61fba449-da80-4279-9268-e7b744b44513_ethics_101_midterm.docx

LESSON 3 Both theories are synonymous as Relativism relates to subjectivity, where we should respect each person\'s ideas, and right and wrong may be rooted in opinion. Sometimes, subjectivist idea, as well as Relativism, is rooted in oneʼs culture. Cultural practices and superstitious beliefs a...

LESSON 3 Both theories are synonymous as Relativism relates to subjectivity, where we should respect each person\'s ideas, and right and wrong may be rooted in opinion. Sometimes, subjectivist idea, as well as Relativism, is rooted in oneʼs culture. Cultural practices and superstitious beliefs are canonical to Filipinos. Beliefs would lead us to Relativism and subjective ethical thoughts among other people in other countries, and sometimes, we believe it\'s true. Relativism is where the subjectʼs idealisms and ethical values should be accepted, respected, or followed. An idea of cluster culture. Timmons (2022) listed few examples for different modalities for relativism, these are: - Honor killings. Members of some groups think that if an unwed woman becomes pregnant, her family is obligated to kill her to restore family honor. - Parricide. Anthropologists report that some cultures practice parricide---killing oneʼs parents---once the parents become aged. it is a practice that members of the community, including the parents, take to be morally permissible and perhaps even morally required. - Premarital sex and wife sharing. Some cultures do not think that there is anything wrong with premarital sex; indeed, it is condoned as an important and normal part of courtship. Moreover, in some cultures, it is considered a great honor if oneʼs wife engages in sexual relations with other men. - Cannibalism. There are numerous documented cases of cultures that engage in the eating of human flesh. Members of such cultures think the practice not only morally permissible but, in some cases, obligatory. - Treatment of animals. Again, anthropologists report that many cultures are indifferent to the suffering of animals. For instance, in recent times there have been some groups who pluck live chickens in the belief that their meat will be particularly succulent. other cultures condone "gamesˮ that involve inflicting intense pain on animals (p. 34). The moral code of moral relativism relies on the moral code of each culture. It connotes all the right and wrong commanded by its norms. What individuals accept are norms that they had accepted at that time. What I mean is that when one is immersed in a certain culture, one will accept and create their own "moral code.ˮ This is one of the issues with Relativism, and we can ask whether our actions are wrong or correct if it depends on the culture that one adheres to; then, it might be wrong on another and be right on another. This causes mass confusion among individuals. Some people support polygamous relationships, while others say that monogamy is the only relationship everyone should follow. Even Herodotus said that "Culture is kingˮ while observing different cultures. He said there is no standard between the good and the bad regarding culture (Albumere, 2019, p. 9). Metaethical Relativism is one of the claims that concurs with Relativism. It adheres to the idea that moral belief relies on the person\'s thoughts or position in their culture. Descriptive Relativism is the mild argument for Relativism. It describes the idea that each culture has arguably different from the other. The most vital position for Relativism is Normative Relativism. It says that no one can judge others or treat other thoughts as inferior or superior. The problem with Normative Relativism is that since we should not treat different cultures as low, our culture should not be subordinate to others. It does say that each culture should not be superior to others; however, this would not mean that we would not disrespect the culture of others since we value our own. Moral Relativism and Other Different Thoughts Moral Objectivism Timmons (2022) says, "moral relativism is a moral theory that presents a positive account of the nature of right and wrong, good and bad. But there is more to the relativistʼs stance in ethics than is expressed in its theory of right conduct. objectivism (p. 37). Moral objectivism is the complete opposite of moral relativism. Moral objectivists think that some moral norms do not follow/ need the cultural normative. Context-Sensitivity Thesis Context sensitivity thesis focuses on the idea that some circumstances allow for the focus of moral truths even without the influence of culture. This is where one is focused on the context of the scenario rather than the cultural aspect of what is right. This idea of "doing what one can do in a specific circumstanceˮ is compatible with the denial of moral relativism. This thought, however, can be called situational relativism, environmental relativism, application relativism, or circumstantial relativism. Moral Diversity Thesis Timmons (2022) understands Moral Diversity Thesis as "descriptive relativismˮ (p. 39). Descriptive Relativism is the type that accepts moral beliefs are in conflict with other cultures. It has two types: (1) Norms of prohibition, and (2) Norms of requirement. And from these types we see three cases regarding the conflicts of intercultural norms: 1. The prohibited type of action is accepted by one culture, while conflicting norm of requirement is also accepted. 2. Where some actions are accepted by some cultures requirements. 3. Where prohibited actions are accepted and conflicting norms need permission. Timmons (2022), then concludes that, "if we find out that all cultures accept the same basic moral code (or if in the future, this comes to pass), this will not show that relativism is falseˮ (p. 41). The Problem of Moral Diversity The issues mentioned above appear due to diversified culture. It is only natural that we have a different culture than others. Thus we have different values and moral standards. This diversity becomes a problem since, with the plurality of moralities, people cannot have the same uniform ethical standard. LESSON 4 ======== Natural Law Theory will lead us to respect the views of religion and the faithful. Virtue Ethics will lead us to understand that virtue is a foundation of our character ethics. Natural Law Theory and Divine Command Theory provide objective morality through their imperatives in religion. If this theory is followed, Relativism might not be rampant, and there will be objective truths regarding ethical values and standards. However, some theorists believe that even though objective, Divine Command, and Natural Law Theory also remove our capacity for freedom. Natural Law a theory in ethics and philosophy that says that human beings possess intrinsic values that govern their reasoning and behavior. The Stoics said that what is natural in human life is fate/destiny. The Stoics proposed that there is what is called a logos spermatikos or rational seed that follows humanity. As for Aristotle, he deviates from the idea proposed by the Stoics. - He mentions that the thought of the Stoics addresses the issue of human life but not human nature. He says that everything in life does have a purpose but not fate/destiny. He connects purposiveness to the meaning of life itself and the sense of humanity. - believes that everything in life has a purpose, not events. He believes that a thing can come from potentiality to actuality. The movement from a particular thingʼs potential to being in action. Aristotle says that each being is dynamic, meaning each being is constantly in the process of change. From having the potential to being actual, then towards another potentiality to another actuality. - says that each person is supposed to live in society because each being needs the other. He says that the reason or purpose of our existence is to realize ourselves, and our realization arrives when we understand the reasonability of our existence. For Timmons (2022) - "the term "naturalˮ in natural law ethics indicates that moral laws have a source and authority that distinguish them from the civil laws of any societyˮ. It provides conditions by which an action is permitted despite the double effect: 1. Intrinsic permissibility - the act must be right. 2. Nonintentionality - the "badˮ or "evilˮ effects must not be intended. 3. Proportionality - there is a "goodˮ reason by which the "evilˮ effect was produced. For Moral absolutism "the claim that certain very general types of action are always morally wrong to perform, even when performing them would bring about good resultsˮ (Timmons, 2022, p. 72). While the theory of right conduct "makes an action right or wrong depends on whether it involves a direct violation of one or more of the basic human goodsˮ (Timmons, 2022, p. 73). Therefore for NLT, if an action involves a direct denial of the basic goods, then it is wrong. On Self-Defense Aquinas wrote in Summa Theologiae, that "an act that is prompted by a good intention can become illicit if it is not proportionate to the end intended. This is why it is not allowed to use more force than necessary to defend oneʼs lifeˮ (p. 70). What makes an action right or wrong depends on the direct violation of the basic human values (life, procreation, knowledge and sociability). The Divine Command Theory (DCT) is pretty simple. - All moral obligations and standards are deeply correlated to Godʼs Commandments. The commandment such as "Honor thy parentsˮ means it would be immoral not to respect our parents. However, if God does not exist, respecting oneʼs parents would not be evil. - Timmons (2022) mentions that "on this theory, it is Godʼs approvals and disapprovals and thus something extrinsic to whatever is good or bad that confers upon it the value it hasˮ (p. 20). The focus is on the approval and disapproval of the commands of God. It is something extrinsic in this sense. Lesson 5: Virtue Ethics ======================= Virtue Ethics states that any action must relate to virtue to be considered reasonable. Being virtuous does not only mean acquiring virtue through a single act but through repetitive acts of goodness. Virtue ethics considers the argument between what is right and wrong through the idea of the good, which is virtuous. Virtue, for the most part, provides access to our foundational character. - A man who follows virtue ethics sometimes asks: is this the right thing to do? Is my virtue in line with my decisive action? Unlike utilitarianism, they first ask whether the move would yield profitable consequences. - Virtue ethics, for the most part, considers all types of virtues, such as; honesty, integrity, diligence, and generosity, of which all actions should lead toward the good life. - According to Aristotle, virtue ethics is closely related to wisdom because wisdom is attained through virtue. - Timmons (2022) would say: "A virtue can be roughly described as 1. a relatively fixed trait of character or mind 2. typically involving dispositions to think, reason, feel, and act in certain ways across a range of different circumstances, and which furthermore 3. is central in the positive evaluation of the moral worth of persons. Virtues are, then, excellences of character. A vice is (1) a relatively fixed trait of character or mind 2. typically involving dispositions to think, reason, feel, and act in certain ways across different circumstances, and which furthermore 3. is central in the negative evaluation of the moral worth of personsˮ. it is never easy to achieve virtue. It is a balance between two things and can never be easily achieved even though we provide enormous effort. According to worse Aristotle (in Book 2 of Nicomachean Ethics), it is in constant practice that we can achieve virtue. Say we want to be generous; however, we donʼt want to be marked as stingy, so we give everything or almost everything we have. However, the problem with too much generosity is that we can be considered too extravagant. Being too grand is never good, both for ourselves and for others. Aristotle mentions that an actual virtuous person: (1) knows their actions; (2) chooses virtue for the sake of virtue; (3) does an action because it is moral; and lastly, (4) chooses the action willfully. Additionally, Timmons sees the highest good as an end, he says: "The highest good, then, would be some end (or set of ends) that meets the following conditions: it is an end (1) for which all other ends are ultimately pursued, (2) which is pursued for itself, and (3) which is never pursued for any other end. Any such end, in Aristotleʼs terminology, is unconditionally completeˮ There are six steps to understanding what a human is (refer to Timmons 2022, p\. 265 function argument). 1. Proper function 2. Proper function concerns what is distinct from each being 3. Reason (rationality) is essential to be exercised 4. The highest good involves the exercise of the soul (mind). 5. Humans who are guided by virtue are those who perform well (use their reason well). 6. The highest good, therefore, is a rational activity (of the soul), guided by virtue. Virtue is central to achieve "happinessˮ in life, which leads to the discussion of virtue and vice. Virtue Ethics, then, are "Facts about virtuous agents, including their virtuous character traits and how such traits influence their reactions (1) are more basic than facts about right conduct and (2) explain why an action is right or wrongˮ (Timmons, 2022, p. 269). Thomas Aquinas and Virtue St. Thomasʼ Summa Theologiae (The Sum of Theological Knowledge) follows the thought of Aristotle. However, he added that God is humanityʼs telos or final end. Aristotle terms this end as the eudaemonia or happiness, but for St. Thomas, it is in the presence of God. Buddhist Virtue Ethics Buddhism teaches its followers to be virtuous through balance and harmony with the world. It upholds humility and the goal of being free from dukkha (or suffering). A life of virtue is rooted in the eightfold path: (1) a suitable view; (2) good intention; (3) being mindful; (4) concentration; (5) effort; (6) good words/ speech; (7) good bodily conducts; and, (8) to create a good livelihood for oneself and others. Chinese Virtue Ethics Confucianism was introduced by Kongzi (c. 551-479 BCE). He says that a virtuous person is a person of ethical excellence who practices doing good diligently. Li (or ritual) is the art of practicing one\'s character from his nature. For us to be considered virtuous, we need to practice doing well based on our humanity. Kongzi suggests that we will use our intellect and will to achieve good since we already know what is good. We already know what to do in specific situations, and in the constant practice of doing good, we achieve ethical virtue, also known as Ren. Daoism, on the other hand, counters Confucianism. Daoism centers its idea upon harmony with the Dao rather than on the teachings of humanitarianism. Its fundamental virtue is called wu Wei or "effortless action.ˮ Wu Wei is the path toward the ascetic ideal of not thinking about what others might think about the apparent world. It is the path a person should take to be one with nature, which sometimes could be walking away from society. Daoism wants a person to cultivate selflessness and moderation, to be detached from the community and other pleasures, and the virtue of humility. 8. Immanuel Kantʼs Deontological Ethics (Duty Ethics) ===================================================== Life of Immanuel Kant (A Brief History of His Contributions) \- Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was a German philosopher and one of the most influential in the Enlightenment period. The later philosophers, including the most recent ones, followed most of his ideas on the philosophy of knowledge, ethics, and aesthetics. That goes to show that his thought was profound. \- Immanuel Kant was most famous for combining the never-ending issue between rationalism and empiricism instead of contrasting them. Rationalism is a theory that claims that everything that we can understand everything in the world from reason, which stems from the idea from the Ancient time going back to Parmenides and followed by Socrates and Plato. Empiricism is a theory that claims that we can understand everything through experience, which also stems from the idea of Heraclitus and Aristotle. CONCEPT OF DUTY IMPORTANCE OF FOLLOWING DUTY FOR DUTYʼS SAKE: 1. NO EMOTION 2. PERSONAL GAIN 3. NO AUTHORITY COMMAND Kantian Ethics: Normative Approaches On Moral Obligation \- Timmons (2022) mentioned that "a leading idea of Kantʼs moral theory is that moral requirements are requirements of reason. To act immorally is thus to act in a way that is contrary to reasonˮ (p. 183). He continues "Kantʼs thought is that moral requirements are requirements of reason, specifically practical reason. Practical reason concerns oneʼs capacity to deliberate and make free choicesˮ \- Duty, for Kant, is what we ought to do, which we can contrast with utilitarianism, wherein it asks the question; would it yield good consequences if I do this particular action? The moral "oughtˮ does not mean forcing someone to do a specific action but being obligated to do it because we are ethical individuals. Our obligation stems from our good will, which we will discuss in the next section. Along with our moral obligation and good will is our capacity for autonomy, our freedom. \- According to Kant, every person has the idea of the moral good, meaning it is our nature to know the source of moral duty. Due to our reasoning, we also have the free will to do our duty. We will do what is right because it is good, without minding the consequences of our actions. We follow our obligation to do good, not for any personal gain or command of God or others; we simply do it without the guidance of our emotions because it is good. On Good Will \- According to Kant, we all have good will. For him, we are guided by "the starry heavens above \[me\] and the moral law within \[me\]ˮ (Kant, 1788, p. 1). The "starry heavensˮ is a metaphor for the universal law, the categorical imperative we will discuss in the next section. While our free will guides the "moral lawˮ within us, reason, and good will. \- For Kant, the will is already good since it comes from the a priori self. A priori means that it is already innate; therefore, we already know what goodness means. Meaning we do not experience goodness since it is already inherent. Goodness stems from our good will. Since the will is already good, we always will want to do good. Therefore, our intentions are always for our good. Now, we would ask, what about those who commit evil acts? Kant would reply that we would always will the good no matter what. The dire consequences only happen because we have good will. For example, a person would steal to provide for his family. The actor will do good for the family, undermining the thoughts of others. Therefore, the will is good- in-itself, independent of anything outside it. Four Formulations on the Imperative: Sometimes, we will do the wrong thing for our good. Therefore, Kant provided us with the formulations of the categorical imperative to better guide our good will. 1. The Formula of the Law of Nature -- suggests that our nature rests on our rationality, and since we are rational, we should will according to the law that other reasonable 2. The Formula of the End Itself -- this formulation suggests that we should never 3. The Formula of Autonomy -- every person is free, and freedom is the source of our 4. The Formula of Kingdom of Ends -- since we are rational and social beings, we create laws