodiversity and maintenance of ecological balance. QUESTIONS 1. Explain environmental pollution? How many types of air pollutants are there? 2. What are the effects of gaseous pollutants, CO, SO2 and Lead in human body? Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata Programme Name and Semester-Undergraduate course and Semester I Course Name (Course Code)- Environmental Studies (VAC00006) Academic Session 2024-25 3. What are primary and secondary pollutants? Give examples of each. 4. What is acid rain? Explain with equations. 5. What is photochemical smog? Explain with equations. 6. What are electrostatic precipitators and wet scrubbers. 7. What is eutrophication? Explain with examples? 8. How solid waste management can be executed? 9. Explain with equations what is marble cancer? 10. State the measures taken to control industrial pollution? 11. How BOD is measured? 12. What is the relation between BOD and COD? 13. Describe Environmental Protection Act 1986? 14. Describe Air Act 1981? 15. Describe Water Act 1974? 16. Describe Wildlife protection Act 1972? Chemistry department Brainware University, Kolkata

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